M.A.

THESIS IN LINGUISTICS

THE STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

TENSES IN DEVELOPING STUDENTS’
WRITING SKILLS AT TECHNICAL
COLLEGE,KULIYAPITIYA

SOORYA PATHIRANAGE NILUKA GOTHAMIE

WELAGEDARA

Department of linguistics
University of Kelaniya.
March 2019
FGM/MA/15/14
 DECLARATION

Declaration by the candidate

I hereby declare that the work embodied in the thesis was carried out by me in the
Department of Linguistics ,University of Kelaniya.It contains no material previously
published or written by another person.It has not been submitted for any degree to this
university or to any other institution.

Name:- SooryaPathiranageNilukaGothamieWelagedara

Signature:…………… Date:…………..

Supervisor’s certification of the declaration

I hereby certify that I have supervised this dissertation

Name: V.A. Weerawardana

Signature:………………….. date:……………..
 Abstract
Writing is such a valuable tool for communication, learning & self-expression.
Therefore students who do not have adequate writing skills will be at a great
disadvantage and will face less opportunities for education and even for
employment.Grammar plays an important role in helping students to write more
effectively. Grammar is more wide area and tenses play the major role there.In
grammar’ tense ‘is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually formed
by the use of specific forms of verbs.The purpose of this study was to find out the
effectiveness of active voice and passive voice tenses in developing the writing skills of
the target group. The target group was twenty five students of National Certificate of
Professional English course at the Technical College, Kuliyapitiya. The main reason for
the study was the researcher noticed poor performances in students writing. Students
were assessed prior to teaching tenses marked errors , analyzed and considered their
errors. Then the less knowledge of tenses was noticed and students received grammar,
tenses knowledge 2 hours per day & four days per week for twelve weeks.As the
hypothesis is formed mainly on tenses ;the implementing the grammar was designed to
master verb forms, active voice , passive voice , tense verbs ,tense structures and time
expressions. At the end of this period most of the students in this class showed
significant increase in their writings. It was measured by giving a post test and the
results showed that students can make a remarkable progress to improve quality of the
writing gaining the knowledge of tenses .The data collected from the sample group
was analyzed both qualitatively and quantatively .The tables graphs and descriptions
were very effectively utilized. The findings of the research revealed the knowledge of
tenses very effectively influence in students writing. Furthermore the findings revealed
that the tenses are not the only factor that influence in students writing performances.
Some other factors such as sub skills of writing too influence in writing. these factors
are open for the future researchers.
 Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to my dissertation supervisor,
professor, V.A. Weerawardana, for the guidance and constant supervision, as well as for
providing necessary information given for making the dissertation a success. I am
grateful to professorKaweethaRajarathna who was the coordinator of Masters Degree
Programme in the Department of Linguistics of University of Kelaniya for the immense
support, knowledge and advice.

I would like to thank all the lecturers in Department of Linguistic in

University of Kelaniya for the knowledge you shared with us. My sincere thanks to the
staff members of the Linguistic Department who were really supportive.

Further I am grateful to Mrs. T.K.T.Dissanayake, the principal of technical

college, Kuliyapitiya for encouraging me. I would also like to thank my loving parents,
sister and husband who made me strong to complete the dissertation. Finally I thank all
who helped me to achieve a successful research.
contents
 Chapter – 01

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
This research is a study of the effectiveness of active and passive voice
tenses in developing the writing skills of the students in Technical
college,kuliyapitiya.
This study will be specifically aimed at the errors which were made in
students’ writings based on grammar,especially on tenses.For this study the
writings of the target group were utilized.
The writer works at Technical college,kuliyapitiya and teaches both
grammar and writing for students.At the very begging of the year writer
noticed that students were very weak at their writings.
Writing a line of thought in an appropriate sentence in the target language is
not an easy task.It is a challenge for second language learners.Only a
combination of words is not a meaningful sentence.According to the
linguists to produce a meaningful sentence the phonological ,syntactic,and
semantic components should be well matched with the time.Without a
sound knowledge of tenses,students struggled to produce meaningful and
grammartically correct sentences.
The questions of the pretest addressed the students’ need and identified the
errors which are to overcome to become successful writers.There the writer
identified the knowledge of tenses should be internalized for enhancing the
writing ability of target second language learners.
The details gathered by the questionnaire revealed the above mentioned
target group was from Sinhala speaking background.They had faced
GCE(A/L) examination.They had gained English knowledge only from
government school education.Some selected students with low economical
condition enter the technical college. All these students were adult students.
The researcher went through many books ,articles and journals to find out
previous reasurches related to effectiveness active voice and passive voice
tenses in improving students’ writing, adult learning theories and second
 language acquisition. Though the researches were not found on the same
topic,findings of related researches were taken in to consideration.
A.S Hornby states that the words “time”and “tense”must not be
confused.The word time stands for a concept with wich all man kind is
familier, devided in to past, present and future.The word Tense stands for
verb form or series of verb forms used to express a time relation.Tense may
indicate an action,activity or state.

1.1Aims and objectives of research

The research is aimed at investigating the effectiveness of tenses in developing

the writing skill of the students in Technical College Kuliyapitiya. Hear the target
constructions of learner performance will be investigated.

 First objective of the current study will be identifying the errors of the
student’s writings. Before implementing the knowledge of tenses students
are pre assessed for the above purpose. It is aimed at getting a better picture
of leaner difficulties in particular area.
 The second objective of the study analyzing the errors and will supply
statistical values for recognizing the immediate urgency to develop students
writing.
 The third objective of the study is assessing the knowledge of tenses and
their functions of the students. Specially prepared task sheets will be
provided for this purpose. What type of tense knowledge that the students
have and what type of knowledge should be implemented immediately will
be recognized this?
 Forth objective of the current study is identifying what type of knowledge
should be developed regarding tenses such as verb formation, the time
indicators, interesting methods of teaching tenses
 Identifying the students ability in using time expressions..

1.2 PREVIOUS RESEARCHES

 Many studies have been carried out on syntactical problems that arise due to the
less grammar knowledge. They have been focused on the matters arise in the syntax.
Mainly, they have concentrated on prepositions, articles, verbs, etc.

Some researchers have concentrated on effectiveness of the knowledge of one

particular tense.

 HidayahT.E(2007) has conducted an investigation on the co –relation

between student’s mastery of grammar, the past tense and1 their
achievement in writing recount.
 (SArdana s.(201 ) has conducted a research on the improving students.
Ability in writing descriptive through content based instructions

 Bryson s( 22,2014) has conducted a research on verb tenses inacademic

writing.

Local and international researchers have been conducted in related to show the
co-relationship with tenses and writing skills. the current study is on the effectiveness
of tenses in improving students writing skills. Some researchers have done researches
very closely but not the same.

1.3 Research problems

The research is aimed at studying the effectiveness of tenses in improving

1.3.1. Research Question

student writing skills at Technical College, Kuliyapitiya. The research problem

is “Are tenses effectiveness in improving students writing skills at Technical College
students?
 1. Is there a significant co – relation between students’ mastery of tenses and their
achievement in writings? At Technical College, Kuliyapitiya?
2. To what extent does the student’s mastery of tenses affect their achievement in
writing?
3. What types of errors are found in students writing performances in related to
grammar?
4. Do the students posses the knowledge of time expressions?

1.4 Limitations

Limitations of the current research are based on same factors.

First the current study only seeks for the effectiveness of tenses although the lot of other
factors influence in improving students writing.

The study is limited to the sample group of students not for all the students at Technical
College.

The sample of the students is aimed Sinhalese people, who speaks and write Sinhala as
their main language. The study fails to analyzed the improvement of writing skill
among the students of other language background.

The current study is aimed at the adult learners. The age another factor; which
limits the results of the findings.

All the students of the sample represent the middle class of the society and all of
them have attended to government school. This will be another limitation because in the
country there are international school learners. Regarding them the findings of the study
may differ.

1.5 Methodology

The study is mainly focused on the effectiveness of tenses in developing students

writing. The primary data will be collected from the students’ writing and a comparison
will be made in order to see whether there is an improvement after implementing the
knowledge of grammar.

The books and other research materials will be the sources of the secondary
data.

The primary data will be collected from twenty five students of the ages
between nineteen to twenty five; who are having the desire to learn English.

The sample consists of 25 students who study four subjects in English and they
are exposed to Sinhala language environment. The particular group has been selected as
they have more opportunity in the institution to learn grammar in the academic period
and they have to develop their writing skills as a subject to collect data pretest and a
post test will be compared.

The data taken from the pretest will be analyzed, especially errors and will be
compared with the post test. The effectiveness of tenses improving students and writing
will be brought out.

1.6 Outcomes of the Research

This attempt is to present the reader the effectiveness of tenses in developing students’
writing skills. The study describes the knowledge of tenses both active voice and
passive voice, effects remarkable in developing students writing skills.

The analysis of errors in the language will show the path way to identify the difficulties
that second language learners face in performing their writing skills.

The topic of the study is studied by some other researches; in a similar way.
But not the same study.

This study would enable the academic researchers, language teachers and to
build up further discussions on the effectiveness of tenses in developing students
writing skills.

The knowledge that will be gathered through the study will guide the teacher
and trainers of English language.
For the teachers and teacher researches, the finding of the research will inform
them about grammatical components that need to be given emphasis to assist
students to write a grammatically accurate performance

Findings and discussions of the study will be useful in planning study materials
for second language learners: to improve ability in studying English specially in
writing.

For the students; they can be motivated to write more grammatically accurate
texts and they are encouraged to learn grammar seriously.

1.7 The outline of the dissertation

The research is focused on the effectiveness of tenses in developing students

writing skills. The study collects data based on learner errors and comparing
two performances during the research period.

In the next chapter, the literary review will be presented. It is based on

secondary sources including printed materials and from internet. In this chapter,
the theoretical aspect of the grammar specially tense that affects writing will be
discussed. In the latter part of the section, the information of the previous
researches done locally and internationally will be presented.

In the third chapter the procedure of the research work including methods and
methodologies will be descriptively presented.

The next chapter will be the analysis of primary data which can be presented as
the proof.

The current study is aimed at the adult learners the age is another factor; which
limits the results of the findings. All the students of the sample represent the
middle class of the society and all of them have attended to government school.
This will be another limitation because in the countrythere are international
school leavers. regarding them the findings of the study may differ.
End notes

1Sadana s.(2017),Improving student’s writing ability in descriptive way through

content base instructions,Ta,mirulislam Surakarta ,Sri sardana.pdf downloaded
on 10th February 2019 .

2.Bryson s.(20190) Verb tenses in academic writing,https//www.scribbr.com

downloaded on 12th February 2019.

3HidayaT.E (2017) Co- relation between mastery of grammar .past tense and
there achievement.Scholar.google.com downloaded on 12th February 2019.
 Chapter - 2

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

In this chapter the resources that associated for finding facts and the findings are
included. Definitions of the needed terms and findings of the previous researchers are
caught in this chapter. Thus grammar, tenses ,active voice, passive
voice ,writing .methods of teaching grammar, time expressions, verb forms ,applied
linguistics and second language acquisition are further studied in this chapter.

2.1 Grammar

The term ‘Grammar’ denotes that the origin of ‘letter’ is in rooted in several languages.
In the past, the art of using letters and creating messages with the use of symbolic
markings was seen to be a sign of supernatural powers, causing some early 1 Crystal,
D., 1995.s

Further the word ‘glamour’, which means descriptive magic, derived from the same
origin. Nevertheless, the modern usage of the word indicates that much of its
unfavorable undertones are no more attributed to the word ‘glamour’. (Dykes, Barbara.)

According to Hornby, the author of the Oxford dictionary, the study of the rules of
language by which words change their forms or combine into sentences is ‘grammar’
(Hornby, Oxford). Linda and Peter ‘grammar’ delineates with how words of the
language are put together and functions accordingly. (gerot)
As defined by Homer the rules that are related to changing the forms of words and
combining sentences, is the grammar of language (Homer, The Practice of…). Hence,
‘grammar’ according to most of its definition can be considered as how words of groups
of words in a language are arranged to form meaningful and accurate sentences. Thus,
‘grammar’ of English language also is same as that of any other language, the set of
rules that govern the construction of English sentences. As a matter of fact, all our
utterances are governed by a set of rules that decides its accuracy and the constructions
that are do not follow the rule would be meaningless and in vain as the listeners cannot
decode our message into a meaningful utterance. Thus, grammar is crucial in precise
and prolific communication, written or may be verbal.

Dykes( 200:5) in her book grammar for everyone describes grammar is simply a
language to talk about language or the same statement can be interpreted as grammar is
a language to learn the language. Therefore, it is explicit that grammar is the method
through with any meaningful and accurate statement is made. Starting from the
vocabulary to combining words into sentences with and understanding of their function
and resulted meaning, delineates with the study of grammar. Then, study of grammar
takes the learner to the underlying structures of language which make it possible for the
learner to be fluent at its usage.

