Windbreaks for Citrus

Citrus trees require a protected environment Some of these losses are readily measurable,
in order to produce high yields of top while others do not become apparent until
quality fruit. Wind protection may be harvest. There are other invisible effects
Citrus Fact Sheet

provided in various ways – a row or rows from wind, including increased evaporation
of trees around the planting, single rows and transpiration resulting from reduced
within the orchard, plantings of tall grasses relative humidity and temperatures, from
between rows of newly planted trees, or excessive wind movement over the trees.
construction of an artificial windbreak. The many surveys and quality control
reports that have been produced over the
Types of Damage
years from packing sheds indicate that rind
The following are examples of the damage blemish accounts for most downgrading.
caused by wind: Results from a case study following this
• markedly reduced growth rates report indicate that 75% of major blemishes
and 87% of minor blemishes of navel
• reduced yields
oranges in Waikerie, South Australia in
• root damage in young trees 2005 were due to wind damage.
• bark damage at ground level The geographical location of the citrus
• bent or fallen trees planting will partly determine the type of
windbreak required. Each citrus growing
• few or no fruit on the windward side area and each planting will have specific
• lesions on the leaves and stems and windbreak requirements. For example, a
fruit scarring planting close to the coast with constant
multidirectional winds may require
• limb breakage
a substantial windbreak around and
• fallen fruit. throughout the planting. However in drier

Photo 1:Windbreaks provide protection for trees and fruit resulting in reduced rind blemish.
inland areas windbreaks may only be required Grade 2 on the market, the less likelihood there is
against the prevailing wind. Hot dry summer of discounting Grade 1 prices.
winds will measurably reduce the growth rate of
When does wind blemish occur?
young trees and tall grass windbreaks between
each or every second row would benefit newly A high percentage of rind blemish on fruit is
planted trees. Some varieties may also be adversely directly attributed to adverse wind events in the
affected by living windbreaks. For example, in first six weeks after petal fall. However significant
some subtropical areas it may be necessary to damage (95%) occurs within 12 weeks of petal fall.
consider using artificial windbreaks because tall (Freeman, 1973). As soon as the petals fall and the
living windbreaks can cause shading and keep small immature fruit is exposed, wind blemish to
citrus foliage wet for too long. This applies when the rind can occur with any movement of leaves,
growing varieties that are susceptible to Alternaria branches, twigs, dead wood, thorns and even other
alternata or Brown Spot. Mandarin varieties such fruit.
as Murcott and Nova require good air movement Leaf margins, particularly from hard old leaves are
for rapid drying (skirting, good air drainage, and the main cause of this blemish. (Freeman, 1973).
no shade). In this instance if rind blemish is to be The surface of young fruitlets have irregularly
reduced then artificial white windbreak material raised ridges and bumps on which adjacent leaves
should be considered. tend to rub. The abrasion results in damage to the
Losses to blemish fruit skin, followed by the release of small quanties
of oil on the fruit surface and then the production
Each year wind blemish causes a large percentage of repair tissue which becomes corky. Initially this
of otherwise perfect fruit to be downgraded to
corky material is raised and coarse in texture but
either second grade or rejected. In many years the
eventually wears down to a finer texture usually
large volume of seconds allows the price received
creamy yellow in appearance. With fruit colour
for first grade fruit to be discounted.
development the scar becomes buff coloured, but
The percentage of crops downgraded throughout the final colour varies depending on the spray
Australia’s citrus growing areas ranges from as low program used particularly the amount of copper
as 10% up to a massive 50% in some years (see used.
case study). The real positive outcomes which can
Other factors
result from established windbreaks are fewer grade
2 fruit with a corresponding increase in Grade 1 While wind is responsible for the initial fruit
and therefore increased returns. The less volume of blemish, two other factors can aggravate the

Photos 2 and 3: Wind scarring on fruit is a major cause of fruit downgrading.

