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CS402 Short Notes

Q No 1
What is the difference between the strings and the words of a language?
Answer:A string is any combination of the letters of an alphabet where as the words of a
language are the strings that are always made according to certain rules used to define
that language.For example if we take
Alphabet ぇ = { a , b } Here a , b are the letters of this alphabet. As you can see we can
make a lot of strings from these letters a
and b.
For example a,b,aa,ab,ba,bb,aaa,aab,aba,baa,.......................................................
..... and so on.
But when we define a language over this alphabet having no a's and only odd
number of b's. Then the words of this
language would have only those strings that have only odd number of b's and no a's.some
example words of our defined language are b , bbb , bbbbb , bbbbbbb
,...................................and so on.
So we can say that all the words are strings but all the strings may not be the words of a
language.Hence strings are any combination of letters of an alphabet and the words of a
language are strings made according to some rule.
QNo.2 What is the difference between an Alphabet and an element of a set.
Whether Alphabet is an element of a set or it is a set itself?
Answer:An Alphabet is a set in itself. The elements of an Alphabet are called letters .
For example
Binary Alphabet ぇ = {0,1}
Here 0,1 are the letters of binary alphabet.
Binary Alphabet is very important because it the Alphabet used by the computer.
Set of Natural Numbers N={1,2,3,4,5,. ..................}
Here 1,2,3........................................... are the elements of set of
Natural Numbers.
Q No.3 What is Null String () ?
Answer:
The string with zero occurrences of symbols (letters) from
∑.
It is denoted by (Small Greek letter Lambda) そ or (Capital Greek letter Lambda) , is
called an empty string or null string.
The capital lambda will mostly be used to denote the empty string,
in further discussion.

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Q No.4 What is PALINDROME ?
Answer:
The language consisting of (Null String) and the strings s defined over an Alphabet ぇ
such that
Rev(s)=s.
Some example words of this language are aa
As Rev(aa) = aa aba
As Rev(aba) = aba bbb
As Rev(bbb) = bbb aabaa
As Rev(aabaa) = aabaa
bbbaaabbb
As Rev( bbbaaabbb ) = bbbaaabbb
It is to be noted that the words of PALINDROME are called palindromes.
QNo5.What is the concept of valid and invalid alphabets ? Answer:While defining an
alphabet of letters consisting of more than one symbols, no letter should be started
with any other the letter of the same alphabet i.e. one letter should not be the prefix of
another. However, a letter may be ended in the letter of same alphabet i.e. one letter
may be the suffix of another.
ぇ= { a , b } ( Valid Alphabet)

ぇ= { a , b , cd } ( Valid Alphabet)
ぇ= { a , b , ac } ( Invalid Alphabet)
QNo 6. What is ALGOL ?
Answer:ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language) is one of several high level languages
designed specifically for programming scientific computations. It started out in the late
1950's, first formalized in a report titled ALGOL 58, and then progressed through
reports ALGOL 60, and ALGOL 68. It was designed by an international committee to
be a universal language. Their original conference, which took place in Zurich, was one
of the first formal attempts to address the issue of software portability. ALGOL's
machine independence permitted the designers to be more creative, but it made
implementation much more difficult. Although ALGOL never reached the level of
commercial popularity of FORTRAN and COBOL, it is considered the most important
language of its era in terms of its influence on later language development.
ALGOL’s lexical and syntactic structures became so popular that virtually all
languages designed since have been referred to as "ALGOL - like"; that is they have
been hierarchical in structure with nesting of both environments and control structures.
QNo7. What are the Sequential Operators? Answer:Sequencing
Operators:
Sequencing operators
a >> b Sequence Match a and b in sequence
Sequential- and
a && b
Sequential-and. Same as above, match a and b in sequence

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a || b Sequential-or Match a or b in sequence
The sequencing operator >> can alternatively be thought of as the sequential-and
operator. The expression a && breads as match a and b in sequence. Continuing this
logic, we can also have a sequential-or operator where the expression a || b reads as
match a or b and in sequence. That is, if both a and b match, it must be in sequence; this
is equivalent to a >> !b | b.
QNo 8.What is Non-Determinism and Determinism and what is the difference
between them ?

Answer:Determinism means that our computational model (machine) knows what to

do for every possible inputs. Non determinism our machine may or may not know
what it has to do on all possible inputs.
As you can conclude from above definition that Non-Deterministic machine can not be
implemented ( used ) on computer unless it is converted in Deterministic machine.
QNo 9. What is meant by equivalent FA's ?
Answer:FA's that accept the same set of languages are called Equivalent FA's.
QNo 10. What is the difference between Palindrome and Reverse function?
Answer:It is to be denoted that the words of PALINDROME are called palindromes.
Reverse (w) = w
Example: ぇ={a,b},
PALINDROME={ , a, b, aa, bb, aaa, aba, bab, bbb, ...}
If a is a word in some language L, then reverse (a) is the same
string of letters spelled backwards, called the reverse of a. e.g
reverse (xxx) = xxx
reverse (623) = 326
reverse (140) = 041
QNo11.Define Kleene Star?
Answer:Given ぇ, then the Kleene Star Closure of the alphabet ぇ, denoted by ぇ *, is
the collection of all strings defined over ぇ , including �
It is to be noted that Kleene Star Closure can be defined over any
set of strings.
Examples
If ぇ = {x}
Then ぇ* = {�, x, xx, xxx, xxxx, ….} If ぇ =
{0,1}
Then ぇ* = {�, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If ぇ = {aaB, c}

Then ぇ* = {�, aaB, c, aaBaaB, aaBc, caaB, cc, ….} Note:

Languages generated by Kleene Star Closure of set of strings, are infinite languages.
(By infinite language, it is supposed that the language contains infinite many words,
each of finite length) QNo12.Valid/In-Valid alphabets?

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Answer:Any alphabet is valid if any of its letter does not appear in the start of any other
letter otherwise it is invalid.
QNo13.What is Reverse of a string?
Answer:Alphabet provides only a set of symbols. A string is a concatenation of these
symbols. Reverse of the string means to write the string in reverse order. It has no
effect on alphabet.
Alphabet will remain same.
QNo14.Differentiate Kleene Star Closure and PLUS? Answer:Given ぇ, then the
Kleene Star Closure of the alphabet ぇ, denoted by ぇ *, is the collection of all strings
defined over ぇ , including �.
Plus Operation is same as Kleene Star Closure except that it does not generate � (null
string), automatically.
You can use other symbol for alphabet but we are mostly use
sigma symbol.
QNo15.Define Regular Expression?
Answer:Regular Expression is the generalized form of any regular language through which
you can construct any string related to that language.
Take an example from your handouts
L1 = {�, a, aa, aaa, …} and L2 = {a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …} can simply be expressed by a*
and a+, respectively.
so a* and a+ are the generalized form of Languages L1, L2.
And a* and a+ are called the regular expressions (RE) for L1and L2 respectively.

