CHEMISTRY: SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

About soaps

 Soaps are anionic surfactants used for washing and

cleaning. Surfactants are wetting agents that lower the surface
tension of a liquid
 Soaps consist of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
 They are obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a strong
alkaline solution
 The earliest recorded evidence for use of soap is from Babylon c.
2800 BC

Mode of action

 Soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end

 The hydrophilic end dissolves in water, while the
hydrophobic end dissolves dirt and oil molecules
 As a result, although water and oil don’t mix, soaps allow oil to
dissolve in water, allowing them to be rinsed away
 Thus, soaps allow water to remove normally insoluble matter by
emulsification

Detergents

 Detergents are surfactants other than soap

 Detergents are commonly used as industrial soaps, due to their
heavy duty grease removal capabilities
 Soaps differs from detergents in that in the case of former, excess
of fat is used to consume the alkali and the glycerine is not
removed, leaving a naturally moisturising soap
 In general detergents are substances that have cleaning properties.
By definition,even water is a detergent
BIOLOGY: NUTRITION

Overview

 Nutrition is the supply to cells and organisms, of the materials

necessary to support life
 Many common health problems can be prevented by a healthy diet
 A poor diet can have injurious impact on health, leading to
problems such as scurvy, beriberi and kwashiorkor
 A healthy diet can also significantly prevent and mitigate systemic
diseases like cardiovascular disease, diabetes and osteoporosis
 Eating a wide variety of fresh, unprocessed food has proven
favourable compared to monotonous diets of processed food
 Consumption of whole plant foods slows digestion, allows
better absorption and a more favourable balance of nutrients

Nutrients

 There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats,

minerals, proteins, vitamins and water
 These can be classified into
o Macronutrients: nutrients needed in large
quantities. These include carbohydrates, fats, proteins and
water. Fibre is another macronutrient whose functions have
not been fully understood
o Micronutrients: nutrients needed in smaller
quantities. These include minerals and vitamins.
Antioxidants and phytochemicals are micronutrients as well,
but their functions are not well understood
 Most foods contain a mixture of nutrients
 Some nutrients may be stored internally (eg. Fat soluble Vitamins)
while others are required more or less continuously

Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are sugars, and are classified as monosaccharides,

disaccharides or polysaccharides depending on the number of
monomer (sugar) units they contain
  Carbohydrates constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles,
bread and other grain based products
 In general, simple saccharides are easier to digest and
absorb than polysaccharides
 Since they are absorbed more quickly, simple carbohydrates
lead to elevated levels of blood glucose

Fibre

 Dietary fibre is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide) that is

incompletely absorbed in humans and some animals
 Like all carbohydrates, when metabolised it produces energy
 However, it does not contribute much energy due to
limitations on its absorbability and digestion
 Dietary fibre consists mainly of cellulose, a polysaccharide that
is indigestible in humans
 Whole grains, fruits and vegetables are good sources of fibre
 Fibre provides bulk to intestinal contents and stimulates
peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines
that moves digesta along the digestive tract
 For these reasons, fibre is important for digestive health. It helps
alleviate constipation and diarrhoea and is said to reduce
colon cancer

Fats

 Fat consists of fatty acids bonded to glycerol. Fatty acids are

carboxylic acids that contain long chains of carbon and hydrogen
atoms
 They are typically found as triglycerides
 Fats are classified as
o Saturated fats: have all the carbon atoms in the fatty
acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms
o Unsaturated fats: have some carbon atoms double
bonded to themselves, thereby have fewer hydrogen
atoms
 Studies have shown that unsaturated fats are preferable to
saturated fats in terms of health effects
  Saturated fats are usually solids at room temperature (eg butter)
while unsaturated fats are liquids at room temperature (eg olive oil)
 Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds.
These are rare in nature and usually created by an industrial
process called hydrogenation. Trans fats are harmful to health
(coronary heart disease) and their use is to be avoided

Proteins

 Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures and form
enzymes that control chemical reactions in the body
 Proteins are composed of amino acids, which contain nitrogen
atoms
 The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins and replace
damaged proteins
 Since the body cannot store protein, amino acids must be
present in the daily diet
 Diet with adequate proteins is especially important during early
development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation or injury
 A complete protein source is one that contains all essential
amino acids
 Sources of protein include meat, tofu, soy, eggs, grains, legumes
and dairy products
 A few amino acids can be converted into glucose for energy
(called gluconeogenesis).This process mainly happens only during
starvation

Minerals

 Dietary minerals are the chemical components required by living

organisms other than the four elements carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen that are present in nearly all organic molecules
 Dietary minerals include some metals as well (sodium, potassium)
which are usually found in ionic state
 Minerals are recommended to be supplied in the daily diet
 Most famous dietary mineral is iodine (added to salt) which
prevents goitre
 Macrominerals (required more than 200 mg/day) include
 o Calcium: electrolyte, also needed for structural growth
(teeth, bones)
o Chlorine: electrolyte
o Magnesium: required for processing ATP (energy)
o Phosphorous: required component of bones, essential for
energy processing
o Potassium: electrolyte (heart and nerve health)
o Sodium: common electrolyte, needed in large quantities.
Most common source is common salt. Excess sodium depletes
calcium and magnesium leading to high BP an osteoporosis
o Sulphur: essential for certain amino acids and proteins
 In addition to the macrominerals, many other minerals are required
in trace amounts. These include cobalt, copper, chromium, iodine,
iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, vanadium, zinc

Vitamins

 A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny

amounts by an organism
 A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be
synthesised in sufficient amounts by an organism, and must
be obtained from the diet
 Thus, the term “vitamin” is conditional both on the circumstance
and the organism. For instance ascorbic acid is termed Vitamin C for
some organisms but not for others, and Vitamins D and K are
required in the human diet only under certain circumstances
 Vitamins must be supplied in the diet (except Vitamin D,
which can be synthesised by the skin in the presence of UV
radiation)
 Fresh fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins
 Vitamin deficiencies may results in diseases like goitre, scurvy,
osteoporosis, impaired immune system etc
 Excess of some vitamins can also be dangerous: excess Vitamin A
can cause jaundice, nausea, blurry vision, vomiting, muscle pain etc

Water

 About 70% of non-fat mass of the body is water

  To function properly, the body requires between one and seven
litres of water every day
 It is recommended that daily water intake for an adult male be 3.7 l
and for females be 2.7. However, these requirements vary with
climate, activity level and other factor
 Too little water can lead to dehydration
 Too much water can lead to water intoxication, a potentially
fatal disturbance to the brain. However, this is very rare in
normal humans and usually only occurs during water drinking
contests or intense bouts of exercises when electrolytes are not
replenished

Malnutrition

Nutrients Deficiency Excess

Carbohydrates Low energy Diabetes, obesity
Fats None Cardiovascular disease, obesity
Cholesterol none Cardiovascular disease
Rabbit starvation (diarrhoea, headache,
Kwashiorkor
low BP, low heart rate
Protein (edema, anorexia,
Discomfort/hunger that can only be
inadequate growth)
satisfied by eating fats and carbohydrates
Hyponatremia
Sodium Hypernatremia, hypertension
(electrolyte imbalance)
Cirrhosis (chronic liver disease), heart
Iron Anaemia
disease
Iodine Goitre, hypothyroidism Iodine toxicity
Night blindness, Hypervitaminosis A (birth defects, liver
Vitamin A
xeropthalmia (dry eyes) problems, osteoporosis)
Vitamin B1 Beri-beri
Vitamin B2 Cracking of skin
Vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia
Niacin (Vitamin Pellagra (diarrhoea, Dyspepsia (indigestion), cardiac
B3) dermatitis, dementia, death) arrhythmias
Vitamin C Scurvy Diarrhoea
Hypervitaminosis D (dehydration,
Vitamin D Rickets
vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin E Nervous disorders Hypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant)
Vitamin K Haemorrhage
Fatigue, vomiting, depression, cardiac
Calcium Osteoporosis
arrhythmias
Magnesium Hypertension Weakness, nausea, vomiting
Hypokalaemia, cardiac
Potassium Hyperkalaemia, palpitations
arrhythmias
BIOLOGY: VACCINES

Overview

 A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a

particular disease
 Vaccines were first used by Edward Jenner (England) in the
1770s to inoculate against small pox using the cow pox microbe
 Vaccines have resulted in the eradication of small pox, one of the
most contagious and deadly diseases known to man
 Other diseases like polio, measles, mumps, typhoid etc are have been
significantly reduced. Currently, polio is prevalent in only four
countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and India

Mechanism of action

 A vaccine is usually made from a weakened or dead form of the

microbe that it is intended to fight
 It stimulates the body’s immune system to recognise the microbe as
foreign, and destroy it and remember it
 When the same microbe re-appears later, the immune system easily
recognises and destroys it
 When the body recognises the virulent microbe attack, it
o Neutralises the target microbe before it can enter body cells
o Destroys infected cells before the microbe can spread to other cells
and multiply

Types of vaccines

 Killed vaccines: these are vaccines that contain micro-organisms that

have been killed using chemicals or heat. Eg: influenza, cholera, bubonic
plague, polio, hepatitis A
 Attenuated vaccines: these contain live attenuated (numerous) micro-
organisms. These are usually live viruses that have been cultivated under
conditions which disable their virulent properties, or use closely-related by
less dangerous micro-organisms.These vaccines provide more durable
immune response and are preferred type for healthy adults. Eg:
yellow fever, measles, rubella, mumps, typhoid
  Toxoid vaccines: inactivated toxic compounds that cause illness. Eg:
tetanus, diphtheria
 Subunit vaccines: these use protein subunits instead of the entire micro-
organism as a vaccine. Eg: Hepatitis B vaccine (which uses only surface
proteins), Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) vaccine (which uses subunits of
influenza virus)

Effectiveness of vaccines

 Vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a disease

 This could be due to
o Host’s immune system may not respond adequately
o Host may have lowered immunity (such as due to diabetes, HIV,
steroid use etc)
o Host may not have a B cell capable of producing antibodies to that
particular antigen
 The efficacy of a vaccine depends on a number of factors
o The disease itself
o The strain of vaccine
o Following the schedule of vaccinations
o Individual host factors
o Genetic and ethnic predisposition
 Most vaccines use adjuvants to boost immune system
response. Adjuvants are compounds added to the vaccine that
increase the immune response, without having any specific antigenic
effect by themselves.
 Aluminum salts like aluminium phosphate and aluminium
hydroxide are the most common adjuvants used

List of important vaccines

Vaccine Disease Type Notes

Anthrax vaccine Anthrax Protein subunit

Bacillus Calmette-
Tuberculosis Live bacteria
Guerin (BCG)

DTP Diphtheria
Pertussis
 (whoopoing
cough)

Tetanus

Gardasil
(Human Papilloma Cervical cancer Protein subunit
Virus (HPV))

Polio is prevalent only in humans

Currently polio has been eradicated
Polio vaccine Polio Killed/inactivated from all countries except
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and
India

Measles
Mumps
MMR

Rubella

Meningococcal
Meningococcus
vaccine

Rabies vaccine Rabies Attenuated

Yellow fever
Yellow fever Attenuated
vaccine

CHEMISTRY: MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

 Medicinal chemistry involves the design, synthesis and development

of pharmaceutical drugs
 Compounds used as medicines are overwhelmingly organic
compounds including small molecules and biopolymers. However,
some inorganic compounds and metals have been found to have
medicinal properties as well

Classes of drugs

Class of drug Application Example Notes

Antipyretics cause the
Reduce body Aspirin, paracetamol
Antipyretics hypothalamus to override an
temperature (acetaminophen)
increase in temperature
 Taking antipyretics in empty
stomach can cause ulcer
Paracetamol
Some antipyretics act as
Non steroidal anti
analgesics as well
inflammatory drugs
Analgesics Pain relief Some narcotics (heroin,
(NSAIDS)
morphine, marijuana) can also
act as analgesics
Morphine
Sedatives cause sleep, poor
judgement, slow reflexes
Barbiturates,
Tranquilizers Induce sedation Excessive use can cause
antihistamines
unconsciousness and even
death
Antiseptics are applied
externally to living tissues
Antiseptics also reduce body
Reduce
Boric acid, hydrogen odour caused due to bacterial
Antiseptics possibility of
peroxide, iodine decomposition
infection
They are used in breath
freshners and deodorants
An antibiotic is defined as a
Penicillin, substance produced by a
gramicidin, microorganism that kills other
Antibiotics Kill bacteria
amoxicillin, microorganisms
streptomycin Antibiotics are considered life-
saving drugs
Increases rate of Amiloride,
Diuretics
urination triamterene
Widen blood Histamine, nitric Decrease blood pressure
Vasodilators
vessels oxide Increase blood flow
Narrow blood Increase blood pressure
vessels Antihistamines, Decrease blood flow
Vasoconstrictors Staunch blood cocaine, LSD,
loss due to caffeine Make skin look paler because
haemorrhage less blood reaches the skin
General anaesthetics cause a
loss of consciousness
Cause loss of Cocaine, nitrous
Anaesthetics Local anaesthetics cause loss
sensation oxide, halothane
of sensation in a specific part
of the body
Since both fungi and human
Fungal diseases
Ketoconazole, cells are eukaryotes, the
like ringworm,
Antifungals benzoic acid, neem possibility of side effects is
athlete’s foot,
seed oil, tea tree oil higher than in anti-bacterial
meningitis
drugs (like antibiotics)
Unlike antibiotics, antiviral
Antivirals Inhibit growth of Zedovudine,
drugs do not destroy target
(Antiretrovirals) virus lamivudine
microbes but only inhibit their
 growth
Designing antiviral drugs is
difficult because virus use
host’s cells to replicate

Some virus, like influenza and

HIV, mutate rapidly which
means they can be treated with
antivirals only and not be
prevented by vaccines

Antiretrovirals are a subclass

of antivirals that treat
retroviruses such as HIV
Some important common drugs

Drug Classification Application Notes

Narrow spectrum
Syphilis, staphylococcal antibiotic
Penicillin Antibiotic
infections (food poisoning) (treats only a narrow
range of diseases)
Zedovudine Antiviral HIV
Lamivudine Antiviral Hepatitis B
Streptomycin Antibiotic Tuberculosis
Erythromycin Antibiotic Respiratory tract infections
Urinary tract infections,
Broad spectrum
Ciprofloxacin Antibiotic common pneumonia,
antibiotic
myoplasmal infections
Amoxicillin Antibiotic Wide range of infections Broad spectrum
Tetracycline Antibiotic Cholera
Chloroquine Antibiotic Malaria
One of the most widely
Analgesic,
Aspirin Fever, pain used medications in the
Antipyretic
world
Paracetamol Analgesic,
Fever, pain
(Acetaminophen) antipyretic

BIOLOGY: STEM CELLS

Overview

 Stem cells are cells that can renew themselves.