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problem. Poor pruning methods can increase • Provides protection from sun for harvested
blemish and copper sprays can darken blemish. bins of fruit and for workers
Dead wood and long spindly fruit bearing wood Some disadvantages of living windbreaks include:
resulting from poor pruning practices will increase • Competition for moisture and nutrients if not
the amount of blemish. Regular pruning is managed properly
necessary to remove dead wood, reduce the length
of bearing wood and let light into the tree to make • Shading
inside buds fruitful. The removal of a central limb • Material and labour costs
often achieves this purpose. Fruit protected inside
• Occupies valuable land
the canopy usually has less wind blemish. In some
areas the essential copper sprays used to control • Competes with crops for light
disease can darken the appearance of any blemish. • Increased humidity which can slow drying
Benefits of windbreaks times of foliage and fruit and may favour
some fungal pathogens
From the published literature some of the
quantifiable benefits of wind protection have • Requires valuable water
included: • Interferes with the movement of
• Improved Grade 1 packouts. Grade 1 fruit machinery
was 67% in protected blocks with 40% in • Not able to be moved
unprotected blocks (Revelant, 1987) and • May act as a heat trap in summer
53% in protected blocks with only 30% in
unprotected blocks (Freeman, 1976). • In frost prone areas may dam cold or frosty air
if not designed properly
• Improved yields due to increased fruit set and
size. Yield increases of between 13% and 16% • Trees blown over may cause damage
(Freeman, 1976). • Possible pest and disease buildup in a crop due
• Increased tree canopy growth of between 8% to microclimate changes
and 12% (Freeman, 1976). • Tree seeds/flowers may attract unwanted bird
Some additional advantages of well designed species
windbreaks include: • Trees may harbour pests
• Reduced wind speed • Take five to 10 years to be fully effective.
• Reduced spray drift and improved spray When are windbreaks necessary?
coverage
Where wind blemish is responsible for more than
• Reduced wind scarring of fruit 10% of fruit downgrading, and prevailing winds
• Increased and earlier yields during the first 12 weeks after petal fall exceed 15
kilometres per hour, then serious thought should be
• Reduced water loss from evaporation by up to given to providing wind protection. Winds stronger
30% than 24kph will cause wind scarring. The minimum
• Reduced soil erosion threshold for damage is 24kph for one hour (Andy
Krajweski).
• Slightly higher temperatures in winter
Whilst there are many good examples both in
• Reduced dust on plants, thereby increasing
Australia and overseas of how windbreaks have
photosynthesis and reducing the damage
markedly reduced rind blemish, the decision to
caused by scale insects and mites install windbreaks needs to be practicable and
• Provides a habitat for insects and pollinators economic. An analysis of the possible benefits

3
and full cost of the required windbreak protection • Traffic/access points
is recommended. You need to determine the • Shape and width
amount of wind blemish that is acceptable in
your operation in order to determine the need for • Suitable species
primary and secondary windbreaks. • Maintenance.
The loss of productive land and projected yield Orientation
that is forgone for windbreaks should be added to
In areas where the damaging wind direction is
the establishment and annual maintenance costs
predictable during the critical 12 week period after
and equally the increased yield of better quality petal fall, then the windbreak should be placed
fruit attributable to the windbreak also needs to be at right angles (perpendicular) to that direction.
included. Placed in this position, protection is provided
If windbreaks are required then the design, even when the wind shifts up to 30° from the
direction, length, depth, permeability, height perpendicular. The more the angle exceeds 30°, the
and type of material (living or synthetic) needs less protection provided downwind of the ‘break’.
to be thoroughly investigated. A deficiency in Length of the windbreak past the last tree is also a
any of these areas would cause the structure to factor.
fail because the protection provided would be Where it is possible and practicable, main breaks
ineffective. should be north-south in direction to minimize
There is no ‘one solution fits all’ since all orchards shading. Property boundaries, topographical
features and existing plantings will often prevent
are different. However there are some basic rules to
the ideal layout.
follow, which may be varied to suit the particular
orchard location and the type of wind events most For those growing areas where there is a lot of
likely to cause blemish. variability in damaging winds, windbreaks need to
be established along lines which provide the most
Windbreaks, where possible should be designed
protection. In countries such as New Zealand and
into any new planting. Windbreaks must be fully
South Africa, where there must be a packout of at
costed to include deep ripping, weed control,
least 70% export quality fruit, many growing areas
irrigation, nutrition, canopy management or
require protection around the whole orchard, with
pruning and the area of productive land lost.
additional internal windbreaks. Indeed, in windier
Fencing to exclude stock also may be necessary.
areas, windbreak protected citrus blocks do not
Failure to undertake these things will result in slow
exceed two hectares. In South America internal
growth, and subsequent ‘robbing’ of the nutrition
windbreaks divide production units into 3-4 hectare
and water applied to adjacent rows of citrus trees.
blocks.
Windbreak Design
Height
Design the position of your windbreaks on paper
The higher the windbreak, the greater the area
first. Correcting mistakes on paper is much easier protected. However the effective height of the
than waiting until after planting is complete. For windbreak is only the height above the citrus
a windbreak to be effective the following factors trees. For example, if citrus trees are 4.5 metres
need to be addressed: high and the windbreak is 16m high the effective
• Orientation height is 11.5m. Figure 1, (not to scale) gives a
• Height basic idea of distance and amount of protection
from the break.
• Permeability
Most literature seems to indicate that the greatest
• Secondary breaks wind speed reduction is in the ‘quiet zone’ or
• Length ‘zone of protection’ which extends for a distance