Leech (1982:3) in his book English Grammar for Today, states that ‘grammar refers to
the mechanism according to which language works when it is used to communicate’.
Hence, the way language functions, is subjected to be controlled and guided by the rules
of grammar of the particular language. All the languages have a well organized set of
rules of their own which is considered as the science of language that depicts how
language functions.

Grammar, the set of structured rules of a language that govern the way it works at
producing accurate utterances, differs from one language to another in its structure. In
English grammar, three basic grammars are there; etymology, orthography and syntax.

1. Etymology refers to the study of proper and accurate arrangement of English

letters into an English word. According to etymology there are eight basic
sections or groups in language. These 8 groups are called the eight parts of
speech; noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and
interjection.
 2. Orthography means the spelling system of a language or picture sounds of
language that is in the form of written or orthographic materials that consists of
spelling, capitalization, beheading and punctuation for instance.

a. Letter is a symbol of a sound or in other words letter is a sign of a scratch

that is spoken or rung.
b. Word is a set of symbols or letters that make up a meaning
c. Syllables are parts of a word that can be directly pronounced. Based on
the pronunciation, syllables can be classified into several categories;
Monosyllables, Disyllables, Trisyllables, Polysyllables.
3. Syntax is the study of the way English words are arranged into a proper
sentence. It is one of the prime divisions of grammar that marks the science of
sentence construction or the set of rules that should be followed to produce a
sentence which is both grammatically and semantically accurate.

2.1.1 Use of grammar

The knowledge of grammar enables us to communicate precisely and prolifically, hence

makes it possible to interact productively and effectively to reach the desired outcome
through communication with other human beings. Therefore, the understanding of the
grammar of language is crucial factor that decides our fluency in both writing and
speaking.

2.2 Tenses
As a main category of grammar, tenses depicts the time in relation to the moment when
verbal or written expression is produced. Tenses are typically demonstrated by the use
of particular forms of verbs, mainly in their conjugation patterns. There are three main
tenses, namely, Present tense, Past tense and the future tense, which denotes the time of
action.

It is said that the term ‘tense’ is a Latin originated term which derived from the Latin
word ‘tempus’ meaning ‘time’. Thus, the term ‘tense’ refers to the use of verb in order
to indicate the time of action. As stated by A.S. Hornby, ‘the word ‘time’ and ‘tense’
should not be confused. The word time stands for a concept with which all mankind is
familiar which deals with the present past and future. On the other hand ‘tense’ stands
for a verb form or series of verb forms used to express a time relation. Tenses may
indicate wheatear an action, activity or state.

Most commonly tense describes the time in relation to the situation of an utterance or
the moment of speaking. For instance, present, past and the future are the common
tenses that is there in almost all the languages. When considering the present tense, it
describes a situation or an action that correspond to the time of speaking. A situation
which is described in the past takes place prior to the moment of speaking. Likewise, a
situation that can be occurred subsequent to the moment of speaking relates to the
future. As tense refers to the time of action or situation described through an utterance,
it is described as ‘deictic’. Deictic means an interval or period of the time expressed in
the utterance. Time can be depicted through time markers such as ‘ at the moment’,
‘yesterday’, tomorrow etc. There are for major aspects which are related to tenses;
simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous. The English tenses with which the
study would be dealt are simple present, present continuous and past.

The forms of verbs that show time are tenses. In absolute tenses, as in English , tenses
depicts when the moment of assertion, the time of completion, or time of evaluation or
the time of evaluation take place relative to the utterance itself. On the other hand tense
is relative to some given event.

Besides, the classification of tenses simply as past, present and future can also be further
divided in to several other parts when considering minute difference of the moment of
action. For instance, general past, immediate past, or distant past. The certain points that
can be shown in a time line are the reference points in focus in that division of tenses.
However, the classifications of this sort are not always precise as far as the
psychological state of the speaker plays a major role in expressing an action as remote
or recent not merely the number of days passed. May be an action is remote solely
because the speaker feels so, or may be when compared to another action there is a
sense as if something happened in the distant past. This is similar to other of diexis such
as this and that.

It is an argumentative when considering the number of tenses in a language as the word

tense is often used to show any combination of tenses proper, aspect and mood.
According to various studies ‘tense’ may largely express the qualities of ambiguity,
frequency, completion, duration, possibility or whether information originates from
experience or hearsay. Further, tense differs from aspects, which predetermine the way
an action or a situation takes place in time rather than when. In many languages there
are grammatical forms which describe several of these meanings.

As in English, in absolute tenses, as in English , tenses depicts when the moment of

assertion, the time of completion, or time of evaluation or the time of evaluation take
place relative to the utterance itself. On the other hand tense is relative to some given
event. They are often depicts by a verb or a model verb.

The word “ grammar” meaning “letter” has come down to ask in a path through
several languages . In early times , the craft of using letters and constructing messages
with the use of symbolic markings was seen to indicate magical powers , coursing some
early crystal , D……. , 1995 , The Cambridge University press , Cambridge .

The word ‘ glamour ‘ , meaning a descriptive charm , derived from the

same source. However , in modern usage this word has lost much of its detrimental
connotation. (Dykes , Barbara . Grammar For Everyone , P.9. )

The Oxford Dictionary written by As Horn by defines grammar as the

study of a language rules by which the words may change their forms and or combine
into sentences. ( Horn by , Oxford Advanced Learner dictionary , P.17 ) Then according
to Linda and Peter , grammar is a theory of language that describes how it put together
and work. ( Gerot and Wignell , Making sense of functional Grammar , P.2).

Harmer defines that grammar of a language is a description of the ways

about that can change their forms and can be combined into sentences. In that language
( Harmer , The practice of English Language Teaching education, 2001 .P.12.) Based on
these definitions , the writer concludes that grammar is the set of rules that describes
how words or group words can be arranged to form sentences in a particular language.
So that grammar of English consist of all the rules that govern the formation of English
sentences. Obvious when we utter some words without using a certain rule , Our
utterance would be in vain. Then our listeners don’t understand what we have said or
what the purpose of our utterances. Therefore grammar guides people how to speak and
write in a correct way. In this way , The communication could occur fluently and
understandable. According to Dykes ( 2007: 5) in her book. Grammar for Everyone
states that the simplest understanding of grammar is “ grammar is a language to talk
about language” or can be interpreted grammar is a language to learn the language. So
called because of the grammar we can learn how to communicate with languages that
are not separated in relation to studying grammar ; Starting from the vocabulary and its
function , the sentence pattern , the phrase , and its meaning.

According to Leech ( 1982 : 3 ) in his book English Grammar for Today

defines grammar as “ Grammar refers to the mechanism according to which language
works when it is used to communicate .” From this understanding we can understand
that grammar is a Science that studies how a language works to communicate.
(http://www.researchgate.net)

Grammar is a set of structured rules that govern the order of sentences ,

namely (1) etymology (2) Orthography (3) syntax .

1) Etymology , Which is the study of the proper preparation of English Letters

into an English word . In Etymology , English words are grouped into 8
sections or called the Eight parts of speech .

The eight sections are noun , adjective , verb , pronoun , adverb , prepositions ,
conjunctions , and interjection .

2) Orthography is a spelling System of a language or picture sounds of

language in the form of writing or symbols , Orthography material include
spelling , Capitalization , beheading and punctuation
 (a) Letter (letter), is a symbol of the sound or in another meaning is
mentioned that letter is a sign of a scratch that is spoken or rung.
(b) Word is a series of letters that make up a meaning.
(c) Syllables, are part of a word that can be directly pronounced, syllable
can be classified by into several types
namely,Monosyllable,Disyllable,Disyllable,Polysyllable,Disyllable,
Polysyllable.

3) Syntax, is the Study of how to compose English words into a proper English
sentence and accordingly or it can also be said that the syntax is part of the
grammar that learns about the process of forming a sentence.
(https://www.researchgate.net.) Downloaded at 10thFebruary 19.40.

Correct grammar increases our skills, and the ability to communicate

clearly and effectively is necessary in any profession where there’s intension
with other human beings. Understanding the basics of grammar is needed to
make us proficient speakers and writers. (https://www.thoughtco.com)
Downloaded on 07th February 2019 at 17.10.

2.2 Tenses

Tenses is the form of a verb that takes to show the time it happened. There
are three main tenses. Present tense: things that are true when the words are
spoken or written.
(https://simple.m.wikipedia.org)
Downloaded on 12th February At 18.50.

Definition of Tense, the word “tense” is derived

ultimately from the Latin word ‘tempus’ meaning ‘time’. Tense is a form of
verb used to indicate the time. In discussing tense and time A.S Horn by
states that “the words ‘time’ and ‘tense’ must not be confused. The word
time stands for a concept with which all mankind is familiar divided in to
past, present and future. The word tense stands for a verb form or series of
verb forms used to express a time relation. Tenses may indicate whether an
action, activity or state.”

Tense commonly refers to the time of the situation which relates to the
situation of utterance or at the moment at the speaking. For example, the
commonest tenses found in languages are present, pat and future: a situation
described in the present tense is related as simultaneous with the moment or
speaking; the situation described in the past are related prior to the moment
of the speaking; while the situation described in the future as relates sequent
to the moment of peaking. Since tense refers to the time of the situation
which relates to the situation of the utterances.It can be described as,
“deictic” In other work, deictic refers to an interval or period of the time
which contains the moment of utterance. It can be expressed by some words:
yesterday now a tomorrow. English works have only two simple tenses. The
tenses called the simple present and simple past. The English tensethat
would be discussed are simple present, present continuous and past.

Tenses are verbs forms that shows time. In absolute

tenses, as in English, tense indicates when the time of assertion, time of
completion or time of evaluationoccurs relative to the utterance itself. In
relative tenses, on the other hand, tense is relative to some grin event.

Tenses can also make finer destination than simple past-

present-future: pat tense for example can cover general parts; immediate
past, or distant past, with the only different between them being the distance
on the timeline between the reference points. Such distinctions aren’t
precise, an event may be describe in the remote past because it feels remote
to the speaker not because a set number of days have passed since it
happened. It may also be remote because it I contrasted with another more
recent, pass even. This is similar to other of diesis such as this and that.
 The number of tenses in a language may be dispute,
because the term tense is often used to represent any combination of tenses
proper, aspect and mood. In many texts the term “tense” may erroneously
indicate qualities of uncertainty, frequency, completion, duration, possibility
or whether information derives from experience or hearsay. Tens differs
from aspect, which encodes how a situation or action accurse in time tether
than when. In many languages, there are grammatical forms which express
several of these meanings.

In absolute tense , as in English , tense indicate when the

time of assertion time of completion , or time of evaluation occurs relative to
the utterances itself. In relative tense , on the other hand , tense is relative to
some given event. They are normally usually indicates by a verb or a modal
verb.
(https://www.researchgate.net) Downloaded on 10th February 2019 at 19.10

2.2.1 Active Voice

When the subject of the main clauses does the action , the
sentence is in Active voice. The other voice is the passive voice .
(https://www.dictionary.com) Downloaded on 15th February 2019 at 20.20.

According to the dictionary meaning the active voice is a

form or set of forms , Verb in which the subject , is typically , the person or
thing that perform the deed and that can be taken as the direct object.
 In order to study grammar , type of a clause or sentence
that the action is denote by the subject and if the action is expressed by
representative verb ; it is called active voice. In another words , When the
subject does the action directly. It can be called as active voice.
(https://literarydevice.net) Downloaded at 15th February at 21.00

Among most of the world’s languages ,active voice is

common. It’s same in English as it is the unmarked voice for clause
featuring a transitive verb in language . A Normally when the Subject of the
verb does or perform the action those sentences are called active voice in
most of the language.

Commonly subject expresses the main verbs , agent in

active voice sentences. So called subject denotes the designated action of the
verb. In another words when the agent I marked as grammatical subject in
any clause , the clause can be named as active voice clause. The opposite of
this is the passive voice.

2.2.2 Passive Voice

Passive voice sentences can be build up by changing

object of an action in to the subject of the constructed sentence.
Grammatically always the performer is not the subject of the sentence . In
passive voice , It is showed by the following example .

Flower are picked by the girl .

Lets consider who is doing the action in this sentence. The girl is the one
who doe the action in the sentence. But the chicken is not in the spot where
we would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead The word “ Flowers”
is the grammar subject.

Passive sentences can be identified easily as it contain , “

to be “ ( is , am , are , was , were , has been , have been , had been , will be ,
will have been , being ) followed by past participle form of the verbs. When
a sentence consist with form of “ have” or “ be” it can’t be recognized as
passive.

The word “have” play an important role vividly and

differently . For an example
Mary has to work tonight.

In the above sentence , “ha” is not a part of a past tense verb. It’ a modal
verb ; just like “must” , “can” or “may”. Likewise “be” is also always
passive. “be”plays the main role and act as the main verb rather working an
action . for example

Amaya is a talented teacher.

In the above sentence , “ is” is simply describing Amaya’s state of being.
Identifying a sentence whether it is a passive voice sentence or active voice
sentence is not a difficult task , if one sees attentively deep in to the
sentence. Here many important things should be identified ; Such as the
action of the sentence , what is at the beginning of the sentence does the
person or thing do the action and the “point” the object of the action is there
in the subject position at the beginning should be identified.