computer science, a finite-state machine (FSM) or finite-state automaton (FSA)

is an abstract machine that has only a finite, constant amount of memory. The
internal states of the machine carry no further structure. This kind of model is
very widely used in the study of computation and languages.
Q No.2 What is the difference between FA , TG , GTG. ?
In every FA, we mark transitions with single letter of the given alphabet but in
TG transitions can be marked with letters or strings (combination of letters).
In every FA, every state shows transition for all letters of given alphabet but in any
TG it is not necessary to show all transition for all letters of given alphabet. In TG,
we may or may not show all letter transitions according to requirement. We can also
show transitions on reading any strings in TGs but it is not possible in FA's. In GTG
Directed edges connecting some pair of states are labeled with regular expressions .
It may be noted that in GTG, the labels of transition edges are corresponding regular
expressions. In TG we write strings and in GTG we are bound to write RE. Every
FA is also a TG but not every TG is FA.
Q No.3 What is the difference between FA's and TG's .Why we need

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TG's when we have FA's?
The Transition Graphs (TG) differ from FA in the following
areas TG's are generalizations of FA's.
TG's can change state without an input ( Null transition).
Can read more than one letter (words of the language they are accepting)
along the transition edges at a time.
Can have a regular expression as a edge
label. Can have more then one start state.
We have been given more freedom in TG's. But this freedom is on the cost of
more memory and processing power it means that if we implement TG's on
computer using some programming language it will need more memory and
processing power of computer than used in the implementation of FA's.
Q No.4 What is the concept of the Union of FA's ?
When we take Union of two FA's it means that resultant FA's should accept all
the words that were accepted by the two FA's individually. It is like taking
union of two sets, the resultant set contain members of both sets.
For example
Let A ={1,3,5,7,9}
and
B = {0,2,4,6,8,10}
then, A U B = { 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 }
you can see that A U B contain elements of both sets similar is the case with
FA's. Q No.5 What is the difference between is TG and GTG ?
In TG, there are letter transitions for the strings. While in GTG, one can write whole
RE as a transition from one state to another one.
Q No.6 How one can create RE of a particular language?
First thing about RE and FA is that there is no hard and fast formula or method
to generate these. One can generate them by its mental approach. And this
mental approach can be acquired through only PRACTICE.
Here are some useful tips to write RE's,

Let our language consist of the words of length three exactly over
alphabet ┋= {a,b} then it consists of the words
L = {aaa, aab,
aba,abb,baa,bab,bba,bbb}. Its RE

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can be simply written as
RE = aaa + aab + aba + abb + baa + bab + bba + bbb
which simply means that our language consists of only these words.
So we can make RE for a finite language by writing its all words with +
operator between them.

We should also keep the null string in our mind. If our language generates
null string than our RE should also generate it)
For example language having all the words of even length has null string
in it as well so we can write its RE as follows
RE = ((a+b)(a+b))*
This RE also generates null string.
If a language generates all strings starting with a. then strings will
be of type a , aa, ab, aab, aaa, aba, abb,….
Here RE should start with ‘a’ and then all strings including null. So this will
be (a + b)* and complete RE is a (a+ b)*.
Similarly languages of strings ending in b will have RE (a + b)*b.
Q No.7 What is the diagrammatically difference between FA's and TG's?
The main differences between FA’s and TG’s are as follows

Q No.8 What is the corresponding FA for RE =aa((a+b)(a+b))*

RE is aa((a + b)(a + b))*. Its corresponding FA is as follows.

Q No.9 What is difference between FA's and NFA's. Are they

opposite to each other ?
FA stands for finite automata while NFA stands for non-deterministic
finite automata In FA there must be a transition for each letter of the
alphabet from each state. So in FA number of transitions must be equal to
(number of states * number of letter in alphabet).
While in NFA there may be more than one transition for a letter from a
state. And finally every FA is an NFA while every NFA may be an FA
or not.
Q No.10 Differentiate between (a,b) and (a+b)?

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(a, b) = Represents a and b.
(a + b) = Represents either a
or b. FAQ's about Lectures
11 to 15
Q No.1 What is the difference between how’s FA and TG .Why we
need TG's when we have FA's?
The Transition Graphs (TG) differ from FA in the following areasTG's can change
state without an input ( Null transition).
We have been given more freedom in TG's. But this freedom is on the cost of
more memory and processing power it means that if we implement TG's on
computer using some programming language it will need more memory and
processing power of computer than used in the implementation of FA's.
Q No.2 What is the concept of the Union of FA's ?
When we take Union of two FA's it means that resultant FA's should accept all the
words that were accepted by the two FA's individually. It is like taking union of two
sets the resultant set contain members of both sets.
For example
Let A ={1,3,5,7,9}
and
B = {0,2,4,6,8,10}
then, A U B = { 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 }
you can see that A U B contain elements of both sets similar is the case with FA's.
Q No.3 What is the difference between GT and GTG ?
In TG, there are transitions for the strings. While in GTG, one can write whole RE
as a transition from one state to another one.
Q No.4 How to create a RE of a particular Language?
Regular expression is used to express the infinite or finite language, these RE are
made in such a way that these can generate the strings of that unique language also
for the cross check that the defined RE is of a specified language that RE should
accept all the string of that language and all language strings should be accepted by
that RE.
Q No.5 How diagrams of FA's are created ?
It depends upon the question how many states involve in a FA. There is not any
formal procedure to design FA for a language. This ability just improves with time
and practice. Every FA is also a TG but not every TG is FA. In every FA, every state

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shows transition of all letters of given alphabet but in any TG it is not must. In TG,
we may or may not show all letters transition according to requirement. We can also
show transitions on reading any strings in TGs but it is not possible in FAs.
Q No.6 How one can create RE of a particular language?
First thing about RE and FA is that there is no hard and fast formula or method
to generate these. One can generate them by their mental approach. And this
mental approach can be acquired through only PRACTICE.
I am giving you few tips. I hope those will help you.
If we have a finite language then it will always be regular and will not have * in RE.
e.g. L={aaa, aba, bb}. L language generates given three strings then its RE
will be (aaa + aba + bb}. So in finite language + of all strings can be it’s RE.
If we have an infinite language, then there will be * in it’s
RE. We should also keep the null string in our mind.
For practice just try to create RE of simple languages. Don’t try to confuse yourself
with complex languages.
For example if a language generates all strings starting with a. then strings will be
of type
a , aa, ab, aab, aaa, aba, abb,….
Here RE should start with ‘a’ and then all strings including null. So this will be (a +
b)* and complete RE is a (a+ b)*.
Similarly languages of strings ending in b will have RE (a + b)*b.
I hope now you will be able to generate the RE of simpler languages. Gradually,
increase the complexity of languages to become a perfect in RE’s.
Now as similar to RE, FA of finite language will not have any loop in it.
If language is infinite then there will always be at least one loop in its FA.
From RE, if you want to generate its FA, then first get the smallest strings and
generate their FA and then gradually get the strings of bigger length and keep
amending the created FA. After some practice, you will be able to generate the
FA’s.
And the last thing nobody can do the new task accurately for the first time. Practice is
the key to success. In the start you will have lot of mistakes but after practice you will
be able to clear all of them.
Q No.7 What is the difference between FA's ,and TG's ?
There are two or three big differences between FA’s and TG’s.
In FA there can be maximum one initial or starting state while in TG there may be
more than one initial state.
In FA there can be transition for letters only while in TG transitions from a state
to another one can be for strings.