4
 Not to scale
Figure 1: Conceptual presentation of the reduction in wind velocity provided by a windbreak.
(Source: Designing Windbreaks for Farms. 1989. Line drawing by Shirley Turner)

of six times the effective height of the windbreak. found to provide a high degree of ‘regional’ shelter,
However, some protection is provided for a with each progressively reducing the wind speed
distance of 10 times the effective height of the such that the shelter behind a multiple array of
windbreak. The distance of protection will vary windbreaks was greater than that for an individual
with topography. For example, it will be less if the windbreak.”
land rises on the downward side and more if the
Permeability
ground slopes away.
Another critical factor is permeability, or how
The Zone of Protection = (Actual windbreak much wind is let through. It appears that the
height – Crop height) x 6 – 10. For example, if the ideal permeability is between 45% to 55%. A
windbreak is 14m high and the citrus trees are 4m solid break that allows no wind through causes
high then the best protection will extend for 60 damaging turbulence on the side it is meant to
– 100m on the ground. protect (better to have no windbreak at all). In
In areas past this ‘quiet zone’ wind speed will frost prone areas permeability is important as
increase until all the benefit from the windbreak windbreaks can be responsible for damming cold
ceases. Some literature suggests that some or frosty air.
protection is provided for a distance of 30 times the Note: The only way to maintain your windbreak
effective windbreak height. Just how much wind at the correct permeability is to have a regular
blemish is sustained on fruit in trees beyond the pruning or hedging program in place (at least
‘quiet zone’ has not been determined for citrus.
The question is “how much wind blemish is
sustainable for your orchard and how many
windbreak rows do I need to achieve my goal?”
The answer to windbreak height and number of
windbreaks required is answered in the following
quote from the publication ‘Trees for Shelter’.
“The National Windbreaks Program also
investigated the effects of ’multiple windbreaks’
i.e. several windbreaks planted parallel to one
another and spaced either 6H or 12H apart (H
represents the height of the windbreak). This
Photo 4: A row of Casuarinas that have been hedged to allow
mimics the plantings used in alley farming and more air permeability and to promote more vertical growth
kiwifruit vineyards. Multiple windbreaks were as well as to stop encroachment onto public roads.

5
annually depending on species, age, distance
planted and location). It is also important to prune
on a slight angle, for example, the base of the trees
should be wider than the top. This guarantees that
the foliage at the bottom of the trees will receive
adequate light in order to keep growing and
therefore not lose lower branches creating open
areas under the tree which will cause turbulence.
Figure 1 illustrates many of the suggestions planting lower shrubs each side of gap
contained in the literature. Severe wind events will
reduce the protected area. The area of protection
will vary on sloping land. Slopes facing the wind
will need to have closer spaced breaks and on the
opposite slope, breaks will need to be further apart.
Secondary breaks
wind
Orchards may require secondary breaks for large
blocks. The spacing of these secondary breaks will planting a short windbreak in front of gap
depend on the height of the primary break, the
strength of the most damaging winds and the slope
of the land. In addition, allowance in the cost needs
to be made for modified protection at access points.
Decisions need to be based on how much wind
blemish is acceptable in your operation. A guide to
the spacing of secondary breaks may be calculated
from Figure 1 and also from the amount of blemish wind
being sustained in trees further from the break. In forming an angled windbreak
South Africa, and some areas in Australia, three
poplar trees have been used at the end of a row to
decrease wind velocities when there is no room to
put in a full windbreak and turning lane.
Length
Where only a single windbreak is required, the wind
length of the break past the citrus block governs angling the sides of the windbreak
the amount of downwind protection. Wind will curl
around the end of a break causing turbulence.
The recommendation is that the maximum length Figure 2: Possibilities for protecting machinery access points.
(Source: Designing Windbreaks for Farms. 1989. Line
of a break should be12 times the mature height of drawing by Shirley Turner)
the break. Connecting breaks to existing forest or
shelter belts improves protection. If possible, work wind to funnel through and cause severe damage
with neighbours if appropriate to plan mutually to adjacent trees. Access to all blocks within a
beneficial windbreaks. protected orchard needs to be well planned. Several
Machinery access suggested ways to protect access areas are shown
in Figure 2.
The continuous nature of cultural activities in citrus
orchards demands practicable access. It is critical In frost prone areas planning is important as
that access through a windbreak does not allow the windbreaks can be responsible for damming cold