 Stem cells renew themselves through mitotic cell division and can
differentiate into a diverse range of specialised cell types
 Stem cells are found in most multi-cellular organisms
  There are two types of stem cells in mammals
o Embryonic stem cells
o Adult stem cells
 Stem cells are mainly found in blood from the umbilical cord
and the bone marrow
 Due to their self-renewing nature, stem cells are very important for
treatment of diseases

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Importance of stem cells

 For a cell to be characterised as a stem cell, it must exhibit the

following properties
o Self renewal: the ability to go through numerous cycles of
cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state
o Potency: the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell
types
 In developing embryos, stem cells can differentiate into all
of the specialised embryonic tissues
 In adult organisms, stem cells act as a repair system for the
body, replenishing specialised cells
 Stem cells also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs
such as blood, skin or tissues
 Stem cells can be grown and transformed into specialised cells of
various tissues such as muscles and nerves using cell culture
 Stem cell treatment holds the potential of transforming
human medicine, wherein stem cells introduce new cells into
damaged tissue in order to treat a disease or injury
 The ability of stem cells to self renew and differentiate offers
the potential to replace diseased and damaged tissue
without the risk of rejection or side effects

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Current stem cell treatments

  Currently, stem cell treatment is available to treat the side
effects of chemotherapy on cancer patients, such as
leukaemia or lymphoma
 During chemotherapy most growing cells are killed by cytotoxic
agents
 These agents kill not only the leukaemia cells but also healthy
haematopoietic stem cells in adjacent bone marrows.
 Using stem cell therapy, healthy bone marrow stem cells are used
to reintroduce healthy stem cells to replace those lost in the
treatment

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Potential stem cell treatments

 Stem cells can be potentially used to treat a number of serious

diseases. These include
o Brain diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s
o Cancers
o Spinal cord injury
o Heart damage
o Haematopoiesis (blood cell formation)
o Baldness, missing teeth
o Blindness, deafness
o Diabetes
o Neural damage
 Almost all these treatments are still in the research stage
 In Jan 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
gave clearance to Geron Corporation for the first clinical
trials of an embryonic stem cell therapy on humans. The trial
will evaluate the efficacy of the drug GRNOPC1 on patients with
spinal cord injury

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Important milestones in stem cell research

  1963: Ernest McCullogh (Canada) and James Till (Canada) illustrate
the presence of self renewing cells in the bone marrow
 1968: Bone marrow transplant between two siblings successfully
treats Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
 1978: haematopoietic stem cells discovered in human blood
 1998: James Thomson (USA) derives the first human
embryonic stem cell line
 2001: Scientists at Advanced Cell Technology (USA) clone first early
human embryos for the purpose of generating embryonic stem cells
 2006: Scientists at Newcastle University (England) create first every
artificial liver cells using umbilical cord blood cells
 2008: Robert Lanza and colleagues at ACT create first human
embryonic stem cells without destruction of the embryo

BIOLOGY: CLONING

Overview

 Cloning is the process by which genetically identical individuals are

produced
 Cloning happens in nature by the biological mechanisms of asexual
reproduction in bacteria, insects and plants
 Cloning can also be performed artificially by copying fragments of DNA
(molecular cloning) or cells (cell cloning) or organisms
 Mammals, which reproduce sexually, cannot clone
naturally. Mammals inherit genetic material half each from both parents,
meaning that the progeny is never an identical replica of the
parent. Natural clones in mammals are confined to the production
of identical twins
 The first vertebrate to be cloned was a tadpole by Robert Briggs
(USA) and Thomas King (USA) in 1952

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Cloning in plants

 Plants have been clone for a long time.

 Grafting is a form of plant cloning
  Many horticulture plants are cloned, having been derived from a single
individual
 Examples of plant cloning include carrots, tobacco, potato, banana

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Cloning in animals

 Cloning of animals is based on a technique known as “somatic cell nuclear

transfer”.
 Nuclear transfer involves fusing two cells together – a donor cell
containing all its DNA, and egg cell with all its DNA removed
 The two cells are fused with an electric pulse and the resulting enucleated
egg is implanted in the mother

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Dolly the Sheep

 Dolly, a Finn Dorset ewe, was the first mammal to be successfully cloned
from an adult cell
 Dolly was cloned by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell at the Roslin
Institute in Edinburgh (Scotland)
 Dolly was born in 1996 and lived for six years
 The donor cell for Dolly was taken from a mammary gland.
 Production of a healthy clone proved that a cell from a specific part of the
body could recreate a whole individual

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Some animals that have been cloned

See here for the full list cloned animals.

Cloned animal When Where By whom Notes

Robert Briggs, Thomas

Tadpole 1952 USA
King

Carp (fish) 1963 China Tong Dizhou

Mice
Soviet Chaylakhyan, Veprencev,
(first cloned 1986 First cloned mammal
Union Sviridova, Nikitin
mammal)

Sheep
(first cloned Ian WIlmut, Keith First cloned mammal from
1996 Britain
mammal from Campbell adult cell
adult cell)

Rhesus monkey
2000 It was named Tetra
(named Tetra)

Named Noah
Jonathan Hill, Philip
Gaur (Asian Ox) 2001 USA First endangered species
Damiani
to be cloned

Copycat was the first

2001
cloned pet
(Copycat)
Cat USA Little Nicky was the
2004 (Little
commercially produced
Nicky)
cat clone

Mule (named Gordon Woods, Dirk

2003 USA First clone in horse family
Idaho Gem) Vanderwall

First cloned horse

Horse (named First animal to be born
2003 Italy Cesare Galli
Prometea) from and carried by its
cloning mother

S K Singla and others at First cloned buffalo

Water buffalo
2009 India Karnal National Dairy Died 5 days after birth
(called Samrupa)
Research Institute due to lung infection

Camel
2009 Dubai Nisar Ahmad Wani First cloned camel
(called Injaz)
CHEMISTRY: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Overview

 Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical and biochemical

phenomena that occur in natural places
 Environmental chemistry is used to detect and identify the nature and
source of pollutants, including
o Heavy metal contamination of land by industry. These can
transported to water bodies and taken up ingested by living
organisms
o Nutrients leaching from agricultural land into water sources
o Urban pollutants runoff. Typical pollutants include petrol and
other fuel, metals, nutrients and sediments
 Common environmental phenomena arising out of contamination include
acid rain, soil salination and ocean acidification

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

 Dissolved Oxygen (Oxygen Saturation)

o It is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in
water.
o Supersaturation (excess of oxygen) can be harmful to
organisms and also cause decompression sickness
o It is expressed in mg/l
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
o COD is used to indirectly measure the amount of organic
compounds in water
o It is expressed in mg/l, which indicates the amount of oxygen
consumed per litre of water
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
o BOD measures the rate of uptake of oxygen by microorganisms in
water
o BOD is measured at a temperature of 20 C and over a period of 5
days in the dark
o BOD is widely used to determine the threshold at which
treated wastewater can be re-introduced into the
environment
 o Pristine rivers have a BOD of below 1 mg/l. Municipal
sewage treated effectively by a three-stage process would
have BOD of 20 mg/l or less
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
o TDS is a measure of combined content of all inorganic and organic
substances contained in a liquid
o TDS is generally not considered a primary pollutant, but is used to
indicate the aesthetic characteristics of drinking water
o High TDS levels generally indicate hard water
o Drinking water is expected to have a TDS of 100 mg/l or less
o TDS is different from TSS (Total Suspended Solids). The
former are those solids that are small enough to pass through a
filter of size 2 um, while the latter are those solids that cannot pass
through

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION PHENOMENA

Acid rain

 Acid rain is form of rain that is unusually acidic i.e. has low pH
 Acid rain is mostly caused by emission of sulphur, nitrogen and
carbon which react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce
acids
 The biggest human activity causes of acid rain include coal-based power
plants, factories and automobile emissions
 It can also be caused by natural phenomena such as
o lightning strikes (which splits nitrogen compounds)
o volcanic eruptions (which release large quantities of sulphur
dioxide)
 Natural (unpolluted) rain is slightly acidic with pH of 5.2 due to the
reaction of carbon dioxide with water to produce carbonic acid
 Acid rain has many adverse effects including
o Damage to aquatic animals
o Damage to soil chemistry by killing off essential microbes
o Loss of forests and vegetation
o Human illnesses such as cancer, asthma and other diseases
o Damage to buildings and historical monuments (esp. those made of
limestone and marble)
Ocean acidification

 Ocean acidification is the continuing phenomenon of decreasing pH in the

world’s oceans
 Between 1751 and 1994, ocean pH is estimated to have decreased
from 8.179 to 8.104 (decrease of 0.075). Ocean pH is expected to
decrease by a further 0.3-0.5 by 2100
 This acidification is mainly the result of uptake of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. The world’s oceans naturally absorb carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, indirectly mitigating climate change
 Ocean acidification adversely affects marine organisms especially
calcifying organisms like corals, crustaceans and molluscs, and also
affects other organisms by entering the food chain

Soli salination

 Salt affected soils are caused by excess accumulation of salts at the soil
surface
 Salt can be transported to the soil surface by capillary action from salt-
laden water tables, or by human activity
 Increasing soil salinity adversely affects soil quality and vegetation
 Human activities that increase soil salinity include
o Land clearing
o Aquaculture activities (shrimp farms etc)
o Irrigation (over a period time causes deposition of salts)
 The adverse effects of salination include
o loss of soil fertility
o damage to infrastructure (such as roads etc)
o damage to plant growth and yield
o deterioration of underground water quality
o soil erosion

COMMON ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS

1. Chlorofluorocarbons
1. They are organic compounds that contain carbon, chlorine and
fluorine
2. Examples of CFCs include Freon, Teflon
 3. CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in
aerosols) and solvents
4. The use of CFCs has been banned under the Montreal
Protocol due to their adverse effect on the ozone layer
2. Endocrine disruptors
1. Endocrine disruptors are substances that affect the function of
natural hormones in the body
2. Food is the main source of exposure to endocrine disruptors
3. There are five main types of endocrine disruptors:
1. DDT
2. Polychlorinated biphenyls
3. Bisphenol A
4. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
5. Pthalates
3. DDT
1. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is one of the most
well-known synthetic pesticides
2. DDT is one of the most effective and simple to deploy pesticides,
especially to fight mosquitoes that cause malaria and typhus
3. DDT has significant adverse effect on aquatic life, insects
and humans (esp. diabetes and reproductive disorders)
4. It is a significant reproductive toxicant for certain bird
species, and is a major reason for the decline of the bald
eagle, brown pelican peregrine falcon and osprey. This is the
main reason DDT use has been banned
5. The use of DDT for agricultural use has been banned under
the Stockholm Convention, however it can still be used for
disease vector control (mosquito eradication)
4. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
1. PCBs are a class of industrial compounds
2. They are used mainly as industrial coolants and lubricants
3. Exposure to PCBs increases the risk of skin cancer, brain
cancer and liver cancer. Additionally it also increases childhood
obesity and the risk of developing diabetes
4. The use of PCBs was banned in 1977
5. Bisphenol A (BPA)
1. BPA is an organic compound with two functional phenol groups
 2. BPA is used as a building block of several important plastics
and plastic additives
3. It is found commonly in water bottles, plastic food containers and
the lining of infant formula cans
4. The use of BPA has been linked to diabetes, mammary and
prostrate cancers, reproductive problems, obesity and
neurological disorders
5. BPA use has not been banned
6. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)
1. PBDEs are a class of compounds used as flame retardants
2. They are used commonly in televisions, computers, electronics,
carpets, bedding, clothing car components etc
3. PBDEs have the potential to affect thyroid balance, and
contribute to a variety of neurological and developmental
disorders including learning disabilities and low intelligence
4. Many of the most common PBDEs were banned by the
European Union in 2006
7. Phthalates
1. Phthalates are esters of phthalic acid
2. They are mainly used as plasticisers to soften polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
3. Phthalates are found in soft toys, flooring, medical equipment,
cosmetics and air fresheners
4. Phthalates have been shown to have adverse effects on the
male reproductive system
5. The EU and the US have begun phasing out widespread use
of phthalates
8. Dioxins
1. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) are a group of
polyhalogenatated compounds
2. The main sources of Dioxins include
1. By-products in the manufacture of organochlorides
2. in the incineration of chlorine containing substances
(like PVC)
3. bleaching of paper
4. natural sources like volcanoes and forest fires
3. Dioxins accumulate and build up in the food chain
(bioaccumulation)
4. Health effects of dioxins include
1. Severe form of acne called chloracne
2. Abnormalities in teeth enamel of children
3. Nervous system pathology
4. Thyroid disorders
5. Diabetes
6. Damage to immune system
5. Exposure to dioxins has been shown to affect the ratio of
male to female births, such that more females are born than
males
PHYSICS: NON-INVASIVE IMAGING