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In FA there must be transition from each state for each letter (deterministic) while in
TG there may be no transition for specific letter from a state and there may be more
than one path for a string or letter from a state.
Q No.8 What is the exact definition of FA ?
Definition:
A Finite automaton (FA), is a collection of the followings
Finite number of states, having one initial and some (maybe none) final
states. Finite set of input letters (Ó) from which input strings are formed.
Finite set of transitions i.e. for each state and for each input letter there is a
transition showing how to move from one state to another.
Q No.9 What is the difference between TG and GTG ?
In TG, there are transitions for the strings. While in GTG, one can write whole RE
as a transition from one state to another one.
For RE =aa((a+b)(a+b))* what will be its corresponding
FA ? RE is aa((a + b)(a + b))*. Its corresponding FA is
as follows.

Q No.10 What is the difference between FA and NFA ?

FA stands for finite automata while NFA stands for non-deterministic finite automata
In FA there must be a transition for each letter of the alphabet from each state. So in
FA number of transitions must be equal to (number of states * number of letter in
alphabet).
While in NFA there may be a transition for a letter from a state. In NFA there may be
more than one transition for a letter from a state. And finally every FA is an
NFA while every NFA may be an FA.
FA

NFA:

Q No.11 What is the method to understanding FA's and NFA's

Firstly we know that an FA is used to describe a language. Now a language
consists of strings. FA will describe the specific language only if it accepts all
the strings of that particular language and all the strings generated by the FA
are in the language. So confirmation is of two ways.
Now, how to traverse the FA. It is very easy. Every FA has one initial state
(state with - sign). From every state of FA there is one transition for every
letter of the alphabet. Read the string letter by letter and move according to

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transitions from state to state. If the string ends in the final state (state with a
+ sign), that particular string will be accepted otherwise rejected.
So, every string ending in final state will be accepted by FA and will be a
word of the language.
For NFA, there may be no path or more than one path for a letter from a
specific state. As similar to FA just start traversing from the initial state and
if the string ends in the final state, it will be accepted.
Remember, as there may be more than one path for a letter from a state. So
any path can be used. Goal is to reach the final state. Remaining theory is
same to the FA. Practice is the key to success. Just try simple FA's and
NFA's in the start.

FAQ's about Lectures 16 to 20

Q No 1.What is the concept of Nondeterministic Finite Automaton (NFA)
?Nondeterminism plays a key role in the theory of computing. A
nondeterministic finite state automaton is one in which the current state of the
machine and the current input do not uniquely determine the next state. This
just means that a number of subsequent states (zero or more) are possible next
states of the automaton at every step of a computation.
Of course, nondeterminism is not realistic, because in real life, computers must
be deterministic. Still, we can simulate nondeterminism with deterministic
programs. Furthermore, as a mathematical tool for understanding computability,
nondeterminism is invaluable.
As with deterministic finite state automata, a nondeterministic finite state
automaton has five components.
• a set of states
• a finite input alphabet from which input strings can be constructed
• a transition function that describes how the automaton changes
states as it processes an input string
• a single designated starting state
• a set of accepting states
The only difference lies in the transition function, which can now target
subsets of the states of the automaton rather than a single next state for each
state, input pair.

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Q No 2. If a language can be expressed in the form of FA than why it is
needed to use NFA ?
NFA stands for non-deterministic FA and this sort of structure has relaxation
compared with FA. So it is rather more easy to represent a language using
NFA.
We have methods to convert NFA into FA's so sometimes it is easier to build
NFA of a given language and than convert its NFA into FA using these
methods rather than directly building an FA for a language which may be very
difficult.
Q No 3.How to made NFA corresponding to the closure of an FA ?
While generating NFA corresponding to closure of an FA one should take care
of the null string. Simple way to accept null string is declare initial state, final
as well. But in this way a lot of other strings will also be accepted.
Therefore, accurate way is draw another state. Declare the new state initial as
well as final. Connect the new state with the states originally connected with
the old start state with the same transitions as the old start state. Newly drawn
diagram will be an NFA representing the language closure of the given FA
Q No 4.What is the difference between Union of two FA’s , Concatenation
of two FA’s and closure of two FA’s ?
Consider two FA's given
Here FA1 accepts all strings ending in a and FA2 accepts all strings ending b.
An FA corresponding to FA1UFA2 will accept all the strings ending in a or
ending in b. for example, aba,bbaaab,bbb
An FA corresponding to FA1FA2 will accept all the strings whose first
substring belongs to FA1 and second substring belongs to FA2. for example,
ababab, bbabbb.
An FA corresponding to FA1* will accepts all the strings of FA1 including null
string. if FA1 represents RE r1 then FA1* will correspond to RE r1*.

FAQ's about Lectures 21 to 25

Automata Theory FAQ's about Lectures 21 to 25
Q No 1.How Moore and Mealy machine works in Computer Memory what is
their importance in Computing ?
Mealy & Moore Machines work in computing as incrementing machine & 1's

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complement machine etc. These operations as basic computer operations so these
machines are very important.
Q No 2.What is sequential circuit ?
Sequential Circuit:Join Us on http://vustudents.ning.com/

A sequential circuit contains a memory component.

The memory component provides a state input. A flip-flop is often used as a
memory component.
The state variable indicates the states of the sequential machine, i.e. the status or stage
or progress of the whole event.
The state of a sequential circuit is indicated by the output of a flip-flop. A single flip-flop
can be used to indicate two states (q=0 and q=1). When there are more than two states,
additional flip-flops are used. Given n flip-flops, a total of 2n states can be represented.
In other words, a sequential machine can be put into a number of different states
depending on the particular inputs given.
The output is a function of both the Present Inputs and the Present States.
In addition to the outputs, the circuit must also generate an update to the memory
components so that the state of the machine can also be changed with respect to the
new inputs. The update is called the Next State Function and is also a function of the
Present Inputs and the Present States.
Both the output functions and the Next State Functions are combinational
circuits. Z=f(X,St)
S=g(X,St)
The superscript t indicates the present time period while the superscript (t+1) indicates
the next time period.
The characteristic of a sequential circuit is completely defined by a state transition
diagram that enumerates all possible transitions for every possible input combination.

