• Suppose r < 0.

Then θ is the measure of any

.

angle that has the ray opposite OP as its

⇐
Polar Coordinates terminal side.

Polar coordinate system

The angle θ
• As you have seen, the r-coordinate can be any real
••••_ =
value. The angle θ can also be negative. If θ > 0, then θ is
measured counterclockwise from the polar axis. If θ < 0,
• Recording the position of an object using the distance from a
#
then θ is measured clockwise from the polar axis.
fixed point and an angle made from that point uses a polar
• Look at examples 1 and 2.

F-
coordinate system.

When sur veyors record the locations of objects using distances

and angles, they are using polar coordinates.

O is called the pole or origin.

Polar axis is usually a horizontal ray directed

toward the right from the pole.

• The location of a point P in the polar

coordinate system can be identified by polar
coordinates in the form y(r, θ).

• If a ray is drawn from the pole through point P,

#
the distance from the pole to point P is │r│.

#
The measure of the angle formed by OP and
•

the polar axis is θ. The angle can be measured

in degrees or radians.

•
This grid is sometimes called the polar plane.
=

Consider positive and negative values for r

-
• Suppose r > 0. Then θ is the measure of any
angle in standard position that has OP as its
terminal side.
 Polar graph
Polar Coordinates •
is the set of all points whose coordinates
(r, θ) satisfy a given polar equation.

Bo polar coordinates of a point are not unique

Graphing Polar Equations
•
Every point can be represented by infinitely
many pairs of polar coordinates.
•
You already know how to graph equations in the
••
any angle in standard position is Cartesian, or rectangular, coordinate system.
coterminal with infinitely many other angles.

•
Graphs involving constants like x = 2 and y = -3 are
• If a point has polar coordinates (r, θ), then considered basic in the Cartesian coordinate system.
it also has polar coordinates (r, θ + 2π) in I

radians or (r, θ + 360°) in degrees.

• Similarly, the polar coordinate system has some basic
graphs. Graphs of the polar equations r = k and θ = k, where
•• You can add any integer multiple of 2π to k is a constant, are considered basic.
θ and find another pair of polar
coordinates for the same point. Look at example:

i
If you use the opposite r-value, the angle will
change by π, giving (-r, θ + π) as another
ordered pair for the same point.

•
You can then find even more polar coordinates
for the same point by adding multiples of 2π
to θ + π.

•
You can then find even more polar coordinates for the same
point by adding multiples of 2π to θ + π.
Example
-Graph each point.
a. S(-4, 0°)
b. R(2, 3pi/2)
c. Q(-2, -240°)

In summary…
•Name four different pairs of polar coordinates that represent
point S on the graph with the restriction that -360° < θ < 360°.
Here is a summary of all the ways to represent a point in polar
coordinates:
• If a point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then P can
also be represented by polar coordinates (r, θ + 2πk)
or (-r, θ+ (2k + 1)π) , where k is any integer.

Note: In degrees, the representations are (r, θ + 360k°)

and (-r, θ + (2k + 1)180°). For every angle there are
infinitely many representations.

Polar equation
• An equation expressed in terms of polar coordinates
•

€
For example r = 2 sin θ is a polar equation.
Polar Coordinates Into Rectangular Coordinates

⇐
Using a negative length and multiplies of 180°

F
Using Trigonometry

Polar-to-Rectangular Conversion
#

O
Rectangular-to-Polar Conversion
=
Polar Graphpaper

Changing a Polar equation into a Rectangular

Different ways of writing this same point in I
equation
Polar Coordinates

Adding or Subtracting multiplies of 360°

←
Convert the rectangular equation to polar form
-
Symmetry, Zeros, and Maximum r-Values
• In Figure 10.54, note that as O increases from 0 to 2pi
'

the graph is traced out t wice.

Graphs of Polar Equations

Example 1 – Graphing a Polar Equation by Point Plotting • Moreover, note that the graph is symmetric with
respect to the line O = pi/2.
.

Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 4 sin °

'

• The three important types of symmetry to consider in

polar curve sketching are shown below.
Solution:

• You can confirm the graph in Figure 10.54 by converting the polar
equation to rectangular form and then sketching the graph of the
rectangular equation.

-
• You can also use a graphing utility set to polar mode and graph
the polar equation or set the graphing utility to parametric mode
and graph a parametric representation.
 000

The equations discussed in Examples 1 and 2 are of

the form

r = 4sin 0= f(sin 0) and r = 3 + 2cos 0 = g(cos 0).

- - - -

Example 2 – Using Symmetry to Sketch a Polar Graph

The graph of the first equation is symmetric with respect
to the line 0 = I /2, and the graph of the second equation
-

•
Use symmetry to sketch the graph of r = 3 + 2 cos O.
-

is symmetric with respect to the polar axis

• This observation can be generalized to yield the

following tests.

Two additional aids to sketching graphs of polar equations

involve knowing the 0-values for which |r| is maximum and
knowing the 0-values for
which r = 0.
• The three tests for symmetry in polar coordinates are
sufficient to guarantee symmetry, but they are not necessary. For instance, in Example 1, the maximum value of |r|
for r = 4 sin 0 is |r| = 4, and this occurs when 0 = /2,
• For instance, the figure shows the graph of r = 0+2 as shown in Figure 10.54.
• to be symmetric with respect to the line 0 = /2, and yet the
tests fail to indicate symmetry because neither of the Moreover, when r = 0 when 0 = 0.
following replacements yields an equivalent equation.

Spiral of Archimedes
 Special Polar Graphs
Example 3 – Sketching a Polar Graph •
Several important types of graphs have equations
that are simpler in polar form than in rectangular
form. For example, the circle
Sketch the graph of r = 1 – 2 cos 0. ,

r = 4 sin 0
Solution:
in Example 1 has the more complicated
•
From the equation r = 1 – 2 cos 0, you can obtain
.

rectangular equation
the following.
x^2 + (y – 2)^2 = 4.

Symmetry: With respect to the polar axis

Several other types of graphs that have simple polar
equations are shown below.
Maximum value of |r|: r = 3 when 0 = IT
-

Limaçons
Zero of r: r = 0 when 0 = /3 r = a +/- b cos 0, r = a +/-b sin 0, (a > 0, b > 0)

:
"

• The table shows several 0-values in the inter val [0, ]. By

-

plotting the corresponding points, you can sketch the graph

shown in Figure 10.57.

Rose Curves
=

n petals when n is odd, 2n petals if n is even (n >/= 2)

•
• Note how the negative r-values determine the inner loop of
the graph in Figure 10.57.

• This graph, like the one in the figure, is a limaçon.

Circles and Lemniscates

Example 5 – Sketching a Rose Cur ve

Sketch the graph of r = 3 cos 20.

-

• Using this information together with the additional points shown in

the following table, you obtain the graph shown in the figure.

Polar Equation to Cartesian equation

Cos0= x/r
Sin0= y/r
R =x +y