Overview

 Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images

of the human body for medical purposes
 Non-invasive imaging is the method of producing images of internal
tissues without surgical procedures
 Non invasive imaging techniques can be used to produce anatomical
assessment of tissues (such as X-rays) as well as functional
assessments (such as MRI)
 As a discipline, it includes radiology, nuclear medicine, endoscopy,
thermography etc
 Non-invasive imaging is a vast field with differing
technologies such as X-rays, tomography, MRI etc
 Non-invasive imaging provide highly valuable diagnostic tools for
diagnosing and treating varied ailments such as cancer, fractures,
etc
 Imaging technologies can be broadly classified into two categories
o Anatomical imaging modalities: these imaging techniques
provide information on the anatomy i.e. the physical structure
of the organ/tissue under study
o Functional imaging modalities: these imaging techniques
provide information on the physiological functioning of the
organ/tissue under study

X-RAYS

 X-rays were discovered by Wilhem Conrad Rontgen

(Germany) in 1895. He won the Nobel in Physics 1901
 Radiography is the imaging process that uses X-rays to
capture images
 In conventional radiography, X-rays from a X-ray tube pass through
the patient and are captured by an X-ray sensitive film screen
  Nowadays, digital radiography (DR) is becoming popular, in which
x-rays strike an array of sensors that convert the signal to digital
mode and displays the images on a computer screen
 X-rays are the preferred diagnostic tool for studying lungs,
heart and skeleton(including fractures) due to their simplicity,
available and low cost
 X-rays is an anatomical imaging technology

Fluoroscopy

 Fluoroscopy is used to obtain real time moving images of the

internal structures
 Fluoroscope systems consist of an X-ray source and a fluorescent
screen connected to a closed circuit TV. The patient is position
between the source and the screen
 Fluoroscopes use low x-ray radiation doses
 Fluoroscopy also involves use of radiocontrast agents that
increase the contrast of a specific tissue w.r.t. surrounding
tissues by strongly absorbing or scattering the x-rays
 The radiocontrast agents enable visualization of dynamic
processes such as peristalsis in the digestive tract of blood flow in
arteries and veins
 Commonly used contrast agents include Barium and
Iodine. These may be administered orally or rectally or injected
into the blood stream
 Used mainly for investigating gastrointestinal functions,
orthopaedic surgery and urological surgery
 Fluoroscopy is a functional imaging technology

Computed Tomography (CT)

 Computed Tomography uses X-rays in conjunction with software

algorithms to image the body
 CT generates a three-dimensional image of an object using a
large series of X-ray images taken around a single axis of
rotation
 CT produces a volume data which can be manipulated in order to
demonstrate various body functions
  Compared to traditional radiography, CT produces 3d information
and has much higher contrast and resolution, but also uses much
higher doses of radiation
 CT scanners were first developed by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield
(Britain) in 1972. He won Nobel in Medicine in 1979
 CT is used primarily for detecting cerebral haemorrhage,
pulmonary embolism, aortic dissection, appendicitis and
kidney stones
 CT is an anatomical imaging technology

Ultrasound

 Ultrasound was first developed for medical use by John Wild

(Britain) in 1949
 Ultrasonography uses ultrasound (high frequency sound waves) to
visualize soft tissues in the body in real time
 Ultrasound does not involve any ionizing radiation, hence it
considered safer than X-rays or CT and is used for obstetrical
imaging
 Ultrasound is limited by its inability to image through air or bone,
and by the skill of the examiner
 Ultrasound is used primarily to study the development of
foetus
 A variant of ultrasound, the colour flow Doppler ultrasound is used
in cardiology for diagnosing peripheral vascular disease
 Ultrasound is a functional imaging technology

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

 MRI was invented by Paul Lauterbur (USA) and Sir Peter

Mansfield (Britain) in the 1970s. They won Nobel in Medicine in
2003
 MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei within body
tissues, and then uses a radio signal to disturb this alignment and
observes the signals generated as the atoms return to their original
states
 The working principle of MRI is called Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR)
  MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all imaging
modalities
 MRI does not use any ionizing radiation. However, it does use
powerful magnetic fields
 A variant of MRI called Functional MRI measures signal changes in
the brain due to neural activity
 MRI is used primarily for neurological (brain),
musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and oncological (cancer)
imaging
 MRI is an anatomical imaging technology

Nuclear medicine

 Nuclear medicine uses radioactive isotopes and the principle

of radioactive decay to study body functions
 Nuclear medicine involves the administration into the patients of
radio-pharmaceuticals.
Radio-pharmaceuticals are substances with affinity for certain body
tissues that have been labelled with radioactive tracers (called
radio-nuclides)
 The radio-pharmaceuticals administered into the body emit
radiation which is detected and converted into images.
 The radio-pharmaceuticals, once administered, localise (i.e.
attach) to specific organs or cell receptors, meaning those
particular organs or cells can be studied in isolation
 Commonly used tracers include Technetium, iodine, gallium and
thalium
 Nuclear medicine is used mainly to study the heart, lungs,
thyroid, liver and gallbladder
 Nuclear medicine mainly provides information about the
physiological function of these tissues
 Since the radio isotopes decay over a period a time, they do not
pose a significant threat to normal human functioning
 Nuclear medicine is a functional imaging technology

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

 PET uses nuclear medicines to produce three dimensional
images
 The PET system detects gamma rays emitted by positron emitting
radio-nuclides. Images of the nuclide concentration are
reconstructed in 3d by computer algorithms
 PET is a functional imaging technology
 PET is often combined with CT and MRI scans, enabling both
anatomical and functional imaging simultaneously
 PET was first developed by David Kuhl (USA) and Roy
Edwards (USA) in the 1950s
 PET is mainly used in oncology (cancer) and neurology
(especially dementias)
 A variant of PET, called Single Positron Emission Computed
Tomography (SPECT) detects gamma rays emitted directly
by the radio-nuclides
PHYSICS: MAGNETISM

Overview

 The term magnetism describes how materials respond to an applied

magnetic field
 All materials are influenced to a greater or lesser extent by
the presence of a magnetic field. Some are attracted
(paramagnetism) while some are repulsed (diamagnetism)
 Substances that are negligibly attracted by magnetic fields are
called non-magnetic materials. Eg: copper, aluminium, water, glass
 The magnetic state of a material depends on its temperature, with
the result that a substance may exhibit different magnetic
characteristics depending on its temperature
 Magnetism can arise from either intrinsic magnetic moments
contained in particles, or by electric currents applied to the
substance
 Magnet is a material that produces a magnetic field
 Permanent magnet is a material that retain its magnetic field

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Types of magnetism

 Diamagnetism
o Diamagnetism is the tendency of a material to oppose a
magnetic field
o It appears in all materials. However, in a material with
paramagnetic properties, the paramagnetic behaviour
dominates
o Diamagnetic materials do not have unpaired electrons
o Superconductors are diamagnetic materials
 Paramagnetism
o Paramagnetism is the tendency of a material to be attracted
to an applied magnetic field
 o Paramagnetism only occurs in the presence of an
externally applied magnetic field. When the external field
is removed, the magnetisation will drop to zero
o Paramagnetic materials have one unpaired electron, allowing
it to orient in the direction of the magnetic field
o Oxygen, myoglobin are examples of paramagnets
 Ferromagnetism
o Ferromagnetism is the only type of magnetism that can
produce forces strong enough to be felt, and is
responsible for the magnetic phenomena in everyday
life
o Ferromagnetic materials have unpaired electron, but unlike
paramagnets, they remain oriented even after the external
magnetic field has been removed
o Ferromagnetic materials remain magnetized even after
the external applied magnetic field has been removed
o All permanent magnets are either ferromagnets or
ferrimagnets
o Eg: refrigerator magnets
 Antiferromagnetism
o Magnetic moments of electrons point in opposite directions
o Anitferromagnets have zero net magnetic field
o They are not very common and usually occur only low
temperatures
o Antiferromagnetism disappears above the Neel
Temperature and the material becomes paramagnetic
o Examples include hematite, chromium, iron manganese
 Ferrimagnetism
o Neighbouring pairs of electrons point in opposite direction
o However, ferromagnetic materials retain their
magnetisation in the absence of the magnetic field
o Example is magnetite

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Electromagnets
  Electromagnet is a magnet whose magnetic field is produced by the
flow of electric current
 The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases
 The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon (Britain) in
1824
 Electromagnets are widely used in electrical devices such as motors,
generators, loudspeakers, particle accelerators
 Magnetic Levitation (MAGLEV) trains run on electromagnetic
suspension produced by electromagnets

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Earth’s magnetic field

 The Earth’s magnetic field, which extends several tens of thousands

of km into space is called the magnetosphere
 The earth’s magnetic field is explained by dynamo
theory. The theory explains the mechanism by which celestial
bodies like the earth, or a star generate magnetic fields. According
to the theory, earth’s magnetic field is produced by electric currents
in the liquid outer core
 The magnetic north pole of the Earth is located near the
geographic south pole, and the magnetic south pole is
located near the geographic north pole. This can be explained
by understanding that the north pole of a suspended magnet points
towards the north, indicating that the geographic north pole should
have south polarity
 The earth’s magnetic poles move with time due to magnetic
changes in the earth’s core. Currently, the magnetic north pole
lies near Ellesmore Island in northern Canada, while the south pole
is near Wilkes Land, Antarctica. The north pole is moving northwest
by about 64 km/year and the south pole is moving northwest by
10-15 km/year

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CHEMISTRY: PROPELLANTS
Overview

 A propellant is a material that is used to propel an object

 The object is usually expelled by the pressure created by a gas
 This pressure may be created by a compressed gas or by a gas
produced by a chemical reaction
 Propellants may be solids, liquids, gases or plasmas
 Common chemical propellants consist of a fuel and an oxidiser

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Types of propellants

 Aerosol sprays
o Aerosol spray is a dispensing system that creates an aerosol
(fine) mist of liquid particles
o In aerosol sprays, the propellant is simply a pressurised gas in
equilibrium with its liquid form
o As some gas escapes to expel the payload, more liquid
evaporates thereby maintaining an even pressure
o The aerosol spray can was invented by Erik Rotheim
(Norway) in 1927
o Aerosol sprays are typically used to dispense insecticides,
deodorants and paints
 Propellants used for propulsion
o Rockets typically use bipropellants, which contain a
combination of a fuel and an
oxidiser. Tripropellants, which are not used commonly, use
liquid hydrogen as a third component to provide additional
efficiency
o Propellants are usually made from low explosives,
which deflagrate (burn) rather than detonate (explode)
o The controlled burning of the propellants produces thrust by
gas pressure which is then used to accelerate a rocket,
projectile or other vehicles
o Propellants are commonly used in rockets, firearms and
artillery
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Solid propellants

 Solid propellants are used for rockets, firearms and artillery

 Examples of solid propellants include gunpowder (sulphur +
charcoal + potassium nitrate), nitrocellulose and cordite
 Single based propellants: They have nitrocellulose as its chief
ingredient. Stabilizers and other chemicals may be added for
chemical stability
 Double based propellants: they contain nitrocellulose with
nitroglycerin or other liquid nitrate explosives added. Nitroglycerin
reduces smoke and increases energy output. Used in small arms,
cannons, mortars and rockets
 Triple based propellants: consist of nitrocellulose, nitroquanidine,
and nitroglycerin or other nitrate explosives. Used in cannons
 Composite propellants: consist of a fuel such as metallic
aluminium, a binder such as synthetic rubber and an oxidiser such
as ammonium perchlorate. Used in large rocket motors such as
spacecraft
 Solid propellants have been used since the 11th century to power
rockets based on gunpowder
 Solid fuel rockets offer ease of handling, reliability and long
storage periods
 Solid fuel rockets are used for missiles due to their long storage
periods and reliability of launch on short notice
 Currently, solid fuel rockets are not used for space
explorations, but are commonly used as booster rockets to
launch spacecraft

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Liquid propellants

 Liquid propellants are usually used in combinations of fuel and

oxidiser
 Common liquid propellant combinations include
 o Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
o Liquid oxygen and kerosene
o Nitrogen tetraoxide and kerosene
 Liquid fuel rockets are desirable because they offer higher
energy output, they can be throttled and shut down and can
be reused
 Liquid fuel rockets are used to power space shuttles
 A variant of liquid fuel engine is cryogenic fuel engine –
these are engines that use gases which are super-cooled into
their liquid forms

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Propellants used in the PSLV