Q No 1.What is the concept of Pumping Lemma I and II and what is

the difference between pumping Lemma 1 and pumping Lemma 2
?
In fact PLI & PLII are same (A way to recognize Non Regular language). The only
difference is that the conditions in pumping lemma II are more stricter than Pumping
Lemma I some language that are difficult to proof Non Regular by Pumping Lemma I
are proved Non Regular by pumping Lemma II easily.

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Further mare in pumping lemma I we have to generate all words to of a language but
in Pumping Lemma II we have to generate a single word to prove a language non
regular. Explanation:
Some languages like PALINDROME that are proved to be regular by first version
due to some of their symmetrical words when we pump these words they remain to
be the parts of the language like
bbabb
By pumping lemma
1 Let y = a
Now repeating y three times results in
bbaaabb
That is also a valid word of PALINDROME so by pumping lemma I PALINDROME
can not be proved non regular, so there was the need of pumping lemma version
version 2.
Now consider for the
word bbabb
if we take N=2
Then by pumping y (let we take it b ) two times
results in bbbbabb
That word is not in
PALINDROME. But if we take
N=3 and y = a
Then by pumping y two times results
in bbaaabb
That word is in PALINDROME. So be careful in taking total no of states
of the FA and also the repeating factor (y) to prove an infinite language
non regular you need to prove only one word that is not part of the
language.
Q No 2. What is the significance of Pumping Lemma II ?
The significance of 2nd version of 'pumping lemma' is that there are some
infinite non regular languages like PALINDROME we can built FA that can
accept there certain words but if we increase the length of their words that FA
don't accept these words so by pumping lemma version I it is very difficult to
prove them non regular but with the second version we can prove that a
language is Non regular even it's some words may be accepted by some FA's.

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See page 195 of the book for further example.
Q No 3.Moore and Mealy machine?
1. In order to run a string on a Mealy or Moore machine, you can take
directions from transition table. Running string on Mealy or Moore machine is
similar to running string on a FA. For example, if want to run abba on the
machine, take start from initial state. Check what is the transition for a, what
state it goes. After that check what is the path of b from that state and so on.
In this way you will be able to run whole of the string. Note that there is no
final state in Mealy or Moore machine. So there is no case of acceptance or
rejection of string. You just have to determine what the output is. I hope that
will clear your mind for further clarification please listens to your lecture
carefully.
2. The string is taken for the testing purposes. You can take any sort of
string and determine its output using machine.

FAQ's about Lectures 31 to 35

Q No 1.What is the difference between semiword and word
please also give an example regarding this?
Word:
A word is complete combinations of terminals only e.g. abba or ab or
a or null string.
Semiword:
A semiword is a string of terminals (may be none) concatenated
with exactly one nonterminal on the right i.e. a semi word, in
general, is of the following form
(terminal)(terminal) ---------- (terminal)(nonterminal)
For example
aaaaaaB , aabbaaaA , A.
What is the difference between derivation tree and total tree ?
A Derivation tree is the one that shows how to derive any specific
word of the language described by CFG but Total Language Tree
shows all words of the
Language described by CFG on it
Q No 2.What does mean the LANGUAGE IS CLOSED?
When we say that a Language is closed it is always with respect

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to certain operation.
A simple example may be that the set of integers is closed under
addition. It means when we take two numbers from set of integers
say 3, 7 the result of their addition would also be in the set of
integers.
Similarly if the result of an operation on the words of a language
results in the word of the same language we say that the language is
closed under that operation.
Q No 3.What are the Productions?
Productions are the grammatical rules and regulations. These rules
express the behavior of CFG. Using production in CFG terminals
are converted into non-terminals and when all the terminals are
converted using productions, a word is acquired.
Q No 4.What is the difference between concatenation and
intersection of two FA's also what is the difference among
Union of two FA's and addition of them?
In intersection of two FA's only those strings are accepted which
are independently accepted by both FA’s, while in concatenation of
two FA’s only those strings will be accepted in which first part of
string is accepted by first FA and remaining part of string is
accepted by the second FA.
While taking union of two FA’s one can represent it using + sign.
So (FA1 U FA2) and (FA + FA2) both are same. There is no
difference between them.

FAQ's about Lectures 36

to 40 Automata Theory
FAQ's about Lectures 36 to 40
Q No 1.What is the Difference between Nullable and Null
production? How to make eliminate Nullable and for Null
Productions from the CFG ?
The production of the form
nonterminal ® L
is said to be null production.
Example:

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Consider the following CFG
S ® aA|bB|L, A ® aa|L, B ® aS
Here S ® L and A ® L are null productions.
A production is called nullable production there is a derivation that
starts at Non Terminal and leads to L i.e.
S -------- > aA | bB | aa
A --------- > C | bb
C ---------- > L
Here A nullable Non Terminal due to Nullable production A -- > C as
C leads to null.
Example:
Consider the following
CFG S ® XY, X ® Zb, Y
® bW
Z ® AB, W ® Z, A ®
aA|bA|L B ®Ba|Bb|L.
Here A ® L and B ® L are null productions, while Z ® AB, W ® Z are
nullable productions.
Method:
Delete all the Null productions and add new productions e.g.
Consider the following productions of a certain CFG X ® aNbNa, N ® L,
delete the production N ® L and using the production
X ® aNbNa, add the following new
productions X ® aNba, X ® abNa and X ®
aba
Thus the new CFG will contain the following productions
X ® Nba|abNa|aba|aNbNa
Note: It is to be noted that X ® aNbNa will still be included in the new CFG.
Method:
Consider the following
CFG S ® XY, X ® Zb, Y
® bW
Z ® AB, W ® Z, A ®
aA|bA|L B ®Ba|Bb|L.
Here A ® L and B ® L are null productions, while Z ® AB, W ® Z are
nullable productions. The new CFG after, applying the method, will be

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S ® XY
X ® Zb|b
Y®
bW|b
Z®
AB|A|B W
®Z
A ® aA|a|bA|b
B ®Ba|a|Bb|b
Note: While adding new productions all Nullable productions should
be handled with care. All Nullable productions will be used to add
new productions, but only the Null production will be deleted
Q No 2. Is it possible to make CFG for infix and postfix
expression's using derivation tree ?
Derivation tree is only used to derive words of language that is described
by a CFG. Yes, we can create CFG for languages infix expressions, postfix
expressions.
Q No 3 what is the uses of push down automata in computing ?
PDA is just an enhancement in FAs. i.e Memory is attached with machine
that recognizes some language. FA is basic structure for most advanced
electronic machines such as computer etc.