If the subject or does is there , it can be seen at the end of

the sentence , in a phrase that after the word “by” .
 Sometimes when something is written in passive voice
other hare to guess what the sentence constructer mean. But sometimes the
confusion is minor.

In scientific writing , Instructors recommend or require to

use passive voice , because , It avoids first person , an example lab reports
and writing about scientific topics or literature.

Sometimes passive voice is needed than active voice for

some specific writing passive voice can be used to emphasize an object. Like
wise the passive sentences can be used to de – emphasize an unknown
subject / actor , and also , It the reader doesn’t need to know who’s
responsible for the action.
(https://writingcenter.unc.edu) downloaded on 21st of February at 19:20

As it is mentioned in https://www.ef.com the passive

voice is used to show the object that under goes with the action rather than
the person who does the action. https://www.ef.com

2.2.1 Active voice

2.2.1.1Present Tense

All the tenses can be devided into two major as active and passive , Both
active and passive tense can be separated as present tense , past tense and
future tense.

According to the web page WRITING ,EXPLAINED ; the present tense

is the events or actions that are happening now , relative to the speaker or writer – or to
action that are habitually happens and may not be performing right now.These
performances are general truths or , they are performing now.
(https://writingexplained.org) downloaded on 25th of February at 17.10

As it is mentioned in Wikipedia the present tene is a grammatical tense,

whose ,key function is to create an event or incident in the present time.This tense is
used to express the actions that are done , or happening now. It is important to know the
three sentences, present tense , past tense and future tense can be lined up according to
the time.Present tense is a term that is used in descriptions or a language, that represents
a specific grammatical form or set of forms.

This tense not only indicate the present tense as mentioned in the
following example ,

My flight leaves tomorrow morning.

The verb “leaves” is in present tense though the event is in the future tense . Similary in
the historical present , the present tense is used to narrate the past events.(
https://en.m.wikipedia.org) downloaded on 25th of February 2019 at 17.30

The whole present tense can be classified in to four parts as , simple

present , present continuous , present perfect and , present perfect continuous.

Simple present is a verb tense which has two main uses. Specially this
tense I used to use two special functions . Thoe are the actions are happening right now
or the actions happens regularly. It depends on the person ;By adding s, or es to the end
of the root form of verb, in simple present tense.

Present continuous is also called as present progressive . This tense is

mostly and commonly used in spoken. So called present progressive tense is used for to
convey several functions. Present continuous tense talks about theactions happening at
that moment and also to describe a performance that is happening now but not at the
exact moment of speech such as “Mrs. Perera is working in Jaffna.” Like wise , this
progressive tense is used to describe and event planned in the future too. Sometimes this
tense is used to emphasize the frequency of an action. To describe a performance which
is happening now and is subject to interruption.

Present perfect tense describes a performance that happened at time that

is not specific and performances that started in past but continue to the present. It
contains subject has or have and past participle of the verb.

The present perfect progressive tense performs the actions which were
started in past but continue to the present and those actions have recently stopped. It
contains subject , has or have , been , present participle form of the verb. This tense is
used to describe or express the actions that started in the past but continue to the present
, and also to express the actions that have recently stopped. (
https://writingexplained.org) downloaded on 28th February 2019 at 16.20

2.2.1.2 Past Tense

Past tense is a grammatical tense which denotes the past

actions as the key function. In languages , the past tense give a grammatical meaning to
the events or actions being referred to past . Past tense in English is used to perform the
actions in the past, to talk about the hypotheses and also to talk politely. Past tense is
commonly used in wishes and also in a conditions with it.

In some other languages like French , they hare

compound past to indicate or express completed events.
(https://learnenglish.britishcounsil.org) downloaded on 28th February 2019 at 16.30

According to https://www.grammar.cl past tense is used

to express the actions that began and finished at a definite time in the past.

The main rule of performing past tense in English is ,

there is only one form of it in the past tense.

In past tense , regular verbs are change in to past tense by

adding “ed” to the end of the verb. Sometimes there may be slight changes. “Didn’t” is
used in forming negative sentences and in past.
 Irregular verbs are only irregular in positive sentences.as
the past tense of go is went .It doesn’t end in ed. So the word went is consider as
irregular.

(https://www.grammar.monster.com) downloaded on 02nd March 2019 at 16.20

Based on the time of the completion of action, four types

of past tense can be considered. Simple past tense ; Past continuous , past perfect and
past perfect continuous.

Actions that were happened or existed in past expressed in

simple past tense. Under variation conditions simple past tense is used. It is used to
express a performance that happened in the past or at a specific time. This tense is also
used to express actions that as been completed and when the time is not mentioned.
Also the actions or events that are done repeatedly and regularly are expressed in this
tense. To describe a state of mind in the past or a feeling that was felt in the previous ,
or past time. To express about a dead person also this simple present tense is used.

Normally we add ed or d , to form the past tense verb.

But there are some verbs like cut , put and set doesn’t change the form even in the past
tense.

Past continuous tense is used to express happening event

in the past. In the following conditions also past continuous tense is used.

As in the example , She was blaming him when she came

home. Someone in the middle of an action can be showed.

Past continuous is also used express a performance taking

place when another occurred as in the example , “I was explaining the lesson while they
were listening.”

This tense is also used to express an action that was done

in the past when an action happen ; as in the example , “while the plumber was working
in the factory he was injured.”

To form the past continuous , the past tense of the verb to

be (was / were) and the present participle verbs ending “ing” are used.
 The past perfect tense express an event that happened , in
the past before another event in the simple past tense was completed in the past. The
past perfect is used to express an event that has been finished in the past.

“Mother had decided to call all the family members.”

In this tense actions which happened before a definite time in past also described as in
the example , people had decorated the hall before the couple arrived.

The actions , finished in the past before another performance happened ; are also are
also expressed in this tense , as in the following example.

“We had reached the peak of the mountain after the function was over.”

Even for describe a state also past perfect can be used .The key function of the past
perfect tense is ; it is used to clarify which event happen first when two actions were
completed in the past , as in the example ;

“I had eaten the chocolate that you bought from Malaysia”

The past perfect tense is formed with the past tense of the auxiliary verb hare , which is
had and the pat participle of the main verb.

Past perfect continuous tense is used to denote events that

were happening in the past until another event in the past happened. This tense is used
to express an event that has occured over a period having started in the past.

Also to express an even which begun and end up in the

past before another past action , and also it’s commonly used in reported speech where
the present perfect progressive tense becomes ; past perfect progressive tense , past
perfect continuous tense is not used , to indicate state , state of mind or feelings.

2.2.1.3 FUTURE TENSE

 As mentioned in the Google dictionary a tense expressing an action
that has not yet happened or a state that does not exist is the future tense. This tense as
name indicates , gives a future sense. Future tense can be divided into four categories ;
Such as simple future tense , future continuous tense , future perfect tense and future
perfect continuous tense.

The simple future tense , is used to express certain facts or actions. It I

also used to give warning or taking decision . To convey the readiness also future
simple tense is used with the use of shall suggestions and offerings can be made in this
tense . To invite someone or to order come one this tense is very useful. The expressions
or sentences in this tense can be used in affirmative , interrogative and negative
sentences. In this sentence both “ shall” and “will” can be used. But in modern English
will is used rather than “shall”.

The future continuous tense, is used to express an action tat is

happening in the future. The future progressive tense is used to express ourselves in the
future.The future events can be predicted by this tense. Any one is able to inquire or ask
about events in the future. The events like that has continuous nature of happens
regularly.

The future perfect tense is little bit complex comparing to the other tenses in
future .This tense is referred to an performance which will have been completed at
certain time in the future. The structure of the future perfect is

Subject + shall/will + have + verb in the past participle

As an example;

Mary will have prepared dinner before her children come home.

Future perfect progressive tense is not practical more used

2.2.2Pssive voice.

2.2.2.1 Simple present passive voice.

English language consists two voices as early mentioned. As active voice is used when
subject does the action. Example

1Affirmative form

1 Ayuni picks flowers.

A B

In the above exercise A is the subject and B is the object.But in passive we pay attention
towards object of the sentence; as in the example B comes first

2, Flowers are picked by ayuni.

Object+is/sre +past participle form of the verb.+by +doer

Sometimes when the agent is unknown we don’t use by.

2 The ngatve form.

Flowers are not picked by Ayuni.

3 The question form

Are the flowers picked by Ayuni?

4.Using with”wh” words

How are the flowers picked?

5. Simple present passive voice is often used in talking about at, science or literature..,
to talk about directions and instructions and in news reports.

2. Present continuous passive voice.

When something is done by someone at this moment; this tense is used.

2.1Affermative active

Harini is making a kite now

 A. B

2.2 affermative passive

B comes to the initial position and B is followed by “by”

A kite is being made by Harini.

Object+is /are + past participle of verb+by+doer

2.3 Present continuous passive negative

A kite is not being made by HArini.

2.4Present continuous passive queustion form.

Is a kite being made by Harini.

2.5 With “wh” words

What is being made by Harin

2.3Present perfect passive voice.

2.3.1present perfect affirmative active voice.

The director has congratulated Mr.Perera on his achievement.

A B

In the above sentence the object “Mr. Perera “comes to the initiative position and the
subject moves in to the end followed by ‘by’.

2.3.2 Present perfect affirmative passive voice

MrPerera has been congratulated by the director on his achievement.

2.3.3 Present perfect negative passive voice

Mr Perera has not been congratulated by his director on his achievement.

2.3.4 Present perfect passive voice question form.

Has MrPerera been congratulated on his achievement by the director.

2.3.5 With “wh” question words.

Why has MrPerera been congratulated by the director.

2.4 PAST TENSE PASSIVE.

Object+was/were+past participle form of the verb+by the doer

2.4.1 Simple past affirmative active voice

TheSecurity officer checked my hand bag.

A B

Here the object “my hand bag ‘ is tranfered to the beginning point and the subject of the
sentence goes back to end of the sentence and also followed by ‘by”when the active
voice sentence is transferred in to passive voice.

2.4.2 simple past negative passive voice.

My hand bag was not checked by the security officer.

2.4.3 Simple past passive voice Question form.

Was my hand bag checked by the security officer.

2.4.4 With ‘WH’ question word.

What was checked by the security officer?

2.5 Past continuous passive voice

Object+was/were being+past participle of the verb+ by +the doer

2.5.1 past continuous active voice affirmative.

The master was complaining the poor boy.

A B

As in the above examples ,the object ‘the master “is transferred in to the latter part.The
object “the poor boy “ moves to the initiative position.

2.5.2 Past continuous passive voice

The poor boy was being complained by the master.

2.5.3 Past continuous passive negative form

The poor boy was not being complained by the master.

2.5.3Past continuous passive question form.

Wasn’t the poor boy being complained?

2.5.4 With the ‘WH ‘ question words

Why was the poor boy being complained?

2.6 Past perfect passive voice tense.

Object +had +been +past participle form of the verb+ the doer

2.6.1Past perfect active voice affirmative .

My sister had broken a beautiful flower vase

A B

In translating the active sentence in to the passive “A” and “B” change there
places .The verb does not change.It remains in the same form;pastparticiple,Only a
helping verb “been’ is added.

2.6.2past perfect passive affimative form.

A beautiful flower vase had been broken by my sister. .

2.6.3 past perfect passive negative form.

A beautiful flower vase had not been broken by my sister.

2.6.4 Past perfect passive question form.

Had the beautiful flower vase is broken by my sister.

2.6.5 With “wh ‘words

What had been broken by my sister?

2.7.1 Future simple passive tenses.

This tense is used when Some thing be done by some one in the future. Object+ will
+be +past participle form of the verb+ by +doer

2 .7 .2 future simple active voiceaffirmative

We will take the cattles to the cattle house.

A B

When forming the passive voice, The subject we moves to the latter part and the object
we, come to the beginning.The verb changes from base form to past participle and the
helping verb will stays same but the helping verb ‘”be “ is added..

2.7.3Future simple passive voice affirmative .

The cattles will be taken to the cattle house.

2.7.4 Future simple passive voice negative.

The cattles will not be taken in to the cattle house..

2.7.5 Future simple passive voice question form.

Will the cattles be taken into the farm house.

2.7.6 With ‘wh” question words.

Which animals will be taken in to the farm house

2.8 Future perfect tense

Object +will+ have+ been +past participle form of the verb+ by+ doer

In the future perfect passive voice tense the object is kept at the beginning and the doer
is placed after the verb .The verb is same as the future perfect active voice.It is kept in
past participle form of the verb.The helping verb will also used and ”have been” is
added to the verb

2.8.1 Future perfect active voice

Children will have seen the film.

2.8.2 Future perfect passive voice affirmative.

The film will have been seen by the children

2.8.3 Future perfect passive voice negative

The film Will have not been seen by the children.

2.8.4 Future perfect passive question form .

Will have not the film been seen by the children.

2.8.5 With “wh “ question words.

What will have been seen by the children.

.2.3Infinitives in passive voice.