 The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) has a four stage

propulsion system, using solid and liquid propellants
alternately
 First stage: solid – Hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene (HTPB)
 Second stage: liquid – unsymmetrical di-methyl hydrazine (UDMH)
as fuel and nitrogen tetraoxide as oxidiser
 Third stage: solid – HTPB
 Fourth stage: solid – mono methyl hydrazine as fuel and mixed
oxides of nitrogen as oxidiser

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Propellants used in the GSLV

 The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is a

three stage launch vehicle using solid, liquid and cryogenic
propellants
 First stage – solid – HTPB
 Second stage – liquid – UDMH as fuel and nitrogen tetraoxide as
oxidiser
 Third stage – cryogenic – liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen

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PHYSICS: ELECTRICITY

Overview

 Electricity is an extraordinarily versatile source of energy

 Electricity is the backbone of modern industrial society
 The phenomenon of electricity includes concepts such as
o Electric charge: a property of subatomic particles that determines
their electromagnetic interactions
o Electric current: a movement or flow of charged particles
o Electric field: influence of charged particles on other charged
particles in the vicinity
o Electric potential: capacity of an electric field to do work
o Electromagnetism: interaction between electric and magnetic fields

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TIMELINE OF EARLY DISCOVERIES/INVENTIONS

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BASIC ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

1. Resistors
 1. Resistors are materials that resist the flow of current through them
2. They dissipate energy in the form of heat
3. Ohmic materials are those materials whose resistance
remains constant over a range of temperatures and
currents. Non-ohmic materials have resistances that change
4. The unit of resistance is Ohm
2. Capacitors
1. Capacitors are devices that store electric energy in the form of
electric charge
2. They usually consist of two conducting plates separated by a thin
insulating layer
3. Capacitors block steady state current i.e. DC current
4. The unit of capacitance is Farad
3. Inductors
1. Inductors are conductors that store energy in a magnetic field,
which is produced in response to an electrical current
2. Inductors allow steady current, but oppose rapidly changing
currents
3. The unit of inductance is Henry
4. Transformers
1. A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit into another
2. This transfer occurs through inductively coupled conductors, where
varying current in one circuit creates a varying magnetic field (and
hence voltage) in the other circuit
3. Transformers can be used to step-up or step-down voltages from
high voltage transmission lines to appliances in homes

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ELECTRICITY IN NATURE

1. Electric shock
1. A voltage applied to the human body causes an electric
current through the tissues
2. In general, greater the voltage applied, greater the current passed
through the tissues
 3. Voltages 100-250 V can be lethal in humans, although as low
32V has been lethal sometimes. Lethality increases dramatically
beyond 250V
4. If the current is sufficiently high, it can cause muscle
contractions, fibrillation of the heart and tissue burns
5. DC tends to cause continuous muscle contractions making the
victim hold on to a live conductor, thereby increasing risk of tissue
burn
6. AC tends to interfere with heart function, increasing risk of cardiac
arrest
7. AC at high frequencies, causes current to travel on the surface due
to skin effect. This results in severe burn but is usually not fatal
2. Electrical phenomena
1. Touch, friction and chemical bonding are all due to interactions
between electrical fields on the atomic scale
2. The Earth’s magnetic arises from a natural dynamo of
circulating currents in the planet’s core
3. Piezoelectric crystals like quartz and sugar generate electric current
when subject to mechanical pressure
4. Electric eels detect and stun their prey via high voltages
(500 V) generated from muscle cells called electrocytes
5. Electrical currents, called Action Potential, are used for
nervous system communication in all animals, including
humans

CHEMISTRY: EXPLOSIVES

Overview

 An explosive is a substance that contains a great deal of stored energy

that can produce an explosion, usually accompanied by the production of
light, heat and pressure
 The energy stored in an explosive material may be
o Chemical energy such as nitroglycerine
o Pressurised compressed gas such as a gas cylinder or aerosol can
o Nuclear energy such as Uranium and plutonium

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN EXPLOSIVES

1. Deflagration
1. Deflagration is a term that describes subsonic combustion
that propagates through thermal conductivity
2. Deflagration is easier to control and so is used when the goal is to
move an object with the force of expanding gas
3. Examples of deflagration include gas stove, internal combustion
engine, gunpowder, pyrotechnics etc
2. Detonation
1. Detonation is a combustion process in which a supersonic shock
wave through the body of a material
2. In detonation, a supersonic shock wave originating at the point of
ignition compresses the surrounding material, thus increasing its
temperature to the point of ignition
3. Because detonations generate high pressures, they are much more
destructive than deflagrations
4. Detonations are difficult to control and are used primarily for
demolition and in warfare.
5. Examples of detonation includes high explosives, oxygen-methane
mixture

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CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

1. High explosives

 Materials that explode faster than the speed of sound are

called high explosives
 This type of explosion is known as detonation
 Used in mining, demolition and military applications

1. Low explosives
1. Materials that explode slower than the speed of sound are
called low explosives.
2. This type of explosion is known as deflagration
 3. Used as propellants, gun powder, pyrotechnics (such as flares and
fireworks)
2. Primary explosives
1. A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely
sensitive to stimuli. These stimuli include impact, friction, heat,
static electricity and electromagnetic radiation
2. For primary explosives, a relatively small amount of energy is
required for initiation of explosion
3. In general, primary explosives are considered to be those
explosives that are more sensitive than PETN
4. Used in detonators to trigger larger charges of more stable
secondary explosives
5. E.g.: Mercury fulminate, Nitrogen trichloride, acetone peroxide,
ammonium permanganate
3. Secondary explosives
1. Secondary explosives are less sensitive than primary
explosives and require more energy to be initiated
2. They are safer to handle and store
3. In general, secondary explosives are considered to be those
explosives that are less sensitive than PETN
4. Secondary explosives are usually used in large quantities and are
initiated by small amounts of primary explosives
5. E.g.: TNT, RDX

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SOME COMMON EXPLOSIVES

1. Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
1. TNT is a useful explosive material with convenient handling
properties. TNT is sometimes also used as a reagent in chemical
synthesis
2. TNT was first prepared by Joseph Wilbrand (GermanY) in
1863
3. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard
measure of strength of bombs and other explosives
4. Sulphitation is a process used in the manufacture of TNT,
specifically to stabilize the explosive
 5. TNT is one of the most commonly used explosives for industrial and
military applications
6. It is insensitive to shock and friction, reducing the
occurrence of accidental detonation. TNT melts without
exploding (allowing it to be combined with other explosives), does
not absorb or dissolve in water (allowing use in wet environments)
and is stable compared to other explosive
7. TNT contains energy of 4.6 Mega Joules per kilogram
(MJ/kg). By comparison gun powder contains 3 MJ/kg, dynamite
contains 7.5 MJ/kg and gasoline contains 47.2 MJ/kg
8. TNT is used as a reference for other explosives. Nuclear weapons
have energy content measured in kilotonnes (kT) or megatonnes
(MT) of TNT equivalent.
9. TNT is usually used in mixture with other substances. E.g.: Amatol
(TNT + ammonium nitrate)
2. RDX
1. RDX, chemically cyclotrimethylnetrinitramine, is also known as
cyclonite and T4
2. RDX is usually used in mixture with other explosives and
plasticizers
3. RDX is stable in storage and is considered one of the most
powerful of military explosives
4. RDX was discovered in 1898 by Goerg Friedrich Henning
(Germany)
3. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN)
1. PETN is one of the most powerful high explosives known
2. It is more difficult to detonate than primary explosives, but
less stable than secondary explosives
3. It is more sensitive than other high explosives, and is rarely used
alone
4. Usually used in small calibre ammunition, detonators of land mines
5. PETN is an effective underwater explosive
6. PETN is a major ingredient of Semtex (plastic explosive)
7. PETN was first synthesised by Bernhard Tollens (Germany)
in 1891
4. Dynamite
1. Dynamite is based on nitroglycerine
 2. It was invented by Alfred Nobel (Sweden) in 1867
3. Used mainly for mining, quarrying, construction
4. Dynamite was the first safely manageable explosive stronger
than black powder
5. Plastic explosive
1. Plastic explosives are explosives that are soft and can be moulded
by hand
2. Common plastic explosives include Semtex (Czech Republic)
and C-4 (USA)
3. Used mainly for demolition, also used by terrorists
4. The first plastic explosive was Gelignite, invented by Alfred
Nobel (Sweden) in 1875
5. C-4 (composition 4) is made of RDX while Semtex is made from
RDX and PETN
6. Semtex became notoriously popular with terrorists because it is
difficult to detect. Semtex was invented by Stanislav Berbera
(Czech R.) in the 1950s

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PHYSICS: PARTICLE PHYSICS

Overview

 The atom was discovered by John Dalton in 1802

 However, even more fundamental particles were discovered in the
20th century
 Particle physics focuses on subatomic particles including electrons,
protons and neutrons
 Many fundamental particles do not occur in nature but can be
created in high energy collisions of other particles

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Standard Model of particle physics

 The Standard Model describes the current classification of

elementary particles
  It describes strong, weak and electromagnetic forces using gauge
bosons
 The Standard Model does not include gravitation, dark matter and
dark energy
 The Standard Model was developed by Sheldon Glashow,
Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam in the 1960s. They won
Nobel in Physics in 1979
 The Model contains 24 fundamental particles
 It predicts the existence of the Higgs Boson, which is yet to
discovered
 All particles of the Standard Model have been observed in
experiments, except the Higgs Boson

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Elementary particles

 All elementary particles are either fermions or bosons

 Fermions are particles associated with matter, while bosons are
particles associated with force
 Fermions can be divided into Quarks and Leptons
 Bosons can be divided into Gauge Bosons and Other Bosons
(including Higgs Boson)
 Protons and neutrons are examples of Hadrons, which are
composites of Quarks
 Electrons are elementary particles by themselves

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Important particle physics labs

Facility Location Established Famous for

World’s first heavy ion
collider
Brookhaven National Lab New York 1947
World’s only polarized
proton collider
Budker Institute of Nuclear Novosibirsk World’s first particle
1959
Physics (Russia) accelerator
European Organization for World’s largest particle
Geneva 1954
Nuclear Research physics lab
 Birthplace of World Wide
Web

Large Hadron Collider

(LHC)
German Electron Synchrotron
Hamburg 1959
(DESY)
Tevatron – world’s second
Fermilab Chicago 1967
largest particle accelerator
High Energy Accelerator Tsukuba
Research Organization (KEK) (Japan)
SLAC National Accelerator Stanford Longest linear accelerator
1962
Lab University in the world
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CHEMISTY: CERAMICS

Overview

 A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action

of heating and subsequent cooling
 The earliest ceramic materials were pottery made from clay
 Ceramics are resistant to chemical erosion and high temperatures
(up to 1600C)

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PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

 Mechanical properties
o Ceramic materials are usually formed by ionic or
covalent bonds
o These materials tend to not be elastic and fracture
easily
o Ceramics are also porous
o In general ceramics have poor toughness and have low
tensile strength
 Electrical properties
o Some ceramics are semiconductors
o Semiconducting ceramics are made using zinc oxide
 o Under extremely low temperatures, some ceramics
exhibit superconductivity
o Most ceramics exhibit piezoelectricity i.e. the conversion
of mechanical stress to electrical signals. This effect is
commonly used in quartz watches
 Optical properties
o Ceramics (esp. those based on aluminium oxide) can be
made translucent
o This has immediate applications in sodium-vapour
lamps and dental restorations
o Ceramics can be made transparent with applications in
laser technology

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TYPES OF CERAMICS

1. Structural ceramics such as bricks, pipes, floor, roof tiles etc

2. Refractory ceramics such as kiln lining, steel and glass making
crucibles
3. Whitewares such as tableware, wall tiles, pottery, sanitary products
4. Technical ceramics such as jet engine turbine blades, ballistic
protection etc

MANUFACTURE OF CERAMICS

1. Milling
1. Process by which materials are reduced in size
2. Involves breaking of cemented material or pulverization
3. Techniques used include ball mill, roll crusher, jaw crusher,
wet attrition mills
2. Batching
1. Is the process of weighing the oxides according to recipes and
preparing them for further processing
3. Mixing
1. Involves mixing the various components in the appropriate
proportions
2. Uses ribbon mixers, Mueller mixers and pug mills
 4. Forming
1. This is the process of the making the mixed materials into
desired shapes such as toilet bowls, spark plugs etc
2. Forming techniques include extrusion, pressing and slip
casting
5. Drying
1. Controlled heat is applied to dry the materials and obtain rigid
shape
6. Firing
1. Dried parts are processed through a controlled heating
process and oxides are chemically changed to cause sintering
and bonding

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BIO-CERAMICS

 Bacteria, plants and animals exhibit a tendency to form crystalline

materials composed of silicon
 These bioceramics show exceptional physical properties such as
strength, fracture resistance etc
 Bio-ceramics are usually made of proteins such as keratin, elastin,
chitin and collagen
 The mother-of-pearl portion of marine shells exhibit the
strongest mechanical strength and fracture toughness of any
non-metallic substance known

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APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS

Application Ceramic components Notes

Armoured vests Alumina, boron carbide Protects against high-calibre rifle fire
Dental implants, Artificial hydroxyapatite
synthetic bone (natural mineral of bone)
Harder, more resistant to heat than metal
Ball bearings Silicon nitride
bearings
Opaque
Earthenware Kaolin, boll, flint
Used to make cups, saucers etc
Chinaware Leached granite (to remove Translucent
 quartz and mica) Resists scratching
White, semi-opaque
Highly resistant to scratching
Porcelain Kaolin, feldspar, quartz
Stronger than glass
Similar to porcelain but from poor grade
Stoneware Kaolin, feldspar, quartz raw materials
Hard, infusible
Used on the outer surface of shuttles to
withstand heating during atmospheric
Space shuttles Extremely pure Silica re-entry
Space shuttle Colombia burnt up on re-
entry due to damage to ceramic tiles
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BIOLOGY: GENETIC ENGINEERING

Overview

 Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of an

organism’s genes
 Genetic engineering is also referred to as recombinant DNA
technology, genetic modification and gene splicing
 Genetic engineering uses cloning and transformation of molecules to
alter the structure and characteristics of genes
 Examples of genetic engineering include improved crop
technologies, synthetic hormones, and creation of experimental
mice

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Process of genetic engineering

The process of genetic engineering has five main steps:

1. Isolation of the genes of interest

2. Insertion of the genes into a transfer vector
3. Transfer of the vector to the organism to be modified
4. Transformation of the cells of the organism
5. Selection of the genetically modified organisms from those that
have not been successfully modified
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Applications of genetic engineering

 The first genetically engineered medicine was synthetic

insulin
 Genetic engineering has been used to produce vaccines for hepatitis
B
 Creation of genetically modified foods such as soybean, corn,
canola and cotton seed oil. GM foods have higher resistance to
pests, bacterial/fungal infections, higher yield and higher nutritional
value
 Gene therapy using viruses to treat severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID)
 Using genetically modified virus to construct environment friendly
lithium-ion battery
 Using human eggs from a second mother to allow infertile women
with genetic defects in their mitochondria to have children
 Artificial DNA, called Synthetic Organism (SO-1), with
unknown functions has been created

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Milestones in genetic engineering

 1953: James Watson (USA) and Francis Crick (Britain)

discover structure of DNA. They win Nobel in Physiology or
Medicine in 1979
 1973: Stanley Cohen (USA) and Herbert Boyer (USA) develop a
technique to clone segments of DNA molecules
 1976: Genentech, the first company dedicated to producing
genetically engineered products is established in San Francisco. It
was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson
 1979: Genetic engineering used to synthesize insulin
 1981: scientists at Ohio university transfer genes from other
organisms into mice
 1990: Human Genome Project launched
  1990: first gene therapy experiment performed on a four-
year old girl with adenosine deaminase deficiency.
Developed by French Anderson
 1996: a yeast known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first
eukaryotic genome to be sequenced by more than 100 labs
collaboratively around the world
 2003: Human Genome Project announces complete mapping
of human genome

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GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

1. BT-Cotton
1. BT-Cotton is a genetically modified variety of cotton
into which Cryiae genefrom the bacillus
thuriegenois bacteria have been introduced
2. This gene produces a toxin called BT-Toxin in every part of
the plant thereby destroying the dreaded cotton pest
Bollworm
3. This technology was developed by US seed company
Monsanto
4. However, concerns include evolution of super-pests with
higher levels of resistance, destruction of agriculturally
beneficial organisms like bees, soil microflora etc
2. Terminator gene
1. Terminator gene is a seed variety developed using genetic
engineering
2. It causes the seed to self-destruct after it has been
used to raise the first generation of crops
3. This is done in order to prevent farmers from raising
subsequent generations of crops without paying royalties
4. Concerns include this self-destruct gene may be transferred to
other plants by cross-pollination leading to extinction of
traditional agricultural production
5. It is also known as Genetic Use Restriction Technology
(GURT) and was developed by the US Department of
 Agriculture in conjunction with the Delta and Pine Land
Co.
3. Golden rice
1. Type of rice crop provided with a gene to develop Beta-
Carotene
2. This helps production of vitamin A in the body
3. This helps fight vitamin A deficiency, the primary cause
of childhood blindness
4. Beta-carotene gives rice a yellow colour and hence is called
Golden Rice
5. Created by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
4. GM Cabbage
1. Cabbage that will resistant to attack of Diamond Back Moth
2. Developed by Indian Agricultural Research Institute
(New Delhi)
PHYSICS: NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear Fission

 Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into

smaller parts
 Nuclear fission can either release energy or absorb energy: for nuclei
lighter than iron fission absorbs energy, while for nuclei heavier
than iron it releases energy
 Energy released can be in the form of electromagnetic radiation or kinetic
energy
 The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is about a million
times that contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel (like petrol)
 The atom bomb or fission bomb is based on nuclear fission
 Example: fission of Uranium-235 to give Barium, Krypton and neutrons

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Nuclear Fusion

 Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple nuclei join together to

form a heavier nucleus
 Nuclear fusion can result in either the release or absorption of energy: for
nuclei lighter than iron fusion releases energy, while for nuclei
heavier than iron it absorbs energy
 Nuclear fusion is the source of energy of stars.
 Nuclear fusion is responsible for the production of all but the lightest
elements in the universe. This process is called nucleosynthesis
 Controlled nuclear fusion can result in a thermonuclear explosion – the
concept behind the hydrogen bomb
 The energy density of nuclear fusion is much greater than that of nuclear
fission
 Only direct conversion of mass into energy (collision of matter and
anti matter) is more energetic than nuclear fusion
 Example: fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium

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PIONEERS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS RESEARCH
Scientist Nationality Discovery Recognition

J J Thomson Britain Electron (1897) Nobel in Physics (1906)

Henri Becquerel Belgium Radioactivity (1896) Nobel in Physics (1903)

Nobel in Chemistry (1908)

Ernest
New Zealand Structure of atom (1907) He is regarded as the father of
Rutherford
nuclear physics

Franco Rasetti Italy/USA Nuclear spin (1929)

James Chadwick Britain Neutron (1932) Nobel in Physics (1935)

Nuclear chain reaction

Enrico Fermi Italy/USA (1942) Nobel in Physics (1938)
Neutron irradiation

Strong nuclear force

Hideki Yukawa Japan Nobel in Physics (1949)
(1935)

Hans Bethe Germany/USA Nuclear fusion (1939) Nobel in Physics (1967)

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APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Application Developed by Working principle Use

Enrico Fermi (Italy,

Nuclear power Nuclear fission Power generation
1934)

Enrico Fermi (Italy,

1934) Nuclear fission
Nuclear weapons Weapons
Edward Teller (USA, Nuclear fusion
1952)

Radioactive Sam Seidlin (USA, Cancer, endocrine tumours,

Radioactive decay
pharmaceuticals 1946) bone treatment

Nuclear magnetic MRI: Musculosketal,

David Kuhl, Roy resonance (for MRI) cardiovascular, brain, cancer
Medical imaging Edwards (USA,
Positron emission imaging
1950s)
(for PET) PET: cancer, brain diseases
 imaging

Willard Libby (USA, Radioactive decay of

Radiocarbon dating Archaeology
1949) carbon-14

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IMPORTANT NUCLEAR RESEARCH FACILITIES

Nuclear research facilities in the world

Facility Location Established Famous for

Until 2008 world’s largest

Brookhaven National Lab New York 1947
heavy-ion collider

World’s largest particle physics

lab
European Organization for
Geneva 1954 Birthplace of the World Wide
Nuclear Research (CERN)
Web

Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

Tevatron – world’s second

Fermilab Chicago 1967
largest particle accelerator

Oxfordshire
ISIS 1985 Neutron research
(England)

Collaboration of 18 nations
Joint Institute for Nuclear
Dubna, Russia 1956 including former Soviet states,
Research
China, Cuba

Discovery of multiple elements

Lawrence Berkeley National
California 1931 including astatine, and
Lab
plutonium

Lawrence Livermore National

California 1952
Lab

New Mexico,
Los Alamos National Lab 1943 The Manhattan Project
USA

National Superconducting
Michigan 1963 Rare isotope research
Cyclotron lab

Oak Ridge National Lab Tennessee 1943 World’s fastest supercomputer

 – Jaguar

Located 2 km underground
Sudbury Neutrino Lab Ontario 1999
Studies solar neutrinos

TRIUMF (Tri University Meson

Vancouver 1974 World’s largest cyclotron
Facility)

Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Yongbyon, North North Korea’s main nuclear

1980
Research Centre Korea facility

Z Machine (largest X-ray

Sandia National Lab New Mexico, USA 1948
generator in the world)

Institute of Nuclear Medicine,

Abbottabad,
Oncology and Radiotherapy
NWFP (Pakistan)
(INOR)

Pakistan Institute of Nuclear

Science and Technology Islamabad 1965
(PINSTECH)

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Nuclear research facilities in India

Facility Location Established Famous for

India’s primary nuclear research

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Bombay 1954 centre

India’s first reactor Apsara

Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre

Calcutta 1977 First cyclotron in India
(VECC)

Institute for Plasma Research

Gandhinagar 1982 Plasma physics
(IPR)

Fast breeder test reactor (FBTR)

KAMINI (Kalapakkam Mini) light

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Kalpakkam 1971 water reactor
Research (IGCAR)
Built the reactor for Advanced
Technology Vessel (ATV)
Saha Institute for Nuclear Physics Calcutta 1949

Tata Institute for Fundamental

Bombay 1945
Research (TIFR)

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CHEMISTRY: POLYMERS

Overview

 A polymer is a large molecule consisting of repeating structural units

 The repeating units are usually connected by covalent chemical bonds
 Polymers can be of two types
o Natural polymers: shellac, amber, rubber, proteins etc
o Synthetic polymers: nylon, polyethylene, neoprene, synthetic
rubber etc
 Synthetic polymers are commonly referred to as plastics
 The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer to be created was
Bakelite, by Leo Baekeland(Belgium/USA) in 1906
 Vulcanization of rubber was invented by Charles Goodyear (USA)
in 1839.Vulcanization is the process of making rubber more durable by
addition of sulphur
 The first plastic to be created was Parkesine (aka celluloid) invented
by Alexander Parkes (England) in 1855

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Synthesis of polymers

 The synthesis of polymers – both natural and synthetic – involves the step
called polymerization
 Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules
(monomers) into a covalently bonded chain (polymer)
 Synthetic polymers are created using of two techniques
o Step growth polymerization: chains of monomers are combined
directly
o Chain growth polymerization: monomers are added to the chain
one at a time
  Natural polymers are usually created by enzyme-mediated processes,
such as the synthesis of proteins from amino acids using DNA and RNA

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Categories of polymers

 Organic polymers are polymers that are based on the element carbon.
Eg: polyethylene, cellulose etc
 Inorganic polymers are polymers that are not based on carbon. Eg:
silicone, which uses silicon and oxygen
 Copolymer is one that is derived from two or more monomeric units. Eg:
ABS plastic
 Fluoropolymers are polymers based on fluorocarbons. They have high
resistance to solvents, acids and bases. Eg: teflon

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TYPES OF BIOPOLYMERS

DNA as a biopolymer

1. Structural proteins
1. Structural proteins are proteins that provide structural support to
tissues
2. They are usually used to construct connective tissues, tendons,
bone matrix, muscle fibre
3. Examples include collagen, keratin, elastin
2. Functional proteins
1. Proteins that perform a chemical function in organisms
 2. Usually used for initiate or sustain chemical reactions
3. Examples include hormones, enzymes
3. Structural polysaccharides
1. They are carbohydrates that provide structural support to cells and
tissues
2. Examples include cellulose, chitin
4. Storage polysaccharides
1. Carbohydrates that are used for storing energy
2. Eg: starch, glycogen
5. Nucleic acids
1. Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of chains of
nucleotides
2. Nucleic acids are universal in living beings, as they are found in all
plant and animal cells
3. Eg: DNA, RNA

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TYPES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

1. Thermoplastics
1. Thermoplastics are plastics that turn into liquids upon heating
2. Also known as thermosoftening plastic
3. Thermoplastics can be remelted and remoulded
4. Eg: polyethylene, Teflon, nylon
5. Recyclable bottles (such as Coke/Pepsi) are made from
thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics
1. Thermosettings plastics are plastics that do not turn into liquid
upon heating
2. Thermosetting plastics, once cured, cannot be remoulded
3. They are stronger, more suitable for high-temperature applications,
but cannot be easily recycled
4. Eg: vulcanized rubber, bakelite, Kevlar
3. Elastomers
1. Elastomers are polymers that are elastic
2. Elastomers are relatively soft and deformable
3. Eg: natural rubber, synthetic polyisoprene
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IMPORTANT NATURAL POLYMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Polymer Application Notes

Connective tissue
Collagen Most abundant protein in mammals
Gelatine (food)

Keratin Hair, nails, claw etc

Enzymes Catalysis

Hormones Cell signalling

Cell wall of plants

Cellulose Most common organic compound on Earth
Cardboard, paper

Chitin Cell wall of fungi, insects

Starch Energy storage in plants Most important carbohydrate in human diet

Glycogen Energy storage in animals

DNA Genetic information

RNA Protein synthesis

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IMPORTANT SYNTHETIC POLYMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Constituent
Polymer Developed by Application Notes
elements

Alexander
Parkes
Parkesine Cellulose Plastic moulding First man-made polymer
(Britain,
1855)

Leo Radios,
Phenol and First polymer made
Bakelite Baekeland telephones,
formaldehyde completely synthetically
(USA, 1906) clocks

Henri
Polyvinylchloride Regnault Vinyl groups Construction Third most widely used
(PVC) (France, and chlorine material plastic
1835)
 Ray McIntre Thermal Brand name for
Styrofoam Phenyl group
(USA, 1941) insulation polystyrene