Q No 4 What is difference between PUSH DOWN STACK and

PUSH DOWN STORE ?
No difference at all. Both terms are used to describe memory structure
attached with FAs to store some characters in it.
Q No 5 How we can distinguish between "CFG" and "CNF" in the questions
?
Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)
If a CFG has only productions of the form
string of two nonterminals nonterminal ---------
or
one terminal Nonterminal -----------
Then the CFG is said to be in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF).
Thus if the given CFG is in the form specified above it will be called in
CNF. Q No 6.What is meant by the terms stack consistence and

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input tape consistence ?
Term Stack consistent means we can pop any character from the top of
the stack only. PDA should not be able to pop any character other than that
is present on the top of the stack.
Term Tape consistent means we can read only the first letter on the tape
not any other letter of the tape after the first one.
Q No 7 What is the concept of unit production ?
The productions of the form
one Nonterminal one Nonterminal --------
Are called unit
productions. For example
A (Unit Produciton) S --------
a | b A--------
A. we can directly write Here there is no need of Unit
Production S S a|b
Q No 8 Why Context Free Grammars are called "Context
Free? Context Free Grammars are called context free because the
words of the languages of Context Free Grammars have words like
“aaabbb”(PALINDROME). In these words the value of letters (a , b) is the
same on whatever position they appear. On the other hand in context
sensitive grammars their value depend on the position they appear in the
word a simple example may be as follows
Suppose we have a decimal number 141 in our language . When
compiler reads it, it would be in the form of string. The compiler would
calculate its decimal equivalent so that we can perform mathematical
functions on it. In calculating its decimal value , weight of first “1” is
different than the second “1” it means it is context sensitive (depends on
in which position the “1” has appeared).
i.e.
1*102 + 4*101 + 1* 100 = 14
(value of one is 100) (value of one is just one)
That is not the case with the words of Context Free Languages. (The
value of “a” is always same in whatever position “a” appears).
Q No 9. What is Unit Production?

The production in which one non-terminal leads to only one non-terminal.

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Q No 10.What is Left most Derivation in CFG?
It is a method of generation of strings from a CFG starting from left
most letter of the string.

FAQ's about Lectures 41 to 45

Q No 1.Give a example of converting a CFG to CNF?
Consider the CFG given
below S} ABC
A} aa |
b B} c
C}d

Its CNF will

be S} DC
D } AB
A} EE
| b E}a
B}c
C}d
Q No 2.In the lecture 41 's example, we have converted PDA
to conversion form and a word 'aaaabb' is derived from this
conversion form PDA. What are the derivation steps.
The PDA converted to conversion form has some specific features
that are important to understand first. These features are
The states named START, READ, HERE and ACCEPT are called
joints of the machine.
With the help of the conversion form we have been able to achieve
that POP state has only one path out of it and the path taking
(multiple paths) decisions take place only on the READ state.
The word 'aaaabb' is generated as follows from the
PDA START-POP4-PUSH $
This step pops $ and then pushes it to ensure that stack contains $ at
the beginning.
READ1-POP6-PUSH $-PUSH a
As first time after reading "a" there is $ at the top of stack so we

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will follow path segment READ1-POP6-PUSH $-PUSH a
READ1-POP5-PUSH a-PUSH a
Now a is on the top of the stack so we will follow READ1-POP5-
PUSH a-PUSH a
READ1-POP5-PUSH a-PUSH a
Again following same
segment for a READ1-POP5-
PUSH a-PUSH a
Again following same segment for a
READ1-POP1- HERE-POP2
As we read b on input
tape. READ2-POP1-
HERE-POP2
As we read b on input
tape. READ2-POP3-
ACCEPT.
As we read ∆ from the input tape
Q No 3.How to differentiate between "wanted" and "unwanted
branch" ? When we derive a word in Top down parsing beginning with
the starting Non Terminal the branches of the tree that do not lead to our
required word are left aside these branches are called unwanted
branches.
For example for
CFG S >AA
A---- >a | b
If we want to generate the word "aa" we will leave the branch generated by
the production A >b.
Q No 4.What is the difference between intersection and
union of a language?
Intersection of two languages will consist of all those words which are in
both languages while union of two languages will consist of all those
words which are present in at least one language.
Symbol for intersection is ､ and for union is U.
Q No 5.What is the difference between Context free languages and
regular languages?
Regular languages can be represented by FA’s because we do not need any

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memory to recognize (accept or reject them on FA) them but there is
another class of languages that can not be represented by FA’s because
these languages require that we have some memory (with the help of
memory we can store letters of the string we are checking so that we can
compare them with next coming letters in the string).
For example language anbn requires that we must store a’s and then compare
their count with next coming b’s so that we can check whether a’s are equal
to b’s or not.
Due to this reason we use Context Free Grammars to represent them because
we can5t write RE’s for them.
So Context Free Languages represent a broader category this category
also include regular languages as subcategory. It means that context free
languages include regular languages as well as some other languages.
Q No 6.What is the difference between Moore and Mealey machines?
In Mealy Machine we read input string letters and generate output while
moving along the paths from one state to another while in Moore machine
we generate output on reaching the state so the output pattern of Moore
machine contains one extra letter because we generated output for state q0
where we read nothing.
Q No 7.What does the following terms mean
i. STACK Consistent
ii. Y-able Paths
iii. Working string
iv. Semi Word means
Stack consistence means that in the PDA converted in the conversion
form, when we follow a path segment (which is formed by combining
start, read or here state with next read, here or accept state on the
path) along the PDA its pop state should have the path for the same
letter that is present on the top of the stack at that stage. If this doesn’t
happen our PDA will crash because in conversion form of the PDA the
pop state has only one letter path, so if we could not be able to find that
letter on the top of the stack our PDA will crash (if will not find path
where to go from that state)
Working string means the string present on the input tape.
Y-able Paths means that when we follow a certain sequence of rows from

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the row table to generate a path for a word form start state to accept state.
The path (sequence of rows) should be stack as well as joint consistent it
means that rows should end at the same read or here state (join consistency
) and the rows should be able to pop the letter from the top that is indicated
in the pop state of the row.
Semi word is the string of terminals it may be null string ending with a Non
terminals on the right.
For example some semi words
are aaS
aabb
AB

Is Automata Theory is a Programming Subject or theoretical?

Automata theory is the study of abstract computing devices, or
"machines". This topic goes back to the days before digital computers and
describes what is possible to compute using an abstract machine.
These ideas directly apply to creating compilers, programming languages,
and designing applications. They also provide a formal framework to
analyze new types of computing devices, e.g. biocomputers or quantum
computers
What are practical Examples of the implications of Automata
Theory and the formal Languages?
Grammars and languages are closely related to automata theory
and are the basis of many important software components like:
• Compilers and interpreters
• Text editors and processors
• Text searching
• System verification

What are the Types of Automata?