6
or frosty air. This can result in frost damage to trees breaks can also be used but these can grow into
and fruit. The windbreak design needs to include a dense stand and need thinning to allow for the
an air drainage break in the lowest part of the required permeability. Which ever type is chosen,
protected block so cold dense air drains away from correct permeability is a major consideration.
the crop.
Suitable tree species
Throughout the citrus industry, many native and
exotic species have been used as windbreaks.
Some have been successful and others have not.
There is no one species which fits all the needs
of a windbreak tree, including: not losing lower
branches, fast growing, non- invasive root system,
cheap to buy, upright growth habit, tolerance to
drought, salinity and water logging, tolerance to
herbicides, immunity to pest and diseases, ability
to be side trimmed, and many more.
In addition, the wide variations in the citrus
Photo 5: Three Poplar trees are used at the end of tree rows
growing environment in Australia does not allow
in South Africa and some parts of Australia when there is not
enough space for a full windbreak row. for a situation where one group of species fits all
orchards. Each State has lists of suitable species for
Shape and width different regions. There are a range of Eucalypts,
Casuarinas, Pines, Cypress, Alders and Poplars that
Figure 1 indicates one type of windbreak, showing allow for a choice of several species to suit most
different sized trees, and indicating that the situations.
tallest tree does shed its lower branches when
mature. This shedding of lower branches would The following comments regard the most
leave a gaping hole if there were no lower storey commonly used species.
tree protection. There are also many successful Native species
windbreaks using a single staggered row of trees
One of the main advantages of using native species
that do not shed their lower branches if pruned
is that they are adapted to the local soils and
correctly. Single rows of specific type bamboo
climate.
• Eucalypts
Many Eucalypts lose their lower branches as they
mature and so become less effective as single row
windbreaks. When selecting Eucalypts species
choose locally adapted species. On the central
and north coast of New South Wales, a number
of eucalypt species are used successfully as
boundary windbreaks, including: tallow wood
(Eucalyptus microcorys) and turpentine (Syncarpia
glomerulifera). In central NSW, several species
have shown promise including: Paddy’s river
box (E. macarthurii), narrow-leafed peppermint
Photo 6: A windbreak of mature Eucalypts inter-planted with
(E. radiata) and wattle-leaved peppermint (E.
bamboo to compensate for the loss of the Eucalypt’s lower acaciiform). In the Riverina, one species has shown
branches. outstanding potential, E. platypus var platypus