Family of polyamides
Wallace Fabric,
Nylon Carothers Amides toothbrush, First commercially
(USA, 1935) rope etc successful synthetic
polymer

Fritz Hoffman Tyres, textile

Synthetic rubber (Germany, Isoprene printing, rocket
1909) fuel

Charles Vulcanized rubber is much

Vulcanized Rubber,
Goodyear Tyres stronger than natural
rubber sulphur
(USA, 1839) rubber

Textiles,
Karl Rehn and
stationary, Second most widely used
Polypropylene Guilio Natta Propene
automotive synthetic polymer
(Italy, 1954)
components

Hans von
Pechmann Packaging Most widely used synthetic
Polyethylene Ethylene
(Germany, (shopping bags) polymer
1898)

Brand name for

Cookware, polytetrafluoroehtylene
Roy Plunkett (PTFE)
Teflon Ethylene construction,
(USA, 1938)
lubricant Very low friction, non-
reactive

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DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS

Ozone cracking in natural rubber tubing

 Degradation of polymers can be desirable as well undesirable: desirable

when looking for biological degradation, undesirable when faced with loss
of strength, colour etc
 Polymer degradation usually occurs due to hydrolysis of covalent bonds
connecting the polymer chain
 Polymer degradation can happen because of heat, light, chemicals and
galvanic action
 Ozone cracking is the cracking effect of ozone on rubber products
such as tyres, seals, fuel lines etc. Usually prevented by adding
antiozonants to the rubber before vulcanization
 Chlorine can cause degradation of plastic as well, especially plumbing
 Resin Identification Code is the system of labelling plastic bottles
on the basis of their constituent polymers. This Code helps in the
sorting and recycling of plastic bottles
 Degradation of plastics can take hundreds to thousands of years

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Biodegradable plastics

 Biodegradable plastics are plastics than can break down upon exposure to
sunlight (especially UV), water, bacteria etc
 Biopol is a biodegradable polymer synthesized by genetically engineered
bacteria
 Ecoflex is a fully biodegradable synthetic polymer for food packaging
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Bioplastics

 They are organic plastics derived from renewable biomass sources such as
vegetable oil, corn, starch etc

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Oxy-biodegradable plastics

 Plastics to which a small amount of metals salts have been added

 As long as the plastic has access to oxygen the metal salts speed up
process of degradation
 Degradation process is shortened from hundreds of years to months

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BIOLOGY: GENETIC DISORDERS

About genetic disorders

Huntington's disease is inherited in the autosomal dominant fashion

 Genetic disorders are disorders that are passed on from generation to

generation
 They are caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes
  Some genetic disorders may also be influenced by non-genetic
environmental factors. Eg: cancer
 Most genetic disorders are relatively rare and only affect one person in
thousands or millions
 To recollect, males have XY chromosome pairs while females have XX
pairs

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Single Gene Disorders

 Single gene disorders result from the mutation of a single gene

 They can be passed onto subsequent generations in multiple ways
 Single gene disorders include sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis Huntington
disease

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Multiple gene disorders

 Multiple gene disorders result from mutation on multiple genes in

combination with environmental factors
 They do not have a clear pattern of inheritance, which makes it difficult to
assess risk of inheriting a particular disease
 Examples include heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, autism

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TYPES OF SINGLE GENE GENETIC DISORDERS

1. Autosomal dominant
 Sickle cell disease is inherited in the autosomal recessive pattern

1. Only one mutated copy of the gene is necessary for

inheritance of the mutation
2. Each affected person usually has one affected parent
3. There is a 50% chance that the child will inherit the mutated
gene
4. Autosomal dominant disorders usually have low penetrance i.e.
although only one mutated copy is needed, only a small portion of
those who inherit that mutation will develop the disorder
5. Eg: Huntington’s disease, Marfan syndrome
2. Autosomal recessive
1. Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be
affected
2. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each have
one mutated gene
3. There is a 25% chance that the child will inherit the mutated
gene
4. Eg: Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, Tay-Sachs disease, dry
earwax, Niemann-Pick disease
3. X-linked dominant
 1. X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations on the X
chromosome
2. Males and females are both affected by such disorders. However,
males are affected more severely
3. For a man with a X-linked dominant disorder, his sons will
all be unaffected(since they receive their father’s Y
chromosome) while his daughters will all be affected (since
they receive his X chromosome)
4. A woman with a X-linked dominant disorder has a 50%
chance of passing it on to progeny
5. Eg: Hypophosphatemic rickets, Rett syndrome, Aicardi
syndrome
4. X-linked recessive

X-linked recessive with a carrier mother

1. Caused by mutations on the X-chromosome

2. Males are affected more frequently than females
3. The sons of a man affected by a X-linked recessive disorder
will not be affected, while his daughters will carry one copy
of the mutated gene
4. The sons of a woman affected by a X-linked recessive
disorder will have have a 50% chance of being affected by
 the disorder, while the daughters of the woman have a 50%
chance of becoming carriers of the disorder
5. Eg: colour blindness, muscular dystrophy, hemophilia A
5. Y-linked disorders
1. Caused by mutations on the Y chromosome
2. Y chromosomes are present only in males
3. The sons of a man with Y-linked disorders will inherit his Y
chromosome and will always be affected while the daughters
will inherit his X chromosome and will never be affected
4. Eg: male infertility
6. Mitochondrial disorders
1. These disorders are caused by mutations in the mitochondrial DNA
2. Only mothers can pass on mitochondrial disorders to
children, since only egg cells (from the mother) contribute
mitochondria to the developing embryo
3. Eg: Leber’s Heriditary Optic Neuropathy

PHYSICS: WAVES

Overview

 A wave is a disturbance that travels across space and time

 Propagation of waves usually involves transference of energy without
transferring mass. This is achieved by oscillations or vibrations around
fixed locations
 Mechanical waves require a medium for transmission (e.g. sound)
 Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium and can travel in vacuum
(e.g. light)
 Longitudinal waves are those with vibrations parallel to the direction of
wave propagation. E.g. sound waves
 Transverse waves are those with vibrations perpendicular to the direction
of travel. E.g. electromagnetic waves including light
 Waves on a string are an example of transverse waves
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Properties of waves

1. Reflection: It is the change in direction of a wave at the interface

between two media. Examples include reflection of light, sound etc
2. Refraction: It is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its
speed. Examples: refraction of light when it passes through a lens
3. Diffraction: Bending of waves as they interact with obstacles in their
path. Example: rainbow pattern when light falls on a CD or DVD
4. Interference: Superposition of two waves that come into contact
5. Dispersion: the splitting up of waves by frequency
6. Polarization: the oscillation of a wave in only one direction. Exhibited
only by transverse waves (like light), not exhibited by longitudinal waves
(like sound)

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Wave properties in everyday life

 The floor of a lake or the ocean appears closer than it actually is. This is
because of refraction of light
 The red ring around the Sun is due to diffraction of light
 We can hear but not see across corners, this is because of
diffraction of sound(e.g. we can hear but not see a person in the next
room)
 The rainbow and the blue colour of sky are both due to dispersion
of light
 Sunglasses use polarization filters to block glare

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SOUND WAVES
About Sound

 Sound is a mechanical wave that is transmitted as longitudinal waves

through gases, plasma and liquids. However, in solids it can travel as both
longitudinal and transverse waves
  Sound cannot travel in vacuum, it needs a medium for propagation
 The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s

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Perception of sound

 The frequency range 20 Hz to 20 MHz is known as the audible range,

where human beings can detect sound waves
 The upper frequency limit decreases with age i.e. as we get older, our
ability to detect higher pitches (shrills) decreases
 Other species uses different ranges for hearing. E.g. dogs can perceive
frequencies higher than 20 KHz
 Increased levels of sound intensity can cause hearing damage. Hearing
can be damaged by sustained exposure to 85 dB or by short term
exposure to 120 dB sound. A rocket launch usually involves about 165 dB

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Sonar systems

 Sound Navigation and Ranging is a technology that uses sound

propagation for navigation and communication
 Primarily used under water because light attenuates very quickly in water
whereas sound travels farther
 First developed by R.W. Boyle and A.B. Wood in 1917 in Britain
 Applications include military, fisheries, wave measurement, ocean-floor
mapping etc
 Sonar is used by marine mammals (like dolphins and whales) for
communication as well
 Bats communicate by means of SONAR at frequencies over 100
MHz (beyond the human range)

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Electromagnetic radiation and applications

Radiation Applications

Radio waves RADAR, TV, cell phones, microwaves

Microwaves Wi-Fi

Infrared (IR) Night vision, thermography, imaging

Visible light Sight

Ultraviolet (UV) Sun burn, water disinfection

X-rays Astronomy, medicine

Gamma rays PET scans, cancer therapy, astronomy, food sterilization

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Radar systems
  Radio Detection and Ranging is a technology that uses radio waves to
identify moving and fixed objects
 Developed by Robert Watson-Watt in 1935 in Britain
 Radar works by measuring the waves that are reflected back from an
object. Radar can detect objects at ranges where sound or visible light
would be too weak
 Applications include aircraft detection, air traffic control, highway speed
detection, weather detection etc

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

More about electromagnetic waves

 Radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere and hence can be received
anywhere on the earth.
 TV transmission penetrates the ionosphere and hence is not received like
radio waves. Thus TV transmission is limited to line-of-sight
 At night, the radio reception improves because the ionosphere is not
exposed to sunlight and hence is more settled
 Bats communicate by means of SONAR at frequencies over 100 MHz
(beyond the human range). Other animals like dolphins and whales use
SONAR as well

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

CHEMISTRY: RADIOACTIVITY

About radioactivity

 It is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus spontaneously

decays (loses energy) by emitting ionizing particles and radiation
 This decay results in the atom of one type (parent nuclide) transforming
into an atom of a different type (daughter nuclide)
 Eg: Carbon-14 emits radiation and transforms into nitrogen-14
 The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq). Another commonly
used unit is the Curie (Ci)
  Radioactivity of a material is quantified by its half life. This is the
time taken for a given amount of a radioactive material to decay to half its
initial value
 Radiation can be measured using scintillation counters and Geiger
counters

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

History of radioactivity research

 Radioactivity was first discovered by French scientist Henri

Becquerel in 1896
 Research in radioactivity of uranium led Marie Curie to isolate a new
element Polonium and to separate Radium from Barium
 The dangers of radioactivity was discovered by Nikola Tesla in 1896, when
he intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays
 Henri Joseph Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1946 for his discovery (in 1927) of the harmful genetic
effects of radiation

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Transmutation of elements

 Isotopes: they are atoms of an element with the same atomic number
but different mass number (eg uranium-238 and uranium-235)
 Isobars: elements with same mass number but different atomic number.
Usually occurs when a radioactive nucleus loses a beta particle (eg.
Thorium-234 and palladium-234)
 Isotones: radioactive nuclei that contain the same number of neutrons
(eg. Radium-226 and Actium-227)
 Isomers: are different excitation states of nuclei. The higher-energy
(unstable) element undergoes isomeric transition to form the less
energetic variant without change in atomic or mass number

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Types of radioactive decay

Alpha rays can be stopped by a sheet of paper, beta rays by aluminium
shielding, while gamma rays can only be reduced by a thick layer of lead

 Radioactive radiation can be split into three types of beams

 Alpha rays: they are helium particles that carry a positive charge. They
have low energy and can be stopped by a sheet of paper
 Beta rays: they are streams of electrons and carry negative charge. They
have higher energy than alpha rays
 Gamma rays: they are high energy rays (like X-rays) that carry no
electrical charge

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Radioactivity and the Big Bang theory

 According to the Big Bang theory stable isotopes of the lightest elements
(H, He, Li, Be, B) were formed immediately after the Big Bang
 Radioactive (unstable) isotopes of these light elements have long since
decayed, and isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produce
at all in the Big Bang
 Thus, the radioactive materials currently in the universe were
formed later and are relatively young compared to the age of the
universe
  These radioactive nuclei were formed in nucleosynthesis in stars and
during interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles
 For instance, carbon-14 is constantly produced in the earth’s
upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and
nitrogen

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Applications of radioactivity

 Radioisotopic labeling: used to track the passage of a chemical through

the human body. Some common radio isotopes used for labeling are
o Tritium: used to label proteins, nucleic acids
o Sodium-22 and Sodium-36: ion transporters
o Sulphur-35: proteins and nucleic acids
o Phosporous-32 and Phosphorous-33: nucleotides (like DNA)
o Iodine-125: thyroxine
o Carbon-14 is not used for radioactive labeling due to its long half
life (5730 years)
 Random number generators: based on the premise that radioactive
decay is truly random
 Radiometric dating: used to date materials based on a comparison
between observed abundance of radioactive isotopes and its decay
products, using known decay rates. The most common methods of
radiometric dating are
o Carbon dating: when organic matter grows, it traps carbon-14. The
age of the organic matter can be estimated by measuring the
amount carbon-14 remaining in the body. Used for dating material
up to 60,000 years old
o Potassium-argon dating: used in geochronology and archeology,
especially for dating volcanic material. Used for samples older than
a few thousand years
o Uranium-lead: one of the oldest and most refined radiometric
dating techniques. Used in geochronology to estimate material from
1 million to 4.5 billion years old.A variant, the lead-lead dating
scheme was used by American scientist Clair Cameron
 Patterson to estimate the age of the earth (4.55 billion
years) in 1953