• The Types of Automata Theory are
• Finite Automata

• Regular Languages
• Linear-bounded Automata

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• Context Sensitive Languages
• Push-Down Automata
• Context Free Languages
• Turing Machines
• Recursively innumerable languages
There are others as well like,
• Random Access Machines
• Parallel Random Access Machines
• Arrays of Automata

Question: How types of Automata

Answer:
Differ?

They differ in the following areas Complexity (or Simplicity) Power In the function that
can be computed. In the languages that can be accepted.

Questio What is the difference between the alphabet and an element of a

n: set? Alphabets is a set of letters nothing else but a set of strings
Answer: (elements) can have more than one letters in one string.

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Question: Difference between Palindrome and Reverse function?
Answer:
The language consisting of ┄ and the strings s defined over ┋ such that
Rev(s)=s.
It is to be denoted that the words of PALINDROME are called
palindromes. Reverse (w) = w
Example: ┋={a,b},
PALINDROME={┄ , a, b, aa, bb, aaa, aba, bab, bbb, ...}
If a is a word in some language L, then reverse (a) is the same string
of letters spelled backwards, called the reverse of a.
e.g
reverse (xxx) =
xxx reverse (623)
=
326
reverse (140) = 041

Question: Define Strings?

Answer: Concatenation of finite letters from the alphabet is called a string.
e.g If ┋= {a,b} then a language L can be defined as
L = {a, abab, aaabb, ababababababababab,. ..... }
it's mean all words with a's more or equal to b's

Question: Define empty or null strings?

Answer: Concatenation of finite letters from the alphabet is called a string.
Sometimes a string with no symbol at all is used, denoted by (Small
Greek letter Lambda) ┣ or (Capital Greek letter Lambda) ┄, is
called an empty string or null string.

Question: Difference between string and word?

Answer: Any combination of letters of alphabet that follows rules of language
is called a word.
A string is a finite sequence of symbols from an alphabet.

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Question: There are as many palindromes of length 2n as there are of
length 2n-1, please explain?
Answer: If we try to create palindromes then middle elements (2 in even
palindromes & 1 in odd palindrome) does not cause any change
in no. of palindromes Defining the language PALINDROME, of
length 2n and 2n-1 defined over S =
{a,b}
e.g if we take n= 2 for 2n
Length (2n) = 4 and string can be written as
{aaaa, abba, baab, bbbb}
And if we take n = 2 for
2n-1
Length (2n-1) = 3 and string can be written as
{aaa, aba, bab, bbb}

Question: Define Kleene Star?

Answer: Given ┋, then the Kleene Star Closure of the alphabet ┋, denoted by
┋*, is the collection of all strings defined over ┋, including ┄.
It is to be noted that Kleene Star Closure can be defined over any set
of strings. Examples
If ┋ = {x}
Then ┋* = {┄, x, xx, xxx,
xxxx, ….} If ┋ = {0,1}
Then ┋* = {┄, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If ┋ = {aaB, c}
Then ┋* = {┄, aaB, c, aaBaaB, aaBc, caaB, cc, ….}
Note:
Languages generated by Kleene Star Closure of set of strings, are
infinite languages. (By infinite language, it is supposed that the
language contains infinite many words, each of finite length).
Question: Why do not we can write" ba" in the set of PALINDROME
while it is reverse of "ab".
Answer: The language consisting of ┄ and the strings s defined over ┋ such that
Rev(s)=s.
It is to be denoted that the words of PALINDROME are
called palindromes.

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Example
For ┋
={a,b},
PALINDROME={┄ , a, b, aa, bb, aaa, aba, bab, bbb, ...}
All two length string cannot satisfied the palindrome. aa and
bb in palindrome but ba and ab are not in palindrome.
Question: What are the steps of Recursive Definition of
Answer:
Languages? A recursive definition is characteristically
a three-step process. First, we specify some basic
objects in the set.
Second, we give rules for constructing more objects in the set from ones we
already know.
Third, we declare that no objects except those constructed in this
way are allowed in the set.

Question: Strings that ending in "a " and strings containing exactly one "a".
Answer:
Its means all string ending in a
e.g ┋= {a, b}
{a, aa, ba, aba, baa,…….}
Exactly a, defined over ┋=
{a, b}
{ab, ba, abb, bba,… . }

Question: What is Lexical Analyzer?

Answer:
The first phase of the compiler is the lexical analyzer, also known as
the scanner, which recognizes the basic language units, called
tokens.
The exact characters in a token is called its lexeme.
Tokens are classified by token types, e.g. identifiers,
constant literals, strings, operators, punctuation marks, and key
words.
Different types of tokens may have their own semantic
attributes (or values) which must be extracted and stored in the
symbol table.
The lexical analyzer may perform semantic actions to

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extract such values and insert them in the symbol table.

Question: What is accepting string language?

Answer: The strings which follow rules for the language are accepted in language.
Let u and v be strings. Then uv denotes the string
obtained by concatenating u with v, that is, uv is the string obtained
by appending the sequence of symbols of v to that of u. For example
if u = aab and v = bbab, then uv = aabbbab. Note that vu =
bbabaab uv. We are going to use first few symbols of English
alphabet such as a and b to denote symbols of an alphabet and those
toward the end such as u and v for strings.
Question: What is transition table?
Answer: A complete transition table contains one column for each
character. To save space, table compression may be used.
Only non-error entries are explicitly represented in the table,
using hashing, indirection or linked structures.
Tabular representation of a function that takes two
arguments and returns a0 value 1
q0 q2 q0
*q1 q1 q1
q2 q2 q1

Question: How to obtain 9's complement?

Answer: The (r – 1)’s Complement
Given a positive number N is base r with an integer part of n digits
and a fraction part of m digits, the (r-1)’s complements of N is
defined as
rn –r-m – N. Some numerical examples follow:
The 9’s complement of (52520)10 is (105 – 1 – 52520) = 99999 – 52520 =
47479.
No fraction part, so 10-m = 100 = 1.
The 9’s complement of (0.3267)10 is (1 – 10-4 – 0.3267) = 0.9999 – 0.3267 =
0.6732
No integer part, so 10n = 100 = 1.

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The 9’s complement of (25.639)10 is (102 – 10-3 – 25.639) = 99.9999 - 25.63967
= 74.360

Question: What is DELAY box?

Answer:
It is a component which held input for some time and then forwards it
just a holder.

Question: What is the difference between pumping Lemma 1 and

pumping Lemma 2?
Answer:
Infact PLI & PLII are same (A way to recognize Non Regular
language). The only difference is in PLII we take care about the
substring x & y that length (x) + length (y) less than or equal no. of
state of machine. This is because through PLI palindrome (that is
Non Regular) is proved to be regular and through PLII this problem
is fixed.

Question: What is pumping lemma? And what is history?

Answer:
A theorem to check validity (Regularity) of an infinite language
should not be used with finite languages. Whenever an infinite is
regular then there must be a loop (circuit) because without a loop
means infinite no. of states that is not possible practically. (Machine
can have finite states only)

Question: What is the difference between semi word and word?