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which is medium sized, retains its lower branches, There are many species of casuarina with a wide
is good on heavy soils, salt tolerant and can be range of growth habits and climatic adaptation.
hedged. Casuarina cunninghamiana, or river she-oak,
has proved to be the most adaptable to varying
environments and the most suitable in tree form
and development. Establishment and initial
tree growth is dependent on the presence of an
actinomycete organism Frankia in the soil, which
stimulates the development of nitrogen producing
nodules on the roots. C. cunninghamiana responds
well to irrigation but is tolerant of some water
stress. Trees will respond to fertilisers when the
existing soil nutrition is poor, but moderate natural
fertility is usually enough.
Photo 7 : A row of mature turpentines on the Central Coast
of NSW (Syncarpia glomerulifera). Late winter frosts can cause damage to the tips of
the previous season’s growth. Severe frosts, with
temperatures less than -8°C may cause yellowing
• Casuarinas (she-oaks) of foliage. Seedlings from a locally adapted seed
Casuarina and Allocasuarina species are both source in the colder areas may reduce this problem.
commonly known as she-oaks. They respond well Pruning or trimming in late spring encourages
to side pruning, maintaining an even permeability a greater amount of young growth. This can be
when regularly trimmed. These species are repeated every second year to maintain the best
relatively fast growing after establishment in control over growth and windbreak porosity. In
the first season. Casuarinas have been widely New South Wales coastal districts, both C. glauca
used in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa (swamp oak) and Allocasuarina littoralis (forest
for horticultural windbreaks and are regarded oak) have been used successfully.
as having most of the desirable qualities for Despite the success of Casuarinas, some growers
windbreaks. Casuarinas are dioecious – that is, have experienced problems with poor growth and
male and female flowers are produced on separate yellowing of the needles. Problems have included:
trees. In late spring the male trees sometimes
appear to be dying because of the rusty coloured • poor growth in shallow soils with poor
flowers produced on the ends of the needles. The drainage (C. glauca, ‘swamp oak’ tolerates
female trees can sometimes produce large numbers wet sites)
of cones at the expense of foliage growth. • Phytophthora cinniamomi root rot (often
associated with poor drainage)
• herbicide damage – usually glyphosate on
immature bark
• lack of the actinomycete organism (unusual)
• frost damage.
• Other native species
The potential of other species is largely unknown
for many districts. Melaleucas are ideal for small
intensive enterprises and as understorey species,
but in districts with a high risk of frost, Melaleucas
Photo 8: A young Casuarina windbreak can suffer from both winter and late spring frost

8
damage on the new season’s growth. Wattles are • Alders
fast growing and produce a good hedge but they Alders (Alnus species) are slower growing, deep
are generally short-lived. They are also a host for rooted and can utilise lower water tables in heavier
various tree borers. Hakeas (Hakea saligna) have soils. They perform best in their native conditions
been used in South Africa and respond well to of cool, moist temperate regions and are limited
hedging but can become too dense. to good soils in the cooler districts. There are a
Exotic – evergreen number of species some of which are still being
In the past various pines and cypresses have evaluated.
been used as windbreaks, including Pinus radiata
Grasses
(Radiata or Monterey pine) and P. elliottii (Slash
pine). Although pines will grow fairly quickly and Various grasses have been used as short-term
can tolerate drier and poorer growing conditions windbreaks for protection of young trees whilst the
they have a number of drawbacks. As the trees age main windbreak is established and they are also
they become bare at the bottom and dead limbs can used between tree rows. One of the most notable
cause ‘holes’ in the breaks, they do not respond of these is barner grass (Pennisetum sp. a tall
to hedging and are highly flammable. Cypresses growing strain of elephant grass) which has been
are slow growing and tend to form a hedge which used on the central and north coast of New South
is usually too dense for efficient wind protection. Wales, Queensland and some of the warmer inland
Today these species are not normally recommended districts. This grass is a vigorous perennial that can
for windbreaks. grow up to 3m tall. It is robust and has provided
Exotic – deciduous
The three main deciduous groups used include
Populus (poplars), Salix (willows) and Alnus
(alders). All are moderate to fast growing, and
respond well to intensive management and side
trimming. The willows are especially fire tolerant.
The main disadvantage with deciduous species
is the loss of wind protection in winter when the
trees are bare. All three species are susceptible to
silver leaf fungus and should not be used in areas
growing stone and pome fruit.
Hybrid Willows
Rapid growing hybrid willows were introduced Photo 9: Sudax used as a temporary windbreak for young
into Australia in 1980. They were easy to trees.
propagate, grew rapidly and were free of rust
and many plantings were established. There are
many clones of willow and they differ in their
tolerance to pests, disease and water stress. The
potential ‘weed’ status of willows is currently
under investigation and hybrid willows are not
being generally recommended. Plantings of
willows should be limited to male clones (NZ1002
and NZ1184) and no trees should be planted near
watercourses. Ensure the reliability of nursery
stock and do not buy ‘hybrid willows’ but specify
the clone by name and number. Photo 10: Barner grass used as a temporary windbreak.