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Radioactive therapy

 Used for palliative and therapeutic treatment

 Common applications include treatment of thyroid eye disease,
heterotopic ossification, trigeminal neuralgia
 In low doses, it is used for cancer treatment. However, in large doses, it
can cause cancer
 Total body irradiation is used to prepare the body to receive a bone
marrow transplant

Keywords: ias, study material, general studies, general science

Radiation poisoning

 It is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to

ionizing radiation
 Caused by exposure to large doses of radiation in short periods of time, or
by exposure to small doses over long periods
 Increases the probability of contracting other diseases like cancers,
tumours and genetic damage
 Common symptoms are nausea and vomiting
 Common occurrances of radiation poisoning include nuclear warfare,
nuclear reactor accidents, spaceflight (exposure to cosmic rays), ingestion
and inhalation of radioactive compounds (such as strontium in cow’s milk)
o In Nov 2006, Russian dissident died due to suspected deliberate
ingestion of Polonium-210

BIOLOGY: BIOMOLECULES

1. Lipids
o They are a broad group of molecules that include fats, fatty acids,
sterol, waxes, glycerides and phospholipids
o Fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides
 o Cholesterol is an example of the type of lipids called sterol
o The main functions of lipids include energy storage, cell
signaling and cell structure
2. Carbohydrates
o They are organic compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
o They belong to 3 types: monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides
o Monosaccharides
 Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, and
cannot be broken down any further.
 Eg: glucose and fructose
 Monosaccharides dissolve in water, taste sweet and are
called “sugars”
 Used as energy source and in biosynthesis
o Disaccharides
 Disaccharides are compounds made by two monosaccharides
bound together.
 Eg: sucrose and lactose
 Like monosaccharides, disaccharides dissolve in water, taste
sweet and are called “sugars”
 Used for carbohydrate transport
o Polysaccharides
 Polysaccharides are compounds made by complex chains of
monosaccharides.
 Eg: cellulose, glycogen
 Used for energy storage (glycogen) and for cell walls
(cellulose)
 Cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on
Earth
3. Amino acids
o They are molecules that contain an amine group and a carboxyl
group
o Eg: glycine, monosodium glutamate
o They are the building blocks of proteins
o Applications include metabolism, drug therapy, flavour
enhancement, manufacture of biodegradble plastics
4. Proteins
o They are compounds made from amino acids
o The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick
Sanger who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this in
1958
o The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin
and myoglobin by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdrey
Kendrew in 1958. They won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this
achievement in 1962
o Proteins are used as enzymes, in muscle formation, as cell
cytoskeleton, cell signaling and immune responses
o The process of digestion breaks down protein into free amino acids
that are then used in metabolism
5. Nucleic acids
o They are macromolecules formed by chains of nucleotides
o Common examples include DNA and RNA
o DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Contains two strands of nucleotides arranged in a double
helix structure
 In cells, DNA is organized into long structures called
chromosomes
 Used primarliy for long term storage of genetic information
 DNA was first isolated by Swiss physician Friedrich
Miescher in 1869
 The double helix structure was suggested by James
Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. They, alongwith
Maurice Wilkins won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
for this discovery in 1962
o RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 Contains one strand of nucleic acids
 Less stable than DNA
 Used primarily for protein synthesis
 Messenger RNA carries information from DNA to the
ribosome. Translation RNA translates the information in the
mRNA
  RNA synthesis was discovered by Severo Ochoa of
Spain, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 1959

Matching cell functions to biomolecules

Function Biomolecule

Cell structure Lipid

Impact protection Lipids and proteins

Enzymes Proteins

Energy storage Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids

Cell movement and support Proteins (actin and myosin)

Protein synthesis Nucleic acids (RNA)

Hormones Proteins

Immediate cellular energy Carbohydrates (glucose)

Electrical and thermal insulation Lipids

Storage of amino acids Proteins

Genetic information Nucleic acids (DNA)

PHYSICS: HEAT

Overview

 Heat is the process of energy transfer from one system to another

 Units of heat: Joules (J), Calories, British Thermal Unit (BTU)
 Temperature is a measure of internal energy (enthalpy)
 Heat transfer can happen spontaneously only from a warmer
to a colder body.Reverse heat transfer can only happen with the
aid of an external source such as a heat pump.

Mechanisms of heat transfer

  Conduction is the most significant heat transfer mechanism
in solids. It occurs as hot high energy molecules interact with
neighbouring and transfer heat to them. Eg: heat transfer from one
end of a metal rod to another
 Convection is most significant in liquids and gases. This
happens when hot molecules move and transfer energy to other
molecules. Eg: boiling of water. When water is heated on a stove,
hot water from the bottom rises and displaces colder liquid which
falls.
 Radiation is the only form of heat transfer possible in the
absence of a medium.Heat is transferred in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. Eg: heat from the sun reaching the
earth.

Heat transfer in everyday life

 Copper is used in construction of boilers and cooking utensils

because it is a good conductor of heat
 Air is a poor conductor
 Wool and cotton are good insulators i.e. poor conductors. Their
insulation arises mainly due to air spaces between molecules
 Double-walled glass doors with air between them are better
insulators than windows with a single thick glass layers
 Eskimos live in snow huts because snow is a poor conductor
of heat, and hence protects them from the extreme cold outside.
 Land and sea breeze, ocean currents are arise due to convection
 The boiling point of water at sea level and atmospheric pressure is
100C. When extra heat is added, it changes the phase of water
from liquid to gas (water vapour).

Thermometers

 Thermometers can be divided into two groups:

o Primary thermometers: measure temperature directly
based on the property of matter. They are relatively complex
and not used commonly. Eg: thermometers based on velocity
of sound in gas, thermal noise of an electrical resistor etc.
 o Secondary thermometers: measure temperature relative to
a pre-calibrated quantity. They are easy to use and used
commonly. Alcohol thermometer, mercury thermometer,
medical thermometer are all secondary thermometers
 In cold winter places, alcohol thermometers are used instead
of mercury thermometers because the freezing point of
alcohol is lower
 For extra-low temperature measurements (-200 C), Pentane is used
 Water is not suitable for use in thermometers because it freezes at
0 C and has irregular expansion
 Mercury is used for common medical thermometers because
o It does not cling to glass and hence reading is easy
o It is opaque and easily seen
o Its expansion is uniform and hence calibration is easier
o It is a better conductor of heat than alcohol and hence
responds more rapidly to changes of temperature
o It has low specific heat capacity and hence is more sensitive

Common appliances based on heat

 Solar cooker: is a box made of insulating material such as wood,

cardboard etc. The box has a glass cover to retain heat inside by
greenhouse effect. The inside of the box is painted black to increase
heat absorption.
 Pressure cooker: Pressure cooker increases the boiling point of
water by increasing pressure. When the boiling point of water
increases, food cooks faster. Pressure cookers are especially
essential in hill stations because at higher altitudes the boiling point
of water decreases due to lower atmospheric pressure
 Refrigerator and Air-conditioner: are heat pumps that transfer
heat from inside to the external environment. They use
a refrigerant which is a compound that undergoes reversible phase
change from gas to liquid. Common refrigerants include ammonia,
sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and methane. The use of
chlorofluorocarbons has been phased out due to concerns regarding
depletion of the ozone layer.
CHEMISTRY: ELECTROLYTES

Electrolytes in the human body

 Electrolytes are required in the body to maintain balance

between intracellular and extracellular liquids. In particular, it
is important to maintain the osmotic gradient between inside and
outside.
 Electrolyte balance is maintained by oral and intravenous intake
 Kidneys flush out excess electrolytes
 Dehydration and overhydration are caused by electrolyte imbalance
 Hormones that maintain electrolyte balance are antidiuretic
hormone, aldosterone and parathyroid hormone
 The most common electrolyte in the body is salt (sodium
chloride)

Functions of electrolytes in the body

 Maintain blood pH
 Muscle and neuron activation
 Hydration of the body

Other common applications of electrolytes

 Sports drinks
 Batteries
 Fuel cells
 Electroplating
 Capacitors

Sports Drinks

 Sports drinks replenish the body’s water and electrolyte levels after
dehydration caused by exercise, vomiting, diarrhea etc.
 They are made of electrolytes containing sodium and potassium
salts
 Examples of sports drinks: Glucon-D, Gatorade etc
 Simplest electrolyte drink that can be made at home is water +
sugar + salt
Batteries

Battery Electrode Electrolyte Other notes

Zinc, Manganese
Alkaline Potassium Hydroxide
oxide
Copper sulphate, zinc
Daniell cell Copper, Zinc
sulphate
Leclanche Precursor of modern dry
Zinc, carbon Ammonium chloride
cell cell
First electric battery,
Voltaic pile Copper, zinc Brine
invented in 1880
Zinc, carbon, Zinc chloride,
Zinc carbon Most common battery
manganese dioxide ammonium chloride
Improvement on zinc carbon
Zinc chloride Same as above Zinc chloride
battery
Oldest rechargeable battery
Lead-acid Lead, lead dioxide Sulphuric acid Used in vehicles as they
provide high surge currents
Rechargable
Graphite, Lithium Non-aqueous lithium
Lithium-ion Slow self-discharge, high
Cobalt oxide salts
energy to weight ratio
Rechargable
Nickel Nickel oxide
Last longer, more stable than
Cadmium hydroxide, cadmium
lithium ion
Consumes reactant from an
external source
Polymer membrane High energy efficiency and
Hydrogen (fuel),
Fuel cell Aqueous alkaline high reliability
oxygen (oxidant)
solution No moving parts
Used in space shuttles,
submarines
Common electrolytes and their uses

Electrolyte Uses Other notes

Primary component of
Sodium chloride extracellular fluid
Food preservative
Manufacture of paper, soaps,
Sodium hydroxide
detergents, drain cleaners
(caustic soda)
Purification of drinking water
Photographic films
Silver nitrate Water disinfection (esp. on space
shuttles)
Manufacture of PVC, household
Hydrochloric acid cleaners Found naturally in gastric acid
Food additives (like gelatin)
 Leather processing
Soluble in water at all
Lead-acid batteries
concentrations
Sulphuric acid Ore processing
One of the largest products of
Fertilizer manufacture
chemical industry
Determining metal traces in Colourless when pure, yellows
Nitric acid solutions with age
Wood finishing Highly corrosive
Manufacture of soft drink bottles
Dilute acetic acid is called
Acetic acid Photographic films
vinegar
Synthetic fibres and fabrics
Ammonium
hydroxide Cleaning agent
(aqueous ammonia)
Natural mineral form is called
Calcium hydroxide Sewage treatment
portlandite
(slaked lime or Whitewash, plaster, mortar
(rare mineral occurring in
pickling lime) Hair relaxers
volcanic rocks)

BIOLOGY: BLOOD

Overview

 Blood is a specialized body fluid that delivers necessary

substances to various cells (like nutrients and oxygen) and
transports waste products away from those cells
 Blood accounts for 7% of human body weight
 The average human adult has a blood volume of approx. 5 litres
 Arteries carry inhaled oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the
tissues, while veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood (de-oxygenated)
from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled

SEM image of a RBC, a platelet and a WBC (L to R)

Composition of blood
  Blood is made of plasma, Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells
(including leukocytes and platelets)
 Plasma constitutes about 54.3% of blood, RBCs 45% and WBCs
about 7%
 RBCs contain hemoglobin and distribute oxygen to tissues
 Leukocytes attack and remove pathogens and provide immunity
 Platelets are responsible for clotting of blood
 Plasma is the blood’s liquid medium. It circulates dissolved nutrients
and removes waste products. By itself, it is yellow in colour

Functions of blood

 Supply oxygen to tissues

 Supply nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids
 Remove waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid
 Provide immunity against pathogens
 Coagulation
 Transport hormones
 Regulate pH
 Regulate core body temperature

Colour of blood

 Colour is primarily determined by hemoglobin

 Arterial blood is bright red, due to the presence of oxygen
 Venous blood is dark red, due to deoxygenation
 Blood in carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning is bright
red
 Blood of most molluscs (marine animals like squids, oysters, snails,
octopuses etc) is blue due to the presence of copper containing
protein hemocyanin

Blood Groups

Blood Group Can donate to Can receive from

A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB only All groups
O All groups O only
 Medical disorders related to blood

Disorder Cause Other notes

An adult can lose 20% of blood volume before
Bleeding
the first symptom (restlessness) sets in
Dehydration Loss of volume due to loss of water
Atherosclerosis Reduced blood flow through arteries
Thrombosis Coagulation of blood vessels
Narrowing of blood vessels
Hypoxia (lack of Can lead to ischemia (tissue with insufficient
Problem with pumping action of
oxygen) blood) or to infarction i.e. necrosis (tissue death)
heart
Anemia (insufficient
Bleeding, nutritional deficiencies
RBC)
Sickle shaped RBCs do not have the
flexibility to travel through many blood
vessels
Mutation of hemoglobin leading to
Sickle-cell disease Extremely painful disease with no known
abnormal sickle shape of RBC
cure
Found commonly in malaria-infested areas
because sickle cells offer resistance to malaria
Abnormal proliferation of WBCs in
Leukemia
the bone marrow
Lack of coagulation means simple wounds
become life-threatening
Causes hemarthosis (bleeding into joints),
Hemophilia Dysfunction of clotting mechanism
which is painful and crippling
Linked to X chromosome
Occurs usually in males only
Thrombophilia Abnormal propensity to coagulate
Blood-borne Infection by a disease-carrying
Examples: HIV, Hepatitis, Malaria
infections vector
Carbon monoxide binds to
Carbon monoxide
hemoglobin preventing oxygen Body tissues die due to lack of oxygen
poisoning
transport