Answer: A word is complete combinations of terminals only e.g. abba or ab
or a or null string.
Semiword: A semiword is a string of terminals (may be none)
concatenated with exactly one nonterminal on the right i.e. a
semiword, in general, is of the following form
(terminal)(terminal)… (terminal)(nonterminal)

Question: What is the difference between derivation tree and total tree?
Answer: A Derivation tree is the one that shows how to derive any specific
word of the language described by CFG but Total Language Tree

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shows all words of the

Language described by CFG on it.

Question: How to identify a production by it, ambiguity will be removed?

Answer: It is a matter of practice that one can know how to remove
ambiguity from it, only practice makes you efficient enough to do
it in less time.

Question: Difference between Nullable and Null production? How to

make CFG for Nullable and for Null?
Answer: The production of the form
nonterminal ® L
is said to be null production.
Example:
Consider the following CFG
S ® aA|bB|L, A ® aa|L, B ® aS
Here S ® L and A ® L are null productions.
A production is called nullable production if it is of the
form N ® L
or
there is a derivation that starts at N and leads to L i.e.
N1 ® N2, N2 ® N3, N3 ® N4, …, Nn ® L, where N, N1, N2, …, Nn are
non terminals.

Example:
Consider the following
CFG S ® XY, X ® Zb,
Y ® bW
Z ® AB, W ® Z, A ®
aA|bA|L B ®Ba|Bb|L.
Here A ® L and B ® L are null productions, while Z ® AB, W ® Z are
nullable productions.

Method:

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Delete all the Null productions and add new productions e.g.
Consider the following productions of a certain CFG X ® aNbNa, N
® L, delete the production
N ® L and using the production
X ® aNbNa, add the following new
productions X ® aNba, X ® abNa and X
® aba
Thus the new CFG will contain the following
productions X ® Nba|abNa|aba|aNbNa
Note: It is to be noted that X ® aNbNa will still be included in the new CFG.
Method:
Consider the following
CFG S ® XY, X ® Zb,
Y ® bW
Z ® AB, W ® Z, A ®
aA|bA|L B ®Ba|Bb|L.
Here A ® L and B ® L are null productions, while Z ® AB, W ® Z are
nullable productions. The new CFG after, applying the method, will be
S ® XY
X®
Zb|b Y
® bW|b
Z®
AB|A|B W
®Z
A®
aA|a|bA|b B
®Ba|a|Bb|b
Note: While adding new productions all Nullable productions
should be handled with care. All Nullable productions will be used
to add new productions, but only the Null production will be
deleted.

Question: Is it possible to make CFG for infix and postfix

expression’s using derivation tree?

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Answer: Derivation tree is only used to derive words of language that is
described by a CFG. Yes, we can create CFG for languages infix
expressions, postfix expressions.
Question: What are the uses of push down automata in computing?
Answer: PDA is just an enhancement in FAs. i.e Memory is attached
with machine that recognizes some language. FA is basic
structure for most advanced electronic machines such as
computer etc.

Question: What is valid and invalid alphabets explain with example?

Answer: Example 1
If s=abc is a string defined over ┋=
{a,b,c} then Rev(s) or sr = cba
┋=
{a,b}
s=abbaa
Rev(s)=aabba
When more then letter in the alphabet you have to be quite careful
that don’t reverse the symbols however you write the letter from right
to left.
Example 2
┋= {B, aB, bab,
d} s=BaBbabBd
Rev(s)=dBbaba
BB Example 3
┋= {ab, b, aa}
s=abbaa
Rev(s)=aab
ab
┋1= {B, aB, bab, d} is valid alphabet as there is no letter in ┋1 that lies in
start
of any other letter means all the tokens of any word (string) will be
unique. Whereas in ┋2= {B, Ba, bab, d} letter B lies in start of letter
Ba.
This makes it difficult to decide which token to select at some point
if B occurs in any string.

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Question: Why we use Capital Letters for Languages. Is it possible to
combine two languages together like EVEN-EVEN & EQUAL,
and so on?
Answer: We use capital letter for our convenient and yes you can
combine two languages.

Question: What are the rules to form WORDS in languages developed by

Automata?
Are strings not following any rule?
Answer: Rules are different for different languages.
e.g ┋={a,b}
The language L of strings of even length, defined over ┋= {a,b}, can be
written as
Valid for even length L= {aa, bb, aabb, bbaa, baab,
abba …..} Invalid for even length L= {a, b, aaa, bbb,
aba, bab, …….}
The language L of strings of odd length, defined over ┋= {a,b}, can be
written as
Valid for odd length L1= {a, b, aaa, bbb, aba, bab,
…….} Invalid for odd length L= {aa, bb, aabb, bbaa,
baab, abba …..} Strings cannot follow any rule.

Question: What are graphs of palindromes of length 2n and length 2n-1?

Answer: Palindromes of even length are always symmetric about the middle line and
palindromes of odd length are always symmetric about middle letter.
If we try to create palindromes then middle elements (2 in even
palindromes & 1 in odd palindrome) does not cause any change
in no. of palindromes Defining the language PALINDROME, of
length 2n and 2n-1 defined over S =
{a,b}
e.g if we take n= 2 for 2n
Length (2n) = 4 and string can be written as
{aaaa, abba, baab,
bbbb} And if we take n =
2 for 2n-1
Length (2n-1) = 3 and string can be written as

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{aaa, aba, bab, bbb}
Question: How can we write a RE for a given number of words?
Answer: In example let us consider a finite language L that
contains all the strings of a’s and b’s of length three
exactly:
L = {aaa aab aba abb baa bab bba bbb}
The first letter of each word in L is either an a or a b. The
second letter of each word in L is either an a or a b. The third
letter of each word in L is either an a or a b. So, we may
write
L = language
((a+b)(a+b)(a+b)) Or
L = language ((a+b)3)
If we want to define the set of all seven-letter strings of a’s
and b’s, we could write (a+b)7 . In general, if we want to refer
to the set of all possible strings of a’s and b’s of any length
whatsoever, we could write (a+b)*
This is the set of all possible strings of letters from the alphabet
∑ = {a, b} including the null string. This is a very important
expression and we shall use it often.
Again, this expression represents a language. If we choose
that * stands for 5, then
(a+b)
*
gives
(a+b)5 = (a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)
We now have to make five more choices: either a or b for the
first letter, either a or b for second letter, and so on.
21.Please explain that in some expression having more then
one plus sign the resulting string is only one from them or it
can be more then one? For example if there is an expression: a
+b + c, with out any small bracket between them the resultant
string is "a or b or c" OR it cans both "a or b and c”,"a and b
or c"
The resulting string is only one from them. Whenever we

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put + signs between n words that means one option (only)
out of all available.

Question: One Language generates many REs?