Infinitives are very often in passive voice sentences. IT is very easy to form passive
using an infinitive with be and a participle.It is a as infinitive construction in which the
doer either appears or not followed by “by”.It is also called the present passive
infinitive.There present passive infinitive can be formed by as

to+be+a past participle.

The table cloth needs to be washed.

I am expected to be the monitor next time.

2.4 WHAT IS WRITING?

Writing is a medium of human according to Wikipedia. It further

explains, this medium of communication that represent language including emotions
using signs and symbols. In most of the languages writing is a very needy component,
for spoken language. Certainly writing is not a language but is a tool which is used to
make the language readable. In almost all the languages writing consist with
vocabulary, grammar, semantics, signs and symbols. Text is called as the final
achievement of writing. Reader is the recipient of the writing. One can be motivated for
writing through publication, storytelling, correspondence, record keeping and diaries.
Writing can be used as an instrument in keeping history, maintain culture, gaining
knowledge through media & the formation of legal systems.

(https://en.m.wikipedia.org)

When the human societies established , the development of writing

can be identified and promoted such as exchanging information , maintaining financial
accounts keeping records in law and to keep records in history.

Writing is already and will continue to be an important part your

everyday life. The writing you do can be as simple as jotting down a phone message of
writing yourself a quick reminder or as complex as developing a research paper on
historical event or preparing a science lab report.

Upper Suddle River .2001. Writing and Grammar Communication in

Action .United States of America, P.2.

As English. Club mentions, “Writing is a process of using

letters of the alphabet, punctuation and a way of communicate thoughts and ideas in a
readable form.

(https://www.englishclub.com) Downloaded on
 Generally instruments such as pens, pencils, keyboards,
are used and, the surface of a paper or white board, black boards are used to write on.
Hence writing is the fourth skill out of the four skills which are called as listening,
speaking and reading.

According to writing center, University of North Carolina,

writing is a response, liner, recursive, both subject and object, decision making and also
a process.

Through it is concerned or not; any person write reacting

to some person or thing. Through the writing is an individual or isolated act when it is
concern carefully it’s really a social act. Writing is always happens in specific, often
prescribed context. Always writing touches an audience or a specific purpose; the writer
expects, and wants

2.4.1 Value of writing for students

For the students writing is an essential and key skill which

benefits a lot for their entire lives that link them to the working world. The barriers of
writing is a struggle for the students in their writing process, and it develops the
negative view of writing and negative image of students’ abilities in the communication
in writing aspect. When the teachers identify the correct barriers of writing and guide
them correctly. Students will able to buildup confidence and hopefully lifelong desire
for writing. Sometimes various strategies might be implemented to improve students
writing. Some of them are, grammar instructions, strategy instruction, and self-
regulation to Strategy Instruction and guided writing.

Grammar instruction is a key strategy for the students that

enable them to communicate in verbally or in writing. Specially for writing skill,
effective grammar instruction is more beneficial for both students and teachers because
the knowledge that students already knows and doesn’t know can be identified. Here the
most important thing is to find out whether the error based grammar can influence on
students short time writing or long time writing. It can be measured by uses them
qualitatively in their mechanism, sentence structure usage. According to many Google
researchers establishing students’ grammar knowledge is the most beneficial way of
helping students to improve their writing.

Primary effects have been shown, the story elements, higher related
stories in term of quality and long stories also effect on student writing in a very
positive way. By supply a target strategy model and support them to improve by
themselves. They are self-regulation strategy instructions. Hence the many skills such as
quality of writing knowledge of writing, approach writing and attitudes about writing of
their performance can be improved.

Guided writing provides opportunities for direct intervention

instruction, assessment & feedback of students writing.

2.4.2Writing Process

The writing process contains five stages; as prewriting, drafting,

revising, editing and publishing. As the language contains the power of decision –
making, linearity, social context, subjectivity it’s clear writing I a process, that take
place over time and through language. Each writer has a good combination of thinking,
planning, drafting and revising that. Altogether these elements make writing both an
interesting and challenging act.

Planning and gathering idea stage is the pre-writing. At this stage

students generate ideas for writing. With the influence of the teacher’s motivation,
brainstorming, reading, literature, creating life maps, web and story chart, developing
word banks, can be used successfully at this stage.

In rough draft stage students roughly write their ideas on papers.

Neatness of the performance can’t be expected at this stage.

Reread is the stage that students proof their own work by reading
aloud. Next stage is the step to share their performance with a peer revision. There
students share and makes suggestions for improvement. Here the peer reviser is
responsible to ask some questions and look for better words, and talking about how to
make the work better.
 In the revise stage additions and taking out unnecessary work can be
done. Peer suggestions also can be done. The phase of editing for mechanics & spelling
finally students produce their final copy and write a final draft. If the students or
anybody is able they can publish.

2.5 Error analysis

In linguistics according to J. Richard et al; an error is the use of a word, speech at or

grammatical items in such a way it seems imperfect and significant of an incomplete
learning. (Wikipedia)

Error analysis is a branch of applied linguistics. It is identified the

complication study, and the errors done by second language learners an it focuses on
investigating aspect of second language acquisition. Error analysis is the concept of
interlanguage. (Glottopedia)

As it in Wikipedia errors are the “Signals” that shows the arears the
learners have not mastered or shown which have not reached the target competency
level. This error analysis pare the path way to nourish both the trainer and the second
language learner as it shows where should the trainer change the own methodology.

According to Corder(1976 ) errors are significant of three things.

First to the teacher, in that reveals whether the second language learner follows the
systematic analysis, how far toward that goal that the learner has reached and also what
is to be learnt.

Second, the result of analysis provides enough proof and evidence of

how language is acquired, and strength the learner possess in the second language.

The most important fact is the third, the errors are considered as the
signs of insufficient or lack of teaching methods. ( Corder 1976, p. 163)

Two schools are identified regarding error analysis and philosophy.

The first school according to Corder (1976) highlights the errors commitment with the
teaching method, was successful or strong enough to nourish the students the errors
would not be occurred.
 The second school associated that we live in an imperfect world and,
whatever the teaching method, the errors correction is important.

Before identifying the method of error analysis, contrastive analysis

was famous and used in dealing and conceptualizing the learners’ error in 1950s. This
approach greatly touched the concept of first language interference and interlingual
effect. (Anefnaf 2.2017). It emphasized the main reason for occurring errors of Second
language is the first language. Especially the environment and background of the
language learners badly affects the production in the target language.

X – Fang and Xue –mei (2007) showed that contrastive analysis

hypothesis aims that the main struggle to second language acquisition is the interference
of the first language with the second language. The finding of the analysis will predict
the areas of weak.

As J. Richard et al.(2012) developed a branch of linguistics and it

emphasized that the first language is not the only source of the errors that is done by
second language learner.

Hashim , A. (1999) mentioned that the effect of the language is more

complex and these errors can be occurred even by the second language itself.

According to J. Richard et.al.(2002) the first step of the error analyze

is identifying the methods and strategies which learners use in language learning; and
teaching that the teachers use. The second one is recognizing the reasons for learners’
errors it is investigating the motives to overcome such errors. Third to finding
information on common difficulties in second language learning.

With the help of the Error Analysis approach two major reasons can
be identified. Those are Interlingual errors are made by the learners’ linguistic
background and native language interference. Intralingua errors are committed by the
learners when they misuse some rules of the target language.

A main investigation of error analysis had been recognized as the

most of learner errors are produced by learners by making wrong interference of the
rules of the new language .Errors can be classified as the omission, addition, substitutive
or related to word order .According to the level of the language errors can be classified.
As phonological errors, vocabulary, lexical errors. Syntactic errors.

Global errors make the utterance difficult to understand. But the local errors do not “I
happy” is a local error. Error treatment in language teaching is related very closely with
error analysis

In second language acquisition error analysis concerns about the types and reasons of
language errors .Errors are classified according to

Modality

Linguistic levels

Form

Type

Cause

Norm vs system

Modality means the level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading and listening.
Linguistic levels are the pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and style .Form in errors
are omission, insertion, and substitution errors of types are systematic errors and
occasional errors /errors in performance. Inter language and interference are belong to
cause. To [Richard|etal {2002} the kind of inter lingual errors have been classified as
follows.

1. Over generalization errors

2Simplification errors

3 Development errors

4Induced errors

5 Errors of avoidance
6 Errors of over production.

Over generalization errors ,the second language learner apply a rule where it should not
apply, Second language learner may use “goed” as the past tense of ‘GO’

{Corder214p.276}

In simplication second language learners produce to simpler linguistic forms that what it
should be in the target language. The errors that are occurred due to overgeneralization
are normally happens as the learners started developing their linguistic knowledge and
fail to re produce the rules they have under gone lately.

Induce errors are known as transfer of training.

According Corder{1974.p.25}, he proposes five steps in error analysis research in order

to reach that object

1. Collection of sample of learner language.

2 Identification of errors

3 Description of errors

4 Explanation of errors

5 Evaluation of errors

As it is very difficult to analyze performance of the whole class, it is very important to

select the sample as represent the whole target people. Then thee errors should be
identified and classifieds as where the error is?

` Sometimes the error may stand in the noun, verb, and objector in the
preposition. Then it should be described as whether it is a Deviation of the rules of
language or Deviation of the language us . Thus the error should be described as
omission, addition, and misformation or misordering. Some errors are occurred due to
Interference of the first language.{www.scielo.org.com}

a mistake. And also an error can be an overt error or covert error According to the

Deviation correctness. Or appropriateness should be there.

By looking at the surface of the error it can be identified as omission, addition,
misinformation and misordering errors. Omission is considered as the absence of an
item that should appear in a well formed utterance .Eg;-“She calling”

Addition is identified as the presence of an item that should not appear in well-formed
utterance. E.g. He doesn’t walks to the bus stop.

Malformation is the use of wrong form of the morpheme or structure.Eg;--The boy

marked a kite.

Misordering is regarded as the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of

morphemes in an utterance.,e .g.{where are going they?

2.6 Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis is, giving explanation by examining the qualitative data, for
specific purpose. {Wikipedia}Qualitative data analysis gives an understanding of the
research objective by revealing the lots of facts of the performed data in the qualitative
data analysis the following process will be proceeded.

1. Data organization

.2.Data interpretation

3. Pattern identification

4 Ties field to research.

5Formsthe basis of or informed and various conclusion.

2.7 Second language acquisition

Language acquisition can be considered as very equal to acquisition of first and second
languages. The essential thing that is needed is the meaningful interaction in target
language. Especially the speaker should concern about the message that they convey.
Error correction and explicit of teaching rules don’t effect too much in language
acquisition. (Brown, 1973)

The acquisition process is supported by caretakers and native speakers, by modifying

their utterances helping them to understand .A stable order of acquisition can be
identified acquisition of structure in language .The structures are acquired first and
others things are acquired late. (Brown R. , 1973)

There should not have a conscious awareness of the rules .Self correctness may occur
on the occasion. Error correction and the presentation of the rules of grammar also help
conscious language learning. (Krashen, 1973)

The error correction is a great advantage for the second language learner to come to the
correct mental representation of the acquisition process.

Identify the utterances are performed by system of acquired and the outcome of
utterances. Fluency is based on what they have picked up through active
communication. The conscious learning may alter the production.

There are multiple theories of second language acquisition. In major reviews

(Mclaughlin, 1987) examines five important second language theories .The essence of
second language theories is to describe to individual and contextual conditions for
efficient second language to occur.

2.7.1Theories of Second language Learning

2.7.1.1The Acculturation Model of Second Language Learning.

(Schumann, 1986)Proposes an acculturan model of second language acquisition whose

essential element is the second language learner adopt to the culture. The modal starts
with the idea that language is one aspect of culture, and the relationship between the
language community of the learner and the second language community is important in
second language acquisition. The basic premise of the model is the egret which a learner
acculturates to the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires
the second language. Schumann (19780) portrays the various factors that are important
in good language learning. Expressed in group rather than individual terms.

Schumann introduces some social factors that determine the second language individual
or group receiving the target language group.

1. The target language group and the second language learner group are self-
perceived as relatively socially equal. The greater the equality distance
(domination, subordination) the less chance of language learning.
2. The target language and second language learner groups both desire assimilation
of the learner’s social group.
3. Both groups expect the second language group to share social facilities as
operated by the social target language group.
4. The second language learner is small, not very cohesive and can be assimilated
in to the target language group.
5. The extent to that the second language learner group‘s culture is congruent and
similar to that of the target language group thus assisting the assimilation.
6. The extent to that both groups have positive attitudes and expectations of each
other.
7. The extent to that the second language learner group expect to stay with the
target language group for longer rather than a short period.

(Schumann, 1986)Also lists Psychological factors that are important in second language
learning. These include possible language confusion when using the second language
(language shock.);the feeling of stress anxiety or disorientation because of the
differences between the learners culture and the target language culture(culture
shock),the degree of motivation in learning a language .and the degree of inhabitation or
self-consciousness adolescent performers may experience in acquiring second language.
According to Schumann the factors which are identified support to determine the
amount of contact language. The amount of factors are identified under social, external
factors and by individual factors. The performer may fail to progress very far in learning
a second language when the performer’s psychological and social distances are larger.
When the social and psychological factors create a positive background the second
language may occur very positively and painlessly. When social and psychological
factors are effecting negatively, an individual may fail to acquire the target language
successfully. If this negative environment is occurred often or over a period the target
language may decline or even die.