9
a rapid-growing thick shelter, however it is very reduce fruit quality, flower bud formation and crop
flammable. Some bamboos such as Bambuso yield. A north-south orientation for the windbreak
oldhami can create a similar or larger windbreak rows will help overcome this problem by giving
but these have not been accepted commercially. the adjacent crop rows direct sunlight for at least
Barner grass and bamboos are equally competitive part of the day. Where the north-south orientation
and difficult to eradicate once established, creating is not possible, the effects of shading must be
a potential weed problem especially in tropical accepted or the distance between the crop and the
and subtropical areas. Various annual cereal grass windbreak increased. The level of competition will
species such as hybrid sorghums and Sudax can depend on species planted, soil type, amount of
provide good protection to young trees. The hybrid water and nutrients applied, distance planted from
sorghum ‘Jumbo graze’ can reach up to 3 m and the crop, final windbreak height, and frequency of
will not reseed. pruning. Regular maintenance is critical.

Tree spacing
Traditional spacings of three to four metres
between windbreak trees are too wide for wind
protection early in the life of the planting,
particularly when single row plantings are used. A
one to two metre spacing has proved satisfactory
in Australia, New Zealand and Europe for many
of the recommended windbreak trees, such as
the deciduous and Casuarina species, but not
for eucalypts. For boundary windbreaks, wider
spacings can be used particularly with multiple row
plantings, with each row offset to cover the gaps
in the adjacent row. Farm Trees Booklet No. 5, Photo 11: Windbreak trees provide protection but they cause
Designing Windbreaks for Farms, has more details. shading. Orientate your windbreak trees in a north-south
direction when possible to reduce shading.
Problems
Windbreaks are designed to overcome problems,
but in some cases they can create them. Establishment and Management

• Will windbreak trees block pipes and drains? Establishment

Willows in particular have a reputation for Perimeter windbreaks with suitable access points
blocking and breaking drains. Various species can should be established at least 12 months prior to
also cause problems with pipes. Avoid planting planting the citrus trees. They require as much care
species such as willows within 40 to 50m of pipes. and attention as the young citrus trees. Irrigation,
Ripping to a depth of 0.75 to 1.0m at about 1.5m fertilizing and weed control are essential activities.
on either side of the windbreak will reduce roots Good soil preparation and weed control prior to
moving into the crop. Only rip one side each planting will favour early and rapid establishment.
season to prevent creating unstable trees with poor Care should be exercised in the type of herbicides
anchorage. Ripping should not be carried out on used as many native species are sensitive to
species that sucker as disturbing the roots increases damage. Establishing internal windbreaks requires
suckering. an equivalent level of management. Consider and
• Do windbreaks compete with the crop? cost the use of plastic mulch or weed matting and
Windbreaks can compete with the crop for light, trickle irrigation underneath the windbreak for
space, water and fertiliser. Shading can specifically initial establishment.

10
Management can be hedged every second or third year. The ideal
Proper management is essential for getting the timing for pruning varies with species. Casuarinas
best efficiency out of the windbreak. Management should be pruned in late October, just prior to the
includes: weed control, nutrition, irrigation, growth flush. This ensures good development of
pruning and pest and disease control. new lateral growth.

• Weed control • Pest and disease control

Remove weeds before planting as excessive weed The use of pesticides to control insects and
growth will compete with the newly planted trees. diseases should be kept to a minimum and have
Both synthetic and natural mulches can be used to minimal impact on the local environment. Scale,
reduce weed problems. Contact herbicides can be borers leaf eating and sap sucking insects are the
used however care is needed to avoid spraying the most common and need to be monitored.
immature green bark of young trees. Hand held Artificial Windbreaks
applicators with a shield should be used.
A variety of polythene mesh products are available
• Nutrition with known porosities which makes it easy to
Adequate nutrition needs to be provided, select the right permeability. The initial expense
particularly for the exotic deciduous species. may be a little higher than a living windbreak
Willows are the most demanding and alders the but mesh will satisfy all the requirements of the
least. Native species will respond to fertiliser ‘perfect’ windbreak. Advantages include: they are
application, but care must be taken to select a instant, are very low maintenance and are more
fertiliser formulated for native plants. easily installed into an existing planting. The life
of the mesh can vary but most probably last for up
• Irrigation to 10 years. However, as artificial windbreaks are
Most horticultural windbreaks require normally not as high as living trees, they need to be
supplementary irrigation during summer months. closer together in order to achieve the same result.
Permanent irrigation is recommended for young There are examples of using poly mesh over the
trees in drier areas. Native species may not develop whole planting. A thorough economic analysis of
a good deep root system if irrigated. In high this would be wise, perhaps targeting particular
rainfall areas some tree species will grow well with niche markets. The August 2003 edition of
little irrigation, but requirements vary between Australian Citrus News contained an article on
species. a 5.5ha fully enclosed windbreak structure. The
• Deep ripping story reported that this 17% shade hail netting was
producing a 98% packout of one of the summer
Deep ripping may be required annually and is best
navels.
done when the ground is damp. Depending on
circumstances deep rip to a depth of one metre. Try
and vary the rip site from year to year to stop roots
growing below the rip line and up into the root
zone of the crop. Where you have citrus planted on
both sides of a windbreak deep rip alternate sides.
• Pruning
Pruning and trimming are needed to maintain the
correct shape and permeability of the windbreak.
Encouraging a single leader is essential in young
trees. Depending on vigour and species, older trees Photo 12: An artificial windbreak