PHYSICS

PRESSURE

1. Units
o atmosphere, technical atmosphere
o mm, cm, inches of mercury
 o mm, cm, inch, foot of water
o kip, ton-force, pound-force
o pound per square inch
o bar, decibar, millibar
o barye, dyne
o sthene per square metre, pieze
2. Pressure in everyday life
o Transpirational pull in plants (negative pressure caused by
surface tension), used to suction water from the water to
leaves
o Casimir effect: physical force betwen two uncharged metal
plates in vaccuum. Used in nanotechnology
o Atmospheric pressure decreases with elevation. Due to
this boiling point of water decreases with elevation
o Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on
the walls of blood vessels. For a healthy adult human the
pressure should be 115 mm Hg (systolic) and 75 mm Hg
(diastolic)
o A microphone works on the principle of sound
pressure. A thin membrane converts sound pressure into an
electrical signal
o Caisson Disease (aka The Bends or Decompression
Sickness) occurs due to sudden change in atmospheric
pressure. It happens when a person moves from a high
pressure environment to a low pressure. Examples include
divers returning from depth, workers in caissons during bridge
construction, sudden drop in aircraft pressure etc. Can lead to
paralysis and death.
o Vaccuum is a volume of space where pressure is less than
atmospheric pressure. Examples include vaccuum cleaners,
deep space, incandescent light bulb

GRAVITATION

1. History of gravitational theory

 o 4th century BCE: Aristotle proposed heavy bodies are
attracted towards the center of the universe due to an
inner gravitas
o 628 CE: Brahmagupta recognized a force of attraction.
He followed the Heliocentric solar system and propsed
gravitational attraction between the Sun and the Earth
o 1660s: Robert Hooke explains celestial gravity
o 1687: Isaac Newton proposes law of universal gravitation
o 1915: Albert Einstein proposes theory of general relativity
2. Gravitation in everyday life
o Objects falling freely towards the earth’s surface have an
acceleration due to gravity This is also known as g-
force
o Escape velocity is the speed needed to break free from a
gravitational field. On the surface of the Earth it is 11.2 km/s
o Weightlessness occurs in orbit when all gravitational forces
acting on an object are uniformly distributed. Weightlessness
does not occur due to an absence of gravity.

CHEMISTRY

CERTAIN COMMON SUBSTANCES

1. Hydrogen
o Has same atomic number and atomic weight: 1
o Most abundant element in the universe
o Is the lightest element
o isotopes are Protium, Deutrium, Tritium
o Heavy water: water which has Deutirum instead of Hydrogen.
Obtained by electrolysis of water. Used as moderator in
nuclear reactors
o Used to prepare vanaspati by hydrogenation of vegetable oil
2. Oxygen
1. Most abundant element on earth’s crust (50% of all elements)
2. Used for artificial respiration, and along with Nitrogen as an
anesthetic
3. Water
 o About 70% of earth’s surface and 65% of body weight
o Hardness of water due to dissolved salts of Calcium and
Magnesium
o Temporary hardness due to bicarbonates of Ca and Mg. Can
be removed by boiling
o Permanent hardness due to chlorides and sulphates of Ca and
Mg. Can not be removed by boiling
o Rain water is the purest form of water
o River water is hard water
o Spring water purer than river water
o Sea water is hard water. Contains Sodium Chloride in addition
to salts of Ca and Mg
o Mineral water: spring water with minerals and having
medicinal value
4. Nitrogen
o Most abundant in atmosphere (78%)
o Occurs in animals and plants in the form of protein
o Used to manufacture fertilizers and explosives
o Liquid nitrogen used in refrigeration
5. Phosphorus
o Found in bones, brain and urine
o Glows in dark
o Red phosphorus used to make matches
o White phosphorus used in smoke screens
6. Carbon
o Second most abundant element in human body after Oxygen
o Occurs in free state as diamond, coal and graphite
o Diamond: purest form of carbon, hardest naturally
occurring substance
o Graphite: only non-metal to act as a good conductor of
electricity. Used to make lead pencils and lubricants
o Coal: formed by bacterial decomposition of plant material.
Peat coal has lowest carbon content (60%), anthracite has
highest (90%)
o Carbon gas: not a gas. Obtained by heating powdered coal
and tar in absence of air. Good conductor of electricity
 o Coke: obtained by heating coal in absence of air. Used as
household fuel and in steel industry
o Wood charcoal: obtained by burning wood. Used to make
gas masks, acts as bleaching agent
o Bone charcoal: obtained by destructive distillation of bones.
Used as a decolouring agent in sugar industry
o Lamp Black: obtained by burning vegetable oil. Used to
make printer’s ink and boot polish
7. Sodium
o Does not occur in free state
o Highly reactive, always kept under kerosene
o Used to make sodium vapour lamps
o Removes traces of water in alchohol manufacturing
8. Silver
o Best conductor of electricity
o Used to make jewellery, mirrors and hair dyes
9. Gold
0. Highly inert, does not react with water, air, alkalies or
acids. Dissolves in aqua regia. Used to make electron
microscope
10. Aluminium
0. Third most abundant on earth’s crust (8%)
1. Used to make cooking utensils, transmission wires, paint
2. Alloys Duralumin and Magnalumin used in aircraft building

HALOGENS
Halogen Occurrence Uses
Fluorine Gas  Refrigerant
Found in soil, sea water  Toothpaste
Found in tooth enamel  Fungicide
 Polythene (Teflon)

Chlorine Gas  Chlorination of water

Found in common salt  Bleaching
 DDT manufacture
 Anesthetic
 Tear gas

Bromine Liquid  Silver Bromide for

photographic plates
  Added to petrol to
avoid lead
accumulation

Iodine Solid  Tincture iodine, iodex

Found in sea water, sea weeds  Added to salt to avoid
Found in thyroid gland goitre

COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM AND THEIR USES

Compound Uses
Sodium peroxide  Bleaching agent

Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)  Soap

 Paper
 Petroleum refining

Sodium carbonate  Glass

 Washing soda
 Softening water
 Petroleum refining

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)  Baking powder

 Fire extinguishers

Sodium chloride (common salt)  Food

Sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre)  Food preservative

 Fertilizer
 Explosives
 Dyes

Sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt)  Glass

 Soap

Sodium thiosulphate (hypo)  Photography

 Textiles

COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM AND THEIR USES

Compound Uses
Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)  Soap

Potassium bromide  Photography

Potassium nitrite (nitre)  Gun powder

Potassium chlorate  Explosives

  Germicide

Potassium carbonate (potash)  Glass

ALLOYS OF COPPER AND THEIR USES

Alloy Components Uses
Bell metal Copper, Tin  Making bells
 Utensils

Brass Copper, Zinc  Utensils

 Cartridges

Bronze Copper, Tin, Zinc  Utensils

 Coins
 Statues

German silver Copper, Zinc, Nickel  Utensils

 Coils

Gun metal Copper, Tin, Zinc  Guns

 Gears
 Casting

BIOLOGY

HISTORY OF CELL STUDIES

1. 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork

2. 1839: Theodor Schwan and Matthias Jakob Schleiden found cell
theory
3. 1931: Ernst Ruska builds first Transmission Electron Microscope at
the University of Berlin
4. 1953: Watson and Crick discover double helix structure of
DNA. They, along with Maurice Wilkins, won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1962

GENETIC MATERIAL IN A CELL

1. DNA used mainly for storing genetic information

2. RNA used mainly for information transport. Sometimes used for
genetic storage in certain viruses
 3. Human cell encodes genetic information in DNA
4. Human genetic material found in nuclear genome and
mitochondrial genome
5. Nuclear genome divided into 23 pairs of DNA molecules called
chromosomes
6. Mitochondrial genome codes for 13 proteins used in mitochondrial
energy production

COMPONENTS OF A CELL

1. Cell Membrane
o Separates interior of a cell from outside environment
o Semi-permeable
o Made of proteins and lipids
o Protein receptors are found on the cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
o Part of a cell enclosed withing cell membrane
o Contains three major elements: cytosol, inclusions, organelles
3. Cytosol
o Translucent fluid made of water, salts and organic molecules
o Makes up 70% of cell volume
o Contains protein filaments (that make up the
cytoskeleton) and vault complexes
4. Inclusions
o Small insoluble particles suspended in cytosol
o Include energy storage materials such as starch and glycogen
5. Organelles
o Compartments withing the cell that have specific functions.
Eg: mitochondria, golgi apparatus, lysosomes etc
6. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
o Both generate energy in the cell
o Mitochondria uses Oxygen to generate ATP
o Chloroplasts generate carbohydrates and Oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water
o Mitochondria found in plants and animals. Chloroplasts
found only in plants
7. Ribosomes
 o Large complex of RNA and protein molecules
8. Nucleus
o Contains chromosomes
o Site of DNA replication and RNA synthesis
9. Golgi Apparatus
o Found in eukaryotes only
o Process and package proteins and lipids synthesised by a cell
10. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
o Lysosomes have digestive enzymes
o Digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles,
virus/bacteria
o Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides
11. Vacuoles
o Store food and waste

FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

1. Cell metabolism
1. Cell metabolism required for cell growth
2. Metabolism is the process by which cells process nutrient
molecules
3. Catabolism: cell produces energy by breaking down
complex molecules
4. Anabolism: cell uses energy to construct complex
molecules and perform other functions
2. Cell division
o Required for building tissue and procreation
o Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission
o Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis
o Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells, meiosis
produces two daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes
o DNA replication is required every time a cell divides
3. Protein synthesis
o New proteins formed from amino acids
o Consists of two steps: transcription and translation
ASK AND TELL…

1. Prokaryotes are
1. animals without developed nervous systems
2. organisms lacking nucleus
3. primitive plants without vascular systems
4. plants that do not produce flowers and fruits
2. Honey that has high concentration of sugar does not decay because
1. it contains natural anti oxidants that prevents bacterial attack
2. bacteria can’t survive in active state in a solution of high
osmotic strength as water is drawn out
3. bacteria can’t survive in active state as it is deprived of
oxygen
4. none of these
3. The number of chromosomes in a bacterium is
1. 1
2. 2
3. 4
4. varies with species
4. Granum is a component of
1. chloroplasts
2. golgi apparatus
3. ribosomes
4. starch grains
5. In a plant cell, DNA is found in
1. chloroplasts
2. mitochondria
3. nucleus
4. all these

Distribution of elements on the surface of the earth

Element Distribution Element Distribution

Oxygen 49.85% Silicon 26.03%

Aluminium 7.28% Calcium 3.18%

Sodium 2.33% Potassium 2.23%

Magnesium 2.11% Hydrogen 0.97%

Titanium 0.41% Chlorine 0.20%

Carbon 0.19% Others 1.00%

Metals and their ores

Substance Ore Substance Ore

Calcium Limestone, marble, chalk Mercury Cinnabar

Copper Copper pyrites, Cuprite Potassium Carnelite, Saltpetre

Cement Limestone and clay Sodium Rock salt, Cryolite

Glass Silica and lime stone Thorium Monozite

Iodine Sea weeds Titanium Rutile, limenite

Iron Hematite, Magnatite, Iron pyrites Uranium Pitchblende

Gold Aurite Silver Argentite

Metals and their alloys

Alloy Component

Brass Copper, Zinc

Bronze Copper, Tin, Zinc

Gun metal Copper, Tin, Zinc

Duralmin Aluminium, Copper,

Magnesium, Manganese

Solder Aluminium, Lead, Tin

Pewter Lead, Tin

 NOTES

Speed is the rate of change of distance

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. It signifies both the speed and
the direction of movement of an object.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration experienced by an object as it

falls freely towards the ground. It is constant throughout the surface of the
earth.

Momentum is a measure of the quantity of motion possessed by a body.

Equations of motion

Let an object be moving for time t at an acceleration a resulting in a

displacement s. If the initial velocity of the object is u and the final velocity v,
the following equations hold true

Newton’s laws of motion

First law: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless
compelled to change by an unbalanced force

Second law: A body of mass m under an acceleration a experiences a

force F given by
Third law: Whenever a body A exerts a force F on another body B, the second
body B exerts force -F on A.

QUESTIONS

1. The universal law of motion was propounded by

1. Kepler
2. Galileo
3. Newton
4. Copernicus
2. The gravitational force with which the Sun attracts the Earth is

1. less than the force with which the Earth attracts the Sun
2. the same as the force with which the Earth attracts the Sun
3. more than the force with which the Earth attracts the Sun
4. constant throughout the year
3. The mass of a body is different from its weight.

1. Mass is variable whereas the weight is constant

2. Mass varies very little at different places whereas weight varies
significantly
3. Mass is constant but weight increases from the pole to the equator
4. mass is a measure of quantity of matter whereas weight is a force
4. The weight of a body is

1. same everywhere on the surface of the earth

2. maximum at the poles
3. maximum at the equator
4. more on hills than in plains
5. If a body is taken from the Earth to the Moon,

1. its mass will be different but weight will still be the same
2. both mass and weight will be different
3. mass will be the same but weight will be different
4. mass and weight will both remain unchanged