For Schuman (Schumann, 1986) three broad functions are identified such as: a
communication function, an integrative function and an expressive function. In this way
language supports to transmit information, help affiliation and to belong to a particular
social group, and allows to express individual feelings, ideas and personality. Initially
the second language learners use their second language for communication and then
they find the part to affiliate to particular social group .Some learners, but not all may
find an expressive way to use second language. Furthermore this theory is extended to
display the way of understanding the politics and power of language in its social
context. It reveals a valuable point of why some children with a good aptitude ability
and fail to learn second language. Finally this model conveys that it is more appropriate
to learn a second language naturally rather than learning formally in classroom.

2.7.1.2 Accommodation theory

The American professor, Howard Giles with his colleagues introduces this theory to
explain second language acquisition in a group or intergroup situation.

For (Giles,H &Coupland,N, 1991)the important factor is the perceived social difference
between the in-group (the language learner’s social group) and the out group (the target
language community).The relationships between the in-group and out-group are seen as
both fluid and constantly negotiated. One way of portraying this theory is to profile
person from a subordinate group who is likely to acquire the language of the dominant
group. (Atalay, 2019)

The learner is likely to show the following characteristics

1. Have a relatively weak identification with their own ethnic group. That is such
learners do not see themselves as purely a member of their minority language
 group separate from the dominant language group. Alternatively their first
language is not important to membership of their ethnic group.
2. Do not regard their ethnic group as inferior to the dominant group. A good
language learner makes comparisons between their ethnic group and the
dominant group, or is not concerned about a difference of status.
3. Perceive their ethnic group as having low validity compared with the dominant
group (Giles,H &Coupland,N, 1991))talk of a perception of ethno linguistic
vitality which includes the economic,historic,social,political and language status
the ethnic group, mixed and institutional support for the ethnic group( marriages
amount of in-migration and out migration(e.g mass media, education, religion,
industry ,services, culture and government).
4. See their ethnic group boundaries as ‘soft and open’ and not ‘hard and closed’
5. (Giles, n.d.; Giles,H &Coupland,N, 1991) Hold adequate status within their ethnic
group (in terms of employment, gender, power and religion).

Thus for (Giles, n.d.)a person less likely to acquire a second language may have
strong identification with their own group, makes ‘insecure ’comparisons with
their own group; regard their own language community as having high validity,
good institutional support, being sizable and stable of high status; perceive the
boundaries between their own and the second language group as separate rigid,
and have inadequate status within their first language group.

Like the Acculturation model, accommodation Theory does not explain the
internal mechanism of how a child acquires a second language. It is essentially a
socio-psychological model rather than a cognitive-processing model of second
language acquisition.

(Giles, H,& Williams ,A, 1992)is also critical in that (Giles,H &Coupland,N,
1991)may wrongly assume that language development is gradual and
cumulative, of a consensus nature. Concerned with order and cohesion with a
consequent limited discussion of power, struggle and conflict. He argues that
ethno linguistic validity is more of typological construct than a refined concept.
It suffers from a lack of integration of its constituent parts, as a consequent of
which it is difficult to understand how the subjective and objective dimensions
relate. And of inter –group relationship, Williams (1992; page224) critically
comments that the argument is merely couched in terms of individuals,
rationally conditioned to behave in terms of optimization, with the quest for
status and the associated positive identity being the motivating force of behavior.
This tends to play down conflict and power, thereby not expressing the anger,
discrimination and frustration felt by language minority groups and their
members.

One strength of the theory is that it takes into account ethnic identity language
learning, an important determining factor for many children and adults in second
language acquisition.

2.7.1.3 krashen’s monitor Model

The monitor model of Krashen(1977) is probably the most widely cited of

theories of second language acquisition. It is Krashens theory that has often
dominated education research and education debate in second language
acquisition.

Five central hypothesis and some other variables are concerned in that Monitor
Model Theory.

The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis.

A very crucial difference between the first language and second language is the
way the learner acquire. First language is acquired naturally and second language
is acquired in formal situations. Thus acquisition and learning is distinguished by
Krashen.Accioording to him Acquisition is a sub conscious process that results
from informal, natural communication between people where language is a
means and not a focus nor an end in itself. Learning occurs in a more forma
situation where the overt properties of a language are taught. Language learning
has traditionally involved grammar, vocabulary learning and the teaching of
other formal linguistic properties .Learning is a conscious process that enables a
learner to know about the second language. With second language learning, the
analysis and correction of errors is formally and explicitly addressed.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis conveys that the second language learner acquire the
grammatical structures in a predictable order for both children and adults. The s

Standards order will occur when a learner engages in natural communication.

Research on morphemes and on the development of specific grammatical forms
does not support a strong version of the hypothesis.

The monitor hypothesis

The monitor is an ending device that may operate before language performance.
Utterances may be modified by being acted upon by the monitor of learnt
knowledge. Such editing may occur before the natural output of speech; it may
occur after the output via a correction device. Krashen suggests that monitoring
occurs when there is sufficient time there is pressure to communicate correctly
and not just convey meaning, and when the appropriate rules of speech are
known. Examples include knowing the correct tense to use, when to use the third
or first person and rules about plurals this hypothesis has been criticized for
being untestable and for a lack of supportive research evidence.

The input hypothesis

To explain how language acquisition occurs ,Krashens proposes that when

learners are exposed to grammatical features a little beyond their current
level ,those features are acquired .He emphasizes that acquisition is the result of
comprehensible language input and not of language production. Input is made
comprehensible

The Affective Filter hypothesis.

An affective filter hypothesis was introduced by Duly &Burt (1977) to suggest

the idea that there is a filter that determines how much a learner learns in a
formal or informal language setting. The filter comprises affective factors such as
attitudes to language, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. In this way
learners with favorable attitudes and confidence may have a ‘low filter with
consequent efficient second language learning. Those with unfavorable attitudes
and or high anxiety have high filters and so the input of second language learning
 may be blocked or impeded. The affective filter proposed by Krashen influences
the rate of development in second language learning

2.7.2 Individual variations

It is very important to identify the variations of the individuals. According to

Ritchie(19780)there are three types of second language performers .They are over users,
under users and Optimal users. (Ritchie, 1978)

“Over users” feel that they must know the rule for their utterances. They don’t trust their
feel for grammar in the second language. This type of individuals suffer from
unwillingness speak for making mistakes.

Under users are the performers that depend on what he can “pick up” of the second
language. Under users are able to error corrections .They don’t think too much about
grammar. They gain a great deal of they don’t think too much about grammar. They
grasp a great deal of target language and may build up complex constructions.

The third performer doesn’t perform well in the real life communication. But they may
be good at academic writing and prepared speech. They give priority to grammar. They
are called “monitor over users” (Nida, 1956)

2.7.2 .1Characteristics of Monitor users

* This type of users edit their second language performance when it doesn’t
relate with communication.

* Various type of errors at various situations can be seen by editing by their

utterances.

* improve their literacy by editing.

* Always concerned about the correct language and consider the

performance is careless when they don’t monitor the performance

2.7.2.2 over User

Over users can stem from a simple lack of acquisition .Those are only trained in only in
foreign language classroom. They are conscious of grammar. Also they develop more
knowledge on target language. Over users have not acquired much but have no
choice .These type of performers use the first language as an utterance when they speak
as they lack acquired competence in the second language.

Over users try to self-correct “by the rule” when correcting errors Over users often
conscious about the rule that was broken and be able to verbalize it. (Cohen, 1976)

2.7.2.3 under user

Adult second language performers who don’t seem to use monitor even when there is
an encouragement conditions .Those type of users seems to be like first language
acquires don’t use more conscious linguistic knowledge and error corrections in
performing second language.

Under users don’t appear to be used the conscious grammar knowledge. Very good
example for under users are the people who live in countries where there the target
language is spoken or even in the same country they may get more opportunities to
speak or perform in second language or expose to the target language. (Cohen, 1976)
2.7.3 Attitude and Aptitude in second language acquisition and
learning.

Attitude and aptitude directly effect on second language achievement. Both attitude and
aptitude don’t relate each other. This may refer from learner to learner. Some may have
high attitude and high aptitude. Some may have high aptitude and low attitude or low
attitude and high aptitude or both low.

2.7.3.1 Aptitude

According to (Carrol, 1973)the language aptitude is “rate at which persons at the

secondary school, university and adult level to criterion (p; 5) the language aptitude is
measured by a standardized test such as Modern language Aptitude Test and Language
aptitude Battery. According to Carroll, the language aptitude tests can be categorized
three major components. They are phonetic coding ability to store new language sound
in memory. This component will not be that much effect on second language learning.

The second component is “the individual’s ability to demonstrate his awareness of the
syntactical patterning of sentences in the language. According to Carroll performance
on this component require the subjects knowing grammatical terminology.

The third component of aptitude is labeled as inductive ability. This is the ability to
examine language material and from this to notice and identify patterns and
correspondence s and relationships involving either meaning or grammatical form.
(Carrol, 1973)

“A typical method of measuring this ability is to present materials in an artificial

language, in such a way that the individual can induce the grammatical and semantic
rules governing that language. The foreign language aptitude is most closely related to
with general intelligence “Thus inductive ability sensitivity and verbal intelligence are
conscious learning. Thus its aim is the discovery of an explicit, abstract set of rules to
solve a problem .The same process is followed by the linguists in writing grammar.

Pimsleur’s summary of the components of language aptitude is quite similar to, but not
identical with carroll’s;

Thus Pimsleu suggests the ‘talent’ for learning foreign language consist of three
components. The first is verbal intelligence, by which is familiar with words (this is
measured by Language Aptitude Battery by the vocabulary part) and the Analytical
reasoning ability about verbal materials ((this is measured by the part called @language
analysis’) The motivation is the second component to learn the language. ‘Auditory
Ability is introduced as the third component.( (Pimsleur, 1996)

According to the above informations the two major components, inductive ability and
grammatical senility, of Carroll and the Verbal Intelligence (Pimsleur, 1996)are
identified as important in second language learning.

2.7.3.2 Attitude

(Ellis, 1986)) suggests that attitude is sets of beliefs about factors such as the culture of
the native land and the culture of target language and also the culture of the language
classroom. According to Ellis the negative or positive expressions may evolve in
creating negative or positive impression in language acquirer.

Gardner and Lambert have investigated many different attitudes, which were classified
by Stem(1983) in three types.

1) Attitudes towards the community and people who speak second language.
2) Attitudes towards learning and language concerned.
3) Attitudes towards language and language learning in general.

More personality characteristics and general interest in the target language of acquirer
may influence them in a positive or negative way. It is very crucial point the language
learners to feel about learning a particular language in a particular course and from a
particular teacher. It is obvious and also noted in many studies the learners who have
positive attitudes learn more.
The attitudinal factors that relate to second language acquisition; activate in two ways.
The first is the factor that encourage intake. These factors encourage to acquire the
target language. These are simply factors that assist second language acquires to
communicate with speakers of target language. There the necessary intake for the
language acquisition is obtained (Gardner,r & Lambert,w)

The second is the factor that enable the performer to use the language heard for
acquisition also relate to language proficiency. Hearing a second language with
understanding appears to be necessary but is not enough acquisition to take place.
Acquisition is not only understanding the input but also it should be opened. According
(Dulay.H and Burt.M, 1974)) the socio affective filter is introduced, by that it is
mentioned that a performer who is with high or strong filters may acquire less from the
language that directed to them and less input is allowed in to language acquisition
device. Dulay and Burt explain which of the alternative models that the acquirer
internalize. The following attitudinal factors will relate for second language proficiency.

Integrative motivation is the desire to be like valued members of the community that
speak second language. The interrogative motivation encourages the acquirer to interact
with speakers of the second language out of true interest. And there by to obtain more
successful intake. The interpretively motivated former may not feel a struggle other
groups and will open for receptive learning. Rather than defensive learning. (Stevic,
1976)Instrumental motivation defined as the desire to achieve proficiency in a language
usage or practical usage. This also relate to proficiency of second language acquisition.
Its presence may encourage the performer to interact with the second language learner.
For the instrumentally motivated performer with a view to have some practical purpose.
Personality factors linked to motivational factors. The self-confident or secure person
will be more encourage intake and will also have a lower filter.

Integrative motivation predicts a low affective filter while the instrumental motivation
predicts a stronger one. With instrumental motivation, language acquisition may cease
as soon as enough is acquired to get the job done. Instrumentally motivated performers
may acquire just the aspects of the target language that are necessary
Personality factors are linked to motivational factors. The self-confident or secure
person will be more able to encourage intake and will also have a lower filter. There the
self-confidence traits such as lack of anxiety, outgoing personality, and self-esteem are
related to second language acquisition. (Giles,H &Coupland,N, 1991)Empathy is the
other ability catch the target language and thus accept the intake for language
acquisition. Empathy appears to interact with other attitudinal factors. (Sachuman,
1975)) suggests that the natural factors that affect ego flexibility inhabitants are those
conditions which make the learner less anxious.