11
Pests and Biological Control Case Studies
Integrated pest management (IPM) is becoming John Cox, Waikerie, South Australia
essential for sustainable pest management. This
Fruit quality audits for navel oranges have
work would not be complete without comments
been kept for four years on 31 different sites at
from Dan Papacek, a pests expert with both
properties owned by John Cox at Waikerie, South
national and international recognition.
Australia. Between 100 and 150 fruit are examined
“We have always considered windbreaks to be at each site for various types of rind damage. Table
an advantage with regard to biological control. 1 shows the average and maximum percentage of
Windbreak trees can provide refuge for some fruit with major and minor wind blemish across all
beneficials such as predatory mites, ladybird sites. Other blemishes were also recorded including
beetles and lacewings. Additionally some insect damage and albedo breakdown. However, in
windbreaks are also pollen producers. The pollen
2005 wind damage accounted for 75% of all major
can provide supplementary food for predatory
blemishes and 87% of all minor blemishes.
mites. Generally biological diversity is a good
thing in an orchard and the presence of windbreak Blemish definitions are taken from the Riversun
trees can contribute to this. I have heard of manual. A ‘major wind blemish’ is defined as light
suggestions that windbreaks can harbour pest coloured marks greater than or equal to 20mm
species but this has not been our experience. surface area, deep (>1mm) or darkened marks
Generally if they do have pests present then the greater than or equal to 12mm surface area. There
natural enemies will also coexist (unless some is a zero tolerance for this type of blemish in grade
disruption has occurred). 1 fruit. A ‘minor wind blemish’ is defined as light
In South Africa there have been reports that coloured marks covering an area less than 20mm,
Casuarina species as windbreaks were likely to deep (>1mm) or darkened marks, but covering an
increase the presence of Scirtothrips in citrus area less than 12mm. There is a 10% tolerance for
orchards. In coastal orchards, where higher this blemish in grade 1 fruit.
humidity and higher rainfall incidences occur, On one of John Cox’s properties there are two
closely planted windbreaks may restrict airflow Washington Navel blocks separated by a road
and sunlight and hence can cause an increase
where a wind break was established five years
in the occurrence of diseases such as Alternaria
ago on the southern side of the property. Most of
alternata (Brown spot) and Guignardia citricarpa
the prevailing winds come from the south east
(Black spot.)”
although there are also some strong north winds
Common mistakes with windbreaks: at various times after petal fall. This wind break is
• not planning correctly comprised of Casuarina cunninghamiana at a 1.5m
spacing. They have been hedged and were 10m to
• pruning off bottom branches
• rows too short
• not protecting access ways
• not immediately replacing trees that die
• not pruning regularly
• not irrigating
• only planting one when two rows are needed
• planting too close to the crop
• not deep ripping regularly or deep enough
Photo 13: A windbreak of Casuarina trees on John Cox’s
• not varying the position of the rip line. property at Waikerie.

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 Year Average % Wind Blemish Maxium % Wind Blemish
Major Minor Major Minor
2002 17 5 40 19
2003 20 11 32 19
2004 14 5 26 8
2005 24 8 41 17
Average all 19 7 35 16
years
Table 1: Blemish results from fruit quality survey, John Cox, Waikerie, South Australia.

% Wind blemish in block % Wind blemish in block

Year Percent Reduction
without Wind Break with Wind Break
Major Minor Major Minor Major Minor
2003 26 8 18 2 30.8 75.0
2004 16 5 10 4 37.5 20.0
2005 21 14 12 9 42.9 35.7
Average 21.0 9.0 13.3 5.0 36.5 44.4
Table 2: Results of fruit quality audit between blocks with and without windbreaks.

12m in height in early 2006. Their height was less Rod Hand, Colignan, Victoria
during the time of the navel fruit quality audits in Rod has established sorghum as a temporary
2002- 2004. windbreak for protecting young trees. Currently
Table 2 shows that there has been a 30% to 40%
reduction in wind damage in the block with
protection from the windbreak, which has reduced
the amount of blemished fruit (both major and
minor) from 30% to 18%. Whilst this is only a
small study it is an actual situation. The average
of three years indicates a reduction of 12% in the
amount of wind blemish sustained behind the
windbreak. For every tonne of fruit over the three
years 2003-2005, there were an additional six
boxes of fruit available for the grade 1 market. This
equates to an extra 240 boxes of better quality fruit
based on production of about 40 tonnes per hectare.
In terms of dollar value, using average returns for Photo 14: Sorghum windbreaks planted to protect newly
United States (US) grade 1 export fruit, of $800/ established citrus trees under sprinkler irrigation. Trees
established Spring 2003.
tonne in 2001 and $250/t in 2002 a 12% reduction
in down grading due to wind damage represents he plants a row of sorghum every third row of
increased returns of between 0.12 X $250 X 40 t/ha trees. The sorghum is irrigated with a drip line and
= $1,200/ha and 0.12 X $800 X 40 t/ha = $3840/ receives the same water and nutrients as the young
ha. This example illustrates the dollar value in citrus trees. When the citrus trees grow bigger the
reducing wind damage to trees. drip line in the sorghum will be moved into the row

13
of citrus trees. Trees directly beside the sorghum Freeman, B. Rind Blemish of Citrus 1: Initiation
windbreak show better growth than rows further and Development. Scientia Hort., 4:317-327.
from the break. For future plantings, Mr Hand Freeman, B. Rind Blemish of Citrus 11: Structure
will plant a sorghum windbreak every second row and Ultrastructure. Scientia Hort., 4:329-336.
of citrus trees. Tree spacings are 7m x 3m for the
sprinkler irrigated block and 6m x 2m for the drip Freeman, B. Artificial Windbreaks and the
block. Mr Hand will plant the sorghum seed at less Reduction of Wind scar of Citrus. Proc.Fla.State
than the recommended sowing rate so as to achieve Hort.Soc.89:52-54, 1976.
good windbreak height sooner and allow more Freeman, B. 1973. Controlling Rind Blemish in
porosity. Citrus Fruit. NSW Department of Agriculture.
Bulletin H 238.
Goebel, R. Bana Grass Temporary Windbreak for
Orchards. Rare Fruits Council of Australia 7.1988.
51.21, 22.
Hardy, S. Results of a fruit quality survey 1992-93
in Pest and Disease Management Guide for Coastal
Citrus in NSW. NSW Agriculture, 1995.
Hathaway, R. L. Back to Basics on Shelters.
National Plant Materials Centre. Aukautere. NZ.
Growing Today. 1983, Vol 1 No 1 p14.
Hathaway, R. L. Tree Species for Horticulture
Shelter. Growing Today 9. 1983:16-19.
Photo 15: Improved tree growth in rows directly beside the Hathaway, R. L. Management of Shelterbelts for
sorghum wind break, using drip irrigation. Trees planted Horticultural Crops. Growing Today. 9.1983 Vol 1
December 2004.
No 2.

References
Hathaway, R. L. et al. Aggressive Shelter a
Liability. Growing Today.
Baker, J. D. Windbreaks from barner grass. NSW
Hort. Branch Officers. (QDPI). Windbreaks for
Agricultural Gazette, Vol 88, No. 3, June 1977.
Horticulture. Small Farms (QLD) 1. 1968, pp. 2- 3.
Campbell, M. Windbreaks for Citrus. Australian
Jamieson, G I. (QDPI) Windbreaks in Horticulture.
Citrus News. 10, 15. Oct. 1967.
Q F&VNews. June 1988, pp.15-18.
Cleugh, H. Trees for Shelter. A guide to using Krajweski, A. Windbreaks in Citrus Orchards.
windbreaks on