Answer: Sometimes we generate many Regular Expressions (RE) for one
language these REs are called Equal RE.
Example:
Consider the following regular
expressions r1= (a + b)* (aa + bb)
r2= (a + b)*aa + ( a + b)*bb then
both regular expressions define the language of strings ending in
aa or bb. This RE (aa+bb) is separated by +. Whenever RE is
separated by +, two possibilities occur
1. Before + part
2. After + part
(a+b)*aa comes before + part, means RE generate all strings that end
with aa. (a+b)*bb comes after + part this means RE generate all
strings that end with bb. In short we can say r2 generates the
language of strings ending either aa or bb this is equal to r1.

Question: Rules for determining RE for a given language defined on a set?

Answer: The following rules define the language associated with any regular
expression: Rule 1: The language associated with the regular
expression that is just a single letter is that one-letter word alone
and the language associated with null is just {null}, a one-word
language.
Rule 2: If r1 is a regular expression associated with the language L1
and r2 is regular expression associated with the language L2, then:
The regular expression (r 1)(r2) is associated with the product
L1L2 that is the language L1 times
L2 language (r1r2) = L1L2
The regular expression r 1 + r2 is associated with the language
formed by the union of the sets L1 and L2:
language (r1 + r2) = L1 + L2
The language associated with the regular expression

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(r 1)* is L1*, the Kleene closure of the set L1 as a set of words:
language(r1*) = L1*
Once again, this collection of rules proves recursively that there is
some language associated with every regular expression. As we
build up a regular expression from the rules, we simultaneously are
building up the corresponding language.

Question: What is EVEN - EVEN LANGUAGE?

Answer: Even-Even means count of a's is even and cout of b's is also even.
Even + Even = Even (Proved)
So we can divide any string excluding ┄ which is also in Even-Even
in substrings of length 2 each. It gives us following combinations
aa, bb makes no change in string
status ab, ba create disorder in
string status
·TG are generalizations of FA.
· Can change state without an input.
· Can read more than one letter at a time.
· Can have a regular expression as a edge label.
· Can have more then one start state.
We are not bound in TG. We are only given a freedom or relation
which we are not forced to use. We may or may not use it on will.
In fact we enjoy freedom of staying at multiple places at one time in
TGs while reading any letter strings which provides us a facility that
any one available path it leads us to final state, word is accepted.

Question: Difference between (a+b)+ and (a+b)*?

Answer: (a + b)+ means, we repeat RE a + b infinite (any) no. of times but
minimum once, whereas (a + b)* means we may repeat a + b any no.
of times even zero times. () are only used to clear (distinguish) the
one RE from some other RE.

Question: What is length of string?

Answer: The length of a string indicates how many symbols are in that string.

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For example, the string 0101 using the binary alphabet has a length of
4. The standard notation for a string w is to use |w|.
For example:
Length of string: |0101| is 4.
Length of string: |0010| = 4, |aa| = 2, | |= 0

Question: After looking the on diagram how can we say it is TG or is FA?

Answer: Every FA is also a TG but not every TG is FA.
In every FA, every state shows transition of all letters of given
alphabet but in any TG it is not must. In TG, we may or may
not show all letters transition according to requirement. We can
also show transitions on reading any strings in TGs but it is not
possible in FAs.
Question: Differentiate between FA, TG and GTG?
Answer: Every FA is also a TG but not every TG is FA.
In every FA, every state shows transition of all letters of given
alphabet but in any TG it is not must. In TG, we may or may not
show all letters transition according to requirement. We can also
show transitions on reading any strings in TGs but it is not
possible in FAs. In GTG Directed edges connecting some pair of
states labeled with regular expression. It may be noted that in
GTG, the labels of transition edges are corresponding regular
expressions. In TG we write strings and in GTG we are bound to
write RE.

Question: Difference between even clumps and odd clumps?

Answer: Letters may be a's (for example) in even count at one place.
Question: How many Methods of defining the languages?
Answer: 1. You can describe a language in English like statement
2. You can define a language by putting all its words in a set
3. You can define a language in a mathematical way
4. You can define a language by Recursive Definition
5. You can define a language by Regular Expression

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6. You can define a language by Finite Automata
7. You can define a language by Transition Graph
8. You can define a language by Context Free Grammar

Question: What is difference between Palindrome, Kleene star closure

and plus operation?
Answer: The language consisting of ┄ and the strings s defined over ┋ such that
Rev(s)=s.
What is Equal RE?
Sometimes we generate many REs for one language these are called Equal RE.
How can we make Finite Automaton from a language and a language
from FA?
There is not any formal procedure to design FA for a language. This ability
just improves with time and practice.

Question: Could we just use +, - symbols with x not with y in FA?

Answer: Yes, you can use only + or – for the place of x and y, but remember
when you don't write + or –, So you should write start and final at
the beginning or ending state Or you should indicated by an arrow and
a final state by drawing box or another circle around its circle because
if you don't write how can we indicate the start and final state.

Question: Explain the language L of string, defined over ∑= {0,1}, having

double 0's and double 1's?
Answer: Language of strings with 00 or 11 means string that have
substrings 00 or 11 in them at least. Minimum words which are
included in this language are 00 and 11. This language does not
accept null and it also does not accept 0 or 1.

Question: What are the difference between single 1 and 0 and double 1's and 0's?
Answer: 1. Consider the language L of strings, defined over
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If ┋={0, 1}, having words with either 0’s or 1’s without null. The

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language L may be expressed by RE
(0 + 1)+
When you make string by above RE you have all possible
combination of 0’s and 1’s except null
i.e {0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11,… }. Minimum words which are included in this
language are 0 and 1.
2. Consider the language L of strings, defined over
If ┋={0, 1}, having double 0’s or double 1’s, The language L may be
expressed by the RE (0+1)* (00 +
11)
(0+1)*
Double 1’s and 0’s means clumps of letter which will always come together.
Minimum words which are
included in this language are
00 and 11.

Question: On what basis we select initial and final states?

Answer: It depends on the expression given to us.
Question: How we know that the given expression has how many states?
Answer: There is not any formal procedure to know the number of
states. This ability just improves with time and practice.

Questio How will we develop the rules of transition?

n: Transition means which letter, after being read, is transfer from
Answer: which place to which place. It is necessary to show transition of
every letter from each and every state.

Questio Can we accept the strings going from final to initial?

n: It is to be noted that if any state start from the final state it does not
Answer: accept any string. Even it does not accept the null string, because there
is no path starting from initial state and ending in final state.

Question: What are the basic rules to build FA?

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Answer: One and only rule is to build a Finite Automata (FA) should accept
all words of the language and reject all the words which are not part
of the language. Any FA that ensures these above things is the right
FA for the language.
Note: One language can have many FA.

Question: What is Dead state?

Answer: The DEAD STATE is introduced to be able to make an
automaton complete without altering its behavior.

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