Another personality traits that are not related with self-confidence also relate the success
of second language acquisition such as the attitude towards the classroom and teacher.
This may affect both acquisition and learning. The students who feel free to learn in the
classroom and like the teacher may find interest in learning the second language. This is
the fact that the positive attitude towards the teacher and classroom. Students with such
attitudes apply themselves more, resulting in more learning.In addition students who
have an analytical orientation should do better in conscious learning.

According to all the above factors ‘good language learner is an acquirer, who first of all
is able to obtain sufficient intake in the target language, and has a low affective filter to
enable him to utilize this input for language acquisition. The good language learner
would not be conscious learner.

According to the survey of (Naimon, 1978)it is found that the two factors immersion
and motivation were the most influenced factors in second language acquisition. Good
language learners must do more than just be present in formal and informal
environments.

If someone is exposed to the environment where the target language was spoken, would
study on his own, lesson a day in formal grammar may improve the acquirer towards
the target language. Thus the mixture of both formal and informal experiences are very
important in acquiring a second language.

As well as good language acquirers there are bad language acquirers. These bad
language learners have neither acquisition nor learning going on for them. This might be
a result of attitudinal factors, low aptitude or interest in grammar. According to all the
above facts it is proven that, acquisition is obligatory and central for the real proficiency
in a second language. According (Savigman)attitude is the single most important factor
in second language learning.

2.8 The influence of Formal and informal Linguistic environment in

language acquisition and language learning.

Thus the two sort of linguistic environments are considered. Those are formal and
informal environments .Krashen and Seliger (1975) have identified that all language
teaching systems which are practiced for adult teaching use activities which contain
linguistic rules one at a time and some sort of feedback is present. Other features of
formal teaching can’t be seen in all teaching methods .Krashen and seliger also have
noted that these features such as rule isolation and feedback do not seem to be present in
informal environment.

Many studies by the researchers suggest that adults don’t increase their second language
proficiency in informal environments but the acquirers who spend a comparable amount
of time in formal situations may do better. Some other studies suggest the ‘exposure’
has a little or no influence in on increasing adult second language proficiency.

(Upshur, 1968)Compared three group of students at University of Michigan. The students

were adult English second language learners and had enrolled in a special summer
session for law students .The first group has scored the highest at the entrance But the
Michigan test ,attended seminars and classes during the seven week period that were
conducted in English. But they didn’t participated in extra English classes. The second
group, who scored lower on the Michigan Entrance test, attended to less number of
classes and participated extra 1 hour English class. The third group scored lowest on the
pretest and participated extra English class daily for two hours. At the end of the
summer an alternate form the pretest was given and a kind of improvement could be
seen among all the three groups in their performance. Upshur revealed by his statistical
analysis No significant effects on language learning attributable to amount of language
instructions’. And concluded that ‘foreign language courses may at this time be less
effective means for producing language learning than the use of language in other
activities.
According to Krashen and Seliger (1975) the motivated second language learners are
able to provide themselves with the essential ingredients of formal instruction without
going to class. Rule By asking informants about grammar or recourse to a text may do
the rule isolation. The peer feedback may help in this process.

(mason, 1971))is also in his study certain foreign students at the university of Hawaii
were allowed to attend regular academic teaching lessons without any extra second
language exposures. Their English placement scores significantly showed that they need
to be enrolled in English for foreign students’ classes. Posttest given at the semester
showed no significant difference in increase in English proficiency between those
excused from English as second language and controls who took the required English as
second language class.

Carroll (1967) conducted the second language proficiency of American college seniors
majoring in foreign languages. In that year the foreign language proficiency test was
given to twenty five percent of the total population of senior language majors. Carroll’s
major finding was that on the average, those students performed very poorly. He was
able to find a strong relationship between attainment and measures of time spent in
different linguistic environments. A strong relationship was identified among the
students who spent more time in the country where the target language was spoken.
They scored more.

Another significant relationship was also found between test performance and the extent
to which the target language was used in the student’s home. Those reporting frequent
parental use of the target language scored higher than students who reported occasional
use. The students who reported occasional use were not affected much by their parent
for the second language as those parents were unable to speak the target language at
home.. The use of the language at home may have increased motivation to study, and
time spent abroad may have meant more formal study and more chances for self-study,

Carrols studies found that those who started foreign languages at early stages could
achieve better scores. .Those who stared target language at high schools performed
better than those who started in college. This relationship is independent of that found
between proficiency and time spent in informal environment. Carrols great finding of
that is the attainment of skill in a foreign language is a function of time spent in its
study.
According to the studies of Krashen and Seliger(1976) and Krashen,Seliger and
Hartnett(1974) ,The ‘exposer’ and formal instructions are compared and identified
more instructions effect on higher proficiency, while more exposer does not necessarily
mean more proficiency. Both studies compared instruction and exposure by matching
pairs of foreign students for one of these variables and seeing whether the students who
excelled on the other was more profession in English.

The amount of formal instructions was measured by simply on the report of the number
of years he or she had studied English in a school situation. Concerning the factors such
as the methodology used, the usage of a language laboratory, how often the class met,
the ]/Amount of time the student devoted to his studies or grades received,. Questions
were not asked. The ‘exposure was defined as the product of the number of years the
student who have spent in an English speaking country and how much English the
student spoke daily. The scores were obtained considering number both years spent in
an English speaking country and the same report of speaking.

Informal environments provide the necessary input for acquisition while the classroom
aids increase learner’s competency. The reinterpretation of Krashen and Friedlander
data suggested the above mentioned fact. At first the informal environments must be
intensive and involve the learner directly in order to be effective. It is important to
distinguish ‘exposure type ‘informal environments and ‘intake type ‘environments.
Only the latter provide true input to the language acquisition device.it seems both
learning and acquisition can be accomplished at the classroom. The classwork directly
aimed at increasing conscious linguistic knowledge of the target language. To the extent
that the second language is really used.to the same extent the acquisition may occur. So
the classroom may work as a formal linguistic environment. The child relies primarily
on acquisition. Thus ‘intake’ informal environments are sufficient. The classroom may
provide only additional intake. It appears to be the case that when children have access
to rich intake environments. Extra classes are not necessary (Fathman, 1976)

2.9 The effect of Morpheme in language acquisition

A Fruitful method to understand adult’s second language acquisition mechanism is

studying the grammatical morphemes. The history of Morpheme studies in language
acquisition begins with brown’s demonstration. (Brown, 1973)There the children
acquire English as first language clearly show a equal order of acquisition for
grammatical morphemes in obligatory situations. The morphemes such as’ing’ and
plural, tend to be acquired relatively quickly, while others , such as the third person
singular /s/ on verbs in the present tense or the possessive ‘s marker seems to be
acquired later.(Duly and Burt 1973)

The discovery of the natural order has allowed us to probe the interaction between
language learning and language acquisition in adult performer.Gramaartical morpheme
studies of adults was started by (Bailey, Madden, and Krashen, 1974) In that study it
was clear that students showed a ‘natural order’ for eight grammatical morphemes, a
difficulty order similar to that found in child second language acquires by Duly and
Burt. With oral language elicited by bilingual syntax.

According to Ann Fathman adult performers showed a difficulty order similar to that
seen in children who acquire second language. There was no so first language influence.
There was no difference in rank order between informal acquirers and formal learners.
The formal learners being those who reported having had a great deal of instructions in
English and little real use and the informal acquirers ,reported a great deal of real world
exposure to English but little or no classroom instructions.

2.9 Learning patterns and styles in second language learning

Learning style in other words can be introduced as cognitive style.it is the way that the
learner attempt to learn something in the target language. Different learners may prefer
different styles or different methods to acquire the foreign language. Some learners may
need more examples and more explanations of grammar rules. Some may feel more
witting practices may help them to remind grammar and structures. Some other learners
may understand the things may easier when they learn through visual aids Richard and
Ellis (1986) expresses that learning styles or strategy accounts for how learners
accumulate new language rules and they automate existing things. (Richard, Longman
Dictionary of Applied Dictionay of Applied Linguistic)

Keefe 1979) described learning styles as ‘The characteristics cognitive, affective, and
psychological behaviors that serve relatively stable indicators of how learners acquire,
interact and respond to the learning environment. Learning styles of students can be
influenced by many factors among which are their genitive background their culture and
previous learning experiences.

In this way routings and patterns also do a major role in second language learning.
Routings are that one can memorize whole utterances or phrases simply, such as how
are you, I’m fine, and where is your workplace. Without any conscious knowledge the
performer may use these phrases as the structure is internalized to them. Complete lines
from memorized dialogues qualify prefabricated routings like expressions do which are
learned from foreign language books. It is noted that prefabricated patterns are distinct
from routings. Those are half memorized and half creative. These sentences consist of
sentence frames with an open slot for a word or a phrase. Such as ‘This is a ---------
(vase, table,..)Lyon (1969) defined such patterns as ‘phrase and sentence schemata’, and
also called as ‘utterances that are grammatically unstructured or only partially
structured, those can be structured in sentences according to productive rules. Audio-
lingual pattern practice is based on the use of prefabricated patterns.

R.Brown (1973) identified in his studies about first language acquisition some of his
subject’s sentences and patterns were memorized. He suggested that prefabricated
routings in children output of very high input frequency.

2.10 Theory and Practice in second language Learning.

In language teaching programmes ,the whole content is devided in to four categories

which is called four skills as, reading,writing ,speaking and listening’It is noted that this
is not the optimal devising by different sources.Most of the programmes associate only
one or two skills .Many studies have proven that such variations are artificial .oller 1976
suggest that there is no any factor or evidence to prove that reading speaking, oral and
writing are separate factors. Oller1976 has noted that error analysis ‘reveals a high
degree of correspondence between the structure generated in widely different tasks such
as translations,oral imitations,and spontaneous speech.

Many studies have proven that the caretakers speech can influence grately in language
acquisition..These caretakers don’t intend to teach a language purposely but their
concern is to communicate .However the caretakers speech is a n excellent teaching
language,even though it may not always seem to be at first check.According to
Clark,1977 and the superb collection of Snow and Ferguson ,caretaker speech has the
following characteristics.

1)the caretakers follow the @here and now ‘ theory which can be explained as they talk
about what is going on in the immediate environment of the young child at the moment.
Thus it is very important to give the child n extra linguistic support to aid in his
comprehension of what is said to him.

2)The structure of the language is very simple and becomes complex gradually, as the
child gains in linguistic matuarity.This characteristic is bit avdvance.Care takers do not
simply aim at the order of structures. They according to the daily needs the child is due
to acquire the next. Care taker input seems to be ‘roughly tuned’ to the child’s linguistic
ability.. High correlations between linguistic input complexity and linguistic
competence in children Cross (1977)

3) Caretakers speech is communication. Caretakers’ speech does not aim at Language

teaching. it is to convey messages and often to get the child to behave in a certain way.
It turns out to the case that care takers speech is effective in encouraging language
acquisition Cross 1977, Newport(1977)

These characteristics prove that the comprehension may be at the heart of the language
acquisition process. Perhaps its acquired by understanding language that is little beyond
of current level of competence.

In analyzing the various kinds of activities done in language classroom,It is noted the
teachers try to give an optimal imput using very creative activities, among them the free
conversations are very popular and common.But it has failed in optimal input,as it is
often not understood.The failier of free conversation to qualify as intake implies that
second language teaching involves more than just talking to students about topics of
interests,
Another kind of language input is mechanical drill.It is also fails in it’s optimal intake in
second language acquisition. The primary focus of mechanical drill is the form of
language beingt utilized rather than it’s communicative intent.In this kind of practices
the content is understood,only in a trival sence.Lee,Mccune,and patton,1970) suggest
strongly that students do not pay much attention to repitatative drill after a few
repitation.

As these drills are not natural it is very doubtful that the meaning intake very deeply.
(stevic, 1976).These drill practices parcially suppots in acquiring the second
language,and also supplies motivation or encouragement in language acquisition.In case
of this the drills done in workshops and second language teaching programmes are very
useful.Even meaningful language drills also have their limitations.

According to Wanger-Gough and Hatch (1975) “the out side World” is unwilling to
provide the adult with intake. Children have more advantage of receiving real intake. for
successful intake more than the adults.

Even outside of the classroom there may be useful sourses of intake . The most
beneficial resourse is native speaker in the peer group.the language the second language
learners may come quite closer to meet the requirements of intake,as the communication
of each other is certainly natural, Also when the peers language is bit advance than
themselves they quickly catch the language which is beyond them.Fathman(1976)
suggests and also proves the presence of a native speaker in the group is beneficial.In
her study of second languale learners in in elementary schools in the Washington, she
found that the students in schools where there were morethan forty non native English
speakers seemed to make more progress than thopse in schools where there were fewer
foreign students.Fathman indicates to the fact that schools that had more foreign
students tended to have better organized school programmes for them..Thus the
language acquirers witin these groups become friends and with those who were from
other countries with whome they spokeEnglish.Supporting students to get to know each
other with English fluent students has become more popular activity.It is identified as
agood language teaching pedagogy.
END NOTES

Eric,efectof direct grammariructions on students writing

skills ,https;files.eric.gov.fulltext.

The effect of grammar tdeaching on writing development,research gate

,https;//researchgate.net

China.b.(2000),the role of grammar in improving student

grammar,https//educationcu.portland.edu.blog
A ndrevsR,togersonc.britisheducation research journal.p.39,55

Analyprsing students writing grammatical problem in

useoftenses,https//www.researchgate.net>publication

comm

Chapter-03

Methodology
3.0 Introduction

The current research is focused on investigating the effectiveness of tenses in

developing students writing at the technical college Kuliyapitiya .It is highly objective,
and qualitative study in order to satisfy research objectives. In this chapter ‘’
Methodology” the approach and methodology with the details of the sample and data
collection procedure method of identification of data and method of the classification
data used in conducting the present research will be discussed .

3.1 The approach and Methods.

The present researcher is of the view that the errors of the writing performances
will be able to correct by implementing the knowledge of tenses to some extent. The
study is done in the assumption that these learners are lack in knowledge of tenses .The
current study which is done using twenty-five students’ performance samples will be
analyzed qualitatively and quantatively. Research design for it is more objective, Allow
results to be analyzed and compared with the pretest and posttest. The research was
conducted in two phases .The first phase was handling the secondary resources such as
books , internet and other sources to gather and review knowledge .As the second phase
primary data collection and analyzing was conducted . To make the research successful
and to meet the objectives of the research , The performance of the students were
analyzed .the method the research was done in five steps .first the written performance
were collected and errors were identified and marked by underlining and categorized
in to groups according to the origin . The calculations and explanations are done Errors
are evaluated and interpreted by using tables, graphs and charts.

In the same way knowledge of tenses was examined by utilizing two grammar
questions; one for active voice and the other for passive voice. There also errors were
identified, classified and interpreted into graphs, tables and charts.

The major task that was started was implementing the grammar knowledge.
Utilizing innovative and interesting pedagogy the knowledge of active and passive
tenses was taught. After that a post test was given for grammar check. Especially for
tenses .When it is noticed students have improved their tense knowledge, the writing
activity was given. By comparing the results of the pretest and posttest, a conclusions
and recommendations are derived.

3.2 Target population and sample

Participants in the current research were selected from Technical college

Kuliyapitiya . They were second language learners, and ages between nineteen and
twenty five. They were selected out of one thousand and two hundred students in the
Technical college Kuliyapitiya because they have an own desire to learn English .The
sample consist with 10 male students and fifteen female students.

and they have the opportunity to study both grammar and writing in their academic
period .It is a must to relevant to the curriculum .The main reason for selecting them as
the sample; those students have enrolled in the class where the researcher works as an
instructor for the above mentioned class and at the end of the academic period the
students have to face a final writing paper as well as a grammar paper for their
summative assessment

3.3 The variables

Research variables are usually named as independent variables and dependent

variables. In the current study the knowledge of tense is the independent variable while
the writing is the dependent variable; has effect on.

As shown in the topic of the study the researcher wants to reveal the effectiveness of
tenses in developing students writing skills.
 The researcher bears the idea that when the students gain the knowledge the and
master tenses the writing may be better. Here the researcher assumes that students who
master tenses will perform more effectively

3.4 Methods of data collecting

In a research tools of collecting data plays a key role as it supports to determine the
results of the study. Thus, selecting research instruments carefully and in and
appropriate manner is very important. Research tools of collecting data may be differ
from study to study as their necessity and desire. Those instruments may be a test,
questionnaire, interview sheets, records or observation sheets.

In the current study the researcher utilizes two test types. One is a cloze type test to
measure the knowledge of tenses before teaching grammar and after teaching grammar.
The other test is to measure the student’s ability of writing before implementing
grammar knowledge and after implementing knowledge.

The cloze test was prepared as quite easy them to score and also the knowledge of
tenses only will be assessed. The results of the cloze test will reflect students
achievement in tenses .To avoided the misinterpretation one question has got only one
correct answer. Table 3.1 indicates the outline of the test of tenses

OUTLINE OF THE WORKSHEET of TENSES

Q1 Simple present-AV
Q2 Present continuous-AV
Q3 Present perfect-AV
Q4 Present perfect continuous.AV
Q5 Simple pasta-AV
 Q6 Past continuous-AV
Q7 Simple past-AV
Q8 Past perfect-AV
Q9 Past continuous-AV
Q10 Past perfect-AV
Q11 Present perfect continuous-AV
Q12 Simple past –AV
Q13 Future simple-AV
Q14 future perfect-AV
Q15 Future continuous-AV
Q16 Simple presentAV
Q17 Present continuousAV.
Q18 Present perfectAv
Q19 Future simpleAV
Q2O Present continuous
Q21 Future perfect
Q22 Future continuous
Q23 Past simple
Q24 Present perfect
Q25 Simple present

Table 3.1 outline of the work sheet for tenses.

AV-ACTIVE VOICE,

For the writing test students were given twenty sentences from mother tongue to
translate in to English language using correct grammar. Sentence structure, vocabulary
as well as grammar which were used suited the relevant curriculum. Sentence .Students
were given thirty minutes to answer the paper. Students performed their writings in a
free environment. Students were not allowed to chat during the chat Therefore the
results are very personal.

For the grammar paper two questions were as one question consist twenty five
sentences. Together there were fifty sentences for both active voice and passive voice.
There only the tense knowledge is assessed. Students are to fill in the blank with the
correct form of verb relevant to the correct tense. Time indicators are given to make the
activity easier

3.5 Scoring Techniques

From the two tests are different. The criterions of marking also different. The test that
consist tenses consisted of 60 items. Each correct answer scored 1 and 0 for wrong
answers.

For the writing test, the content was given marks for the following areas. As fluency
grammar, vocabulary, content and spelling. Student’s performance was scored 1 to 5 for
each component

3.6 Secondary Data

As the research topic relates with some linguistic area; mainly it touches syntax of
English and second language learning. Hence this study relates to applied linguistic. It is
compulsory to study the theoretical knowledge of that area to find out what is to
implement, what areas are to be covered, and get more beneficial results. This type of
data is called as, secondary data and it’s recorded in book, electronic materials, World
Wide Web. So the current study also associated with the secondary data.

For the above mentioned purpose, World Wide Websites such as Wikipedia,
Glotopedia, grammar study and exam, writing, explained and learn English were
associated.

The collected data through primary and secondary resources were analyzed,
summaries were handled for interpretation.

3.7 Methods of analyzing data

The data was collected from the twenty five students’ writing
performances .they were given a paragraph to translate in to English. The errors were
marked and identified. the errors were categorized as , spelling errors , verb
formation ,verb order, preposition, article etc. they were counted and taken to paragraph
and the weakness of the students learning performance was identify as grammar , then
another grammar test was conducted, make sure the weakness. There also the errors are
identified. After implementing the grammar knowledge the students are assessed for
writing as well as grammar

Hence the numerical data was analyzed by quantative method& the

errors are described by quantative method. Finally the pre assessments and post
assessments will be compared.

3.8 Method of implementing the tense knowledge.

with the use of scores and identifying errors of the pretest the researcher imagines the
performance level of the students will be able to enhance by implementing some
decided methodologies to upgrade knowledge of tenses.
Here the first attempt is to introduce the verb patterns including regular verbs and
irregular verbs. The methodology that was applied was conducting a game setting the
students in two sides students were informed to study by heart the three forms of
verbs ,the base form, tense and past participle with the spelling as well. They were given
four weeks to study before the game. Teacher reminded the verb forms daily before
starting the class .On the day that they are assessed the student were seated in two
sides .They wre obtained 10 marks if they could give the correct answer. If somebody
else gave the answer then they obtained only five marks. However students were
assessed individually and marks were given individually. The researcher recognized this
as a very successful method for practicing verbs.

The second attempt was to introduce the structure of the sentence according to the
active voice and passive voice. Here the students were clearly explained the structure
and using some interesting games such as story telling, reflective portfolios students are
motivated to practice the structure. At the end of the six weeks each and every students
were prepared for a micro teaching session .Students are motivated to prepare
presentation boards .Each and every students were given twenty minutes. Prior to the
assessment they are informed that they are not allowed to look in to the notes at that
moment.

This method was a very successful method for practicing tenses. After
implementing the tense knowledge and being satisfied with the student’s knowledge;
the post test of tensed will be given. There the marks are given and errors are marked.
The work sheet consist the same structure of the pretest.

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.0 INTRODUCTION

The research was focused on the effectiveness of tenses in developing the students
writing skills at technical college kuliyapitiya. There the students writing pieces were
taken in to consideration. There the researcher recognized more errors on grammar.
Hence to identify the errors of grammar where the second language learners are weak
in; researcher gave a writing assessment

Which contains twenty sentences to be translated in to English from their mother tongue
[Sinhala ].

The error analysis was done according to the linguist Corder. First errors were identified
in the sentences. Errors were identified and marked by red pen .the errors were
highlighted naming the error. Then classified classified the error in linguistic point of
view in to categories looking at the surface of the structure. The calculations were done
and the frequency also considered. Finally the founded data stored and arranged results
of analysis in the form of tables, graphs, and charts for categories.

To make sure the students are weak in tense knowledge and to recognize the types
errors, two cloze type questions were given, those results were also analyzed. The
results of the pretests and posttest were compared through the data. Tables charts and
graphs are utilized for interpretation of data

Correction code for the error types

Error type Correction code

Article Ar
Preposition Prep
Verb form Vf
Pronoun Prn
Spelling Sp
Number Nu
Word order Wo
Verb Tense Vt
Table 4.1 codes of errors
The errors of the writing activity.

Types of errors Errors in the use of verb form

Article 35
Prepositions 40
Verb form 70
Pronoun 20
Spelling 30
Number 10
Word order 5
Verb tense 75
Table 4.2 number of errors

80

70

60
Number of errors

50

40

30

20

10

0
Article preposition verb form pronoun spelling number word order verb tense
Error type

Figure 4.1 number of errors of pre test

AS shown in the table and the bar chart all the errors were categorized as the errors in
articles, prepositions, verb forms, pronouns, spelling ,word order ,verb tense and
number .according to the results students have performed more errors on verb forms
and verb tenses .less number of errors are found in pronouns, number and in word order.
The results of the post test

Types of errors Errors in the use of verb form

Article 20
Prepositions 21
Verb form 15
Pronoun 06
Spelling 10
Number 06
Word order 04
Verb tense 03
Table 4.3

25

20

15

10 Series 1
Series 2
5 Series 3

0
le on n g r er se
tic iti rm ou lin be rd en
r s fo n e m o t
a o b o sp nu rb
ep ve pr rd
ve
pr wo

Figure 44 results of post test

 Types of errors Pre - Test Post - Test
Article 35 20
Prepositions 40 21
Verb form 70 15
Pronoun 20 06
Spelling 30 10
Number 10 06
Word order 5 04
Verb tense 75 03

80

70

60

50

40

30 Pre - Test
Post - Test
20

10

0
le s n g r r e
tic on rm ou llin be de ns
A r is ti fo n e m o r te
o rb Pr
o Sp Nu d rb
ep Ve or Ve
Pr W

Errors of the verb tense

Out of all the errors, most number of errors were found in using verbs. Therefore the
errors of verb forms were divided in to two major categories as

1. Errors of verb forms

2. Errors of verb tenses
Those two categories are analyzed separately. There are several verb forms in English
as second language learners.

Each category was analyzed separately .The errors of verb and verb tenses are
categorized as follows

1. Omission of items within the verb forms 10

2. Addition of items within the verb forms 15
3. Malformation of verb forms. 45

Catergory of error

10

omission
addition
misformation
15

45

Errors in the use of verb forms

As it is shown in the chart number of errors verb form and verb tense are less than
the pretest .But the errors are also decreased due to implementing the grammar. The
number of errors of verb tense has gone down to three. Hence IT is very important to
compare the Number of errors of pretest and posttest .The results of the comparison
may show the effectiveness of grammar, tense knowledge in developing students
writing skill

Omission
 Student Number Correct sentence Error type Omission
1. 2/4 How many holy places How many holy places
have you visited ? have you visit?
2. 4/16/8 Mother punished the Mother punish the
baby baby.
3. 3/25/8 The fast runner started The fast runner start
the race. race.
4. 3/17 The minister has invited The master has invite
the followers the followers

In the question “how many holy places have you visited ?” is the expected answer from
the translation .But the student 1 and 4 have written it as visit instead of visited in the
sentence.Hense this error is considered as a omission .In the third question although
answer is “mother punished the baby “ mother punish the baby. They have omitted
“ed’”.

In the question number four the researcher expects sentence in simple present. But the
student three, twenty five and eight have written the fast runner start the race this is also
considered as an omission. There is a omission in question six also. The researcher
expects students to write “minister has invited the followers. The student save written,
“minister has invite “ ‘.

Addition

Student number Correct sentence Error

13/12/5 The president will join the The president will
conference. joinining the conference.
17/8/3 Mosquitoes bit the people Mosqutoesbited the
in dark people in dark.
20/8/6 The student read the text The student readed the
book yesterday text book yesterday..
 25/24 Could she lend me some Could she lends me some
money? money.

In addition to the omission the students of the technical college have done the error of
addition. Those can be observed and identified by the question eight, ten, 12 and
fourteen of the writing activity.

In the question eight it is expected to write “president will join the conference. But the
student thirteen, twelve and five have written “the president will joining the conference.
Hence this error is considered as an addition to the verb.

In the question number 10 whether the correct sentence is “the mosquitoes bit the
people in the dark. The students seventeen and eight and three have written “baited
“instead of bit. so this error also identified as an addition.

Misformation

Student Correct sentence Incorrect sentence

number
12 She has read the newspaper. She has red the news paper
4,7 How is this word written? How is this word writed?
18,11 Have you ever gone to fair Have you ever went to fair?
17 Have you eaten pitza? Have you eatedpitza?
10 Who has broken the toy? i
Who has breaked the toy?

In the example She has red the newspaper ,the researcher expects to write the verb read
the past participle of the verb read.
 The error in the above sentence is called as misformation.

eighteen and eleven have used the past tense form of the also

marked as misformation. Student number seventeen has written Have you eatedpitza
instead of the verb form eaten.

The student number ten asks the question “who has breaked the toy ?insted of
asking broken he asks breaked. Hense these type of errors can be identified as
misformation of verbs.

Verb tense errors

1) the example , bought is a past tense verb. Bought should be buy since the
two events both occur at the same time.

Why will you not buy a new handbag.

2) I have never drunk alcohol.

Is the correct sentence but the student 17 has written it in simple past instead of
present perfect tense as;
I never did not drink alcohol.

3) In the sentence, How long have you been playing for the sports club? Is
expected as the correct tense, but three students have written it in past
continuous though it should be written in past perfect continuous as; How
long were you playing for the sports club?
4) How many holy places have you visited?
Five students have used past simple tense instead of present perfect tense,
like
How many holy places did you visit?
 5) Six students has written I am wanting to learn English. For I want to learn
English. Students have written present continuous tense instead of simple
present tense.

Tense representation of the tasksheet 2

Question number Expected tense In correct tense

1 Present perfect AV Simple past
2 Present simple Av Plural/singular
3 Present perfect Av Simple past
4 Past simple Av ----
5 Present perfect AV Simple past
6 Present perfectAV -----
7 Present simple AV Plural/singular
8 Future simpleAV ------
9 Future simplAV Simple present
10 Past simpleAV Simple present
11 Present perfect continuous Present perfest
AV
12 Simple pastAV Present simple
13 Present perfect A v Simple past
14 Future simpleAV --------
15 Simple present AV Plural/singular
16 Present perfect Present continuos
 17 Simple presentPV --------
18 Present perfectAV Simple present/
19 Present perfect Simple past

The students of sample group show more errors on passive voice than active voice,past
permay be the structure is more complicated in passive voicesent

Results of the post test

Errors of post test

Type of error Frequency

Omission 4
Addition 6
Misformation 15
 number

omission
addition
misfomation

Number of errors of verb forms

Pre-test and post -test

Omission 10 4
Addition 15 6
Misformation 45 15

ERRORS OF POST TEs

50

45

40

35

30

25 Number of errors pre test

Number of errors post test
20

15

10

0
Omission Addition Misformation

Comparing pre test and post test of tenses

The results of the verb game.

GROUP A GROUP B

ST I 35 ST2 30
ST 3 45 ST4 15
ST5 15 ST6 20
ST7 20 ST8 30
ST9 15 ST10 45
ST 11 15 ST12 25
 ST13 35 ST14 15
ST 15 40 ST16 20
ST 17 30 ST18 35
ST19 35 ST20 20
ST 21 40 ST23 25
ST23 45 ST24 30
ST 25 25
Table

The verb game was conducted while implementing the grammar knowledge. Students
were given a list of regular verbs and irregular verbs to study. After four weeks of time
students were assessed, The actual intention was not to assess the knowledge of verbs in
students .But to make the students to study the regular and irregular verbs. Because it is
clear that the knowledge of the verbs directly influence in writing performances.Though
the studens are not strictly assessed, the researcher observes a kind of development in
students ‘ performances both in speaking and writing.No student has scored zero.These
results direct the research positively.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This section reveals mainly the findings of the research which are base on the analyzed
data, which were collected through the sample. The findings reflects the effectiveness
of tsnses in developing students writing. This directs to conclution and
recommendations.
The study is conducted on the base of research problem ” the effectiveness of tenses in
developing studens’ writing.”Througout the research the study is conducted finding
answers for research question “ is there a relationship between students mastery of
tenses and their achievement in writings in technicalcollegekuliyapitiya?”Four
objectives which were framed in the research proposal were achived towards the end of
the study.All research objectiveswere aimed at identifying errors of writing ,analyzing
errors ,assessing the knowledge of tenses and their functions which consist a
relationship with eachother.

Findings

The second language learners’ performances were analyzed through the test papers and
writing exercise .Further the achieving the first objective identification of errors in
the target language that were done by the sample group in their English writing was
done through the analysis of collected data.

The analysis of data has proven enough facts related to effectiveness of the knowledge
of tenses in developing students’ writing. firstly the analysis of writing performance
has proven that the students have problem in verb formation .

The second aspect that was noticed was keeping the correct verb form relevant to the
correct tense. Identifying time indicaters was also tested in the same writing activity.
some students were weak in identifying the time indicater and it has badly effected in
keeping the correct form of the verb.

In regarding forming the sentences ,,the passive voice was bit challenging than active
voice for the students. Further more certain findings could be presented by analyzing
the collected data.

Further more certain findings could be presented by analyzing the collected data.
1.The relation ship between tenses and writing performances.

2.Poor knowledge of the structure of tenses.Studentswre able to perfom more correct

sentences in active voice than passive voice.

3. The type of errors that the student do in writing as second language learners .The
omissions ,additions,minfmations were identified through the error analysis.

4. Less knowledge of identifying the time indicaters has caused in performing the
sentences in tenses.

5. The other errors rather than errors in tenses were also identified such as the errors in
prepositions, articles, spelling erros, word order erros etc.

6. Importance of implementing grammar knowledge in developing students’ writing

performances was also identified.

7. Utilizing innovative pedagogical methods in teaching grammar has agreat impact on

developing students writing

The above mentioned findings were observed although the main focus was on the
effectiveness of tenses in developing students writing skills. S0me other factors such as
the innovative methods of teaching grammar was slightly touched. Hense more
important factors were revealed through these findings

5.2 conclusion and recommendations

The research was aimed at investigating the effectiveness of tenses in in improving

students writing skills as discussed in chapter 4 ; it is evident that students can achieve
writing goal acquiring a thorough knowledge of tenses .as it is identified the most
frequent category of all errors were the verb forms and verb tenses .According to the
researche’s opinion teaching the similarities and differences between mother tongue
and target language specially English would be a great benefit for the second language
learners.

In conclusion it is noticeable that the writing is a challenging task more students .the
knowledge of tenses is aprimary need .It should be implemented at the beginning of the
writing process or prior to it . Then it will provide a balance between grammar and
writing in a meaningful way.

Not only the knowledge of tenses is essential some other factors such as other writing
skills like planning and drafting are also significant to make the students competent in
writing.

The researcher furthermore emphasize the needs for future researchesFutureinvestigate

are needed to find the causes behind the difficulty of use of target sentence structure.It
is clear

that the students mix up helping verbs and verb formationswhich doesn’t match to the
time

indicatot on writing.

The findings suggest that the knowledge of tenses has a significant impact on writing

Performance of language learners. Hence it is very important to identify errors and

correcting

them immediately to motivate students and feed the students in their weak point.

Finally with regard to the results of the study ,there are some recommendations of the
study.

The study reveals that students mastery of tenses effect with their achievement
writing.Hense

There should be suitable techniques for making teaching grammar and writing support
each

other. And also grammar revision must be done daily if the teacher is able.

To some up it could be stated that the mastery of tenses of the target language
influence in

writing skills of the target language.

Appendix

Task Sheet 1

Writing Activity 1

The expected sentences in English.

1. How many holy places have you visited?

2. Why don’t you buy a hand bag?

3. Mother punished the baby.

4. The fast runner started the race.

5. I have never drunk alcohol.

6. The minister has invited the fellowers for the meeting.

7. I go to the farm and buy fresh milk.

8. The president will join the conference.

9. I will eat bread for dinner and drink coffee with my dinner.

10. Mosquitoes bit the people in dark.

11. How long have you been playing for the sports club?

12. The student read the text book yesterday.

13. Have you watched any cricket match lively?

14. Could she lend me some money?

15. I want to learn English

16. She has read the newspaper

17. How is this word written?

18. Have you ever gone to fair?

 19. Have you eaten pitza?

20. Who has broken the toy?.

Task sheet 2

Select the correct word and fill in the blanks of following active voice sentences.

1. The postman (deliver) our letters at about nine everyday.

2. Researchers (collect) data at this moment.
3. They have (go) to England two years ago.
4. We (learn) English for thirteen years.
5. The second world war (begin) in 1939.
6. Lights went out while we (have) dinner.
 7. He (hit) a boy yesterday.
8. Thieves (steal) our flower pots last week.
9. The postman came while I (have) bath.
10. We had (get) everything ready before we started the journey.
11. I (search) for my purse since morning.
12. The grand parents (visit) us tomorrow.
13. The plane (reach) India by tonight.
14. By 2020 she (leave) the school.
15. Tomorrow by now she (enjoy) the new drama.

Task sheet 3

Covert these sentences into passive.

1. They sell magazines in the bookshop.

2. They were feeding the poor baby.
3. Someone has translated the book into English.
4. They will promote him, to a higher post.
5. They are repairing the bridge.
6. They will have forgotten the past memory in few weeks.
7. The contractors will have sign the contract by the end of this year.
8. They built this bridge in 1975.
9. They have closed the doors.
10. Someone sweeps the room daily.
i

Irregular verbs
There are many irregular verbs that don’t follow the normal rules. Here are the forms of
some of the most common irregular verbs:
 3rd person 3rd person
past present
Verb singular singular
participle participle
present tense past tense
be is was been being
begin begins began begun beginning
bite bites bit bitten biting
break breaks broke broken breaking
buy buys bought bought buying
choose chooses chose chosen choosing
come comes came come coming
dig digs dug dug digging
do does did done doing
drink drinks drank drunk drinking
eat eats ate eaten eating
fall falls fell fallen falling
feel feels felt felt feeling
find finds found found finding
get gets got got getting
go goes went gone going
grow grows grew grown growing
have has had had having
hide hides hid hidden hiding
keep keeps kept kept keeping
know knows knew known knowing
lay lays laid laid laying
lead leads led led leading
leave leaves left left leaving
lie lies lay lain lying
lose loses lost lost losing
make makes made made making
meet meets met met meeting
put puts put put putting
read
reads read /red/ read /red/ reading
/ri:d/
Regular Verbs List
There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of some 600 of the
more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations in
American English (for example, practise becomes practice in American English).
accept amuse applaud attach
add analyse (BrE) appreciate attack
admire analyze (AmE) approve attempt
admit announce argue attend
advise annoy arrange attract
afford answer arrest avoid
agree apologise arrive
alert appear ask
allow

back beg boil branch

bake behave bolt breathe
balance belong bomb bruise
ban bleach book brush
bang bless bore bubble
bare blind borrow bump
bat blink bounce burn
bathe blot bow bury
battle blush box buzz
beam boast brake

calculate choke compare cough

call chop compete count
camp claim complain cover
care clap complete crack
carry clean concentrate crash
carve clear concern crawl
cause clip confess cross
challenge close confuse crush
change coach connect cry
charge coil consider cure
chase collect consist curl
cheat colour contain curve
check comb continue cycle
cheer command copy
chew communicate correct

dam deliver disapprove dress

damage depend disarm drip
dance describe discover drop
dare desert dislike drown
man matter milk move
manage measure mine muddle
march meddle miss mug
mark melt mix multiply
marry memorise moan murder
match mend moor
mate mess up mourn

nail need nod notice

name nest note number

obey obtain offer overflow

object occur open owe
observe offend order own

pack phone possess prevent

paddle pick post prick
paint pinch pour print
park pine practise (BrE) produce
part place practice (AmE) program
pass plan pray promise
paste plant preach protect
pat play precede provide
pause please prefer pull
peck plug prepare pump
pedal point present punch
peel poke preserve puncture
peep polish press punish
perform pop pretend push
permit

question queue    

race refuse remove rhyme

radiate regret repair rinse
rain reign repeat risk
raise reject replace rob
reach rejoice reply rock
realise relax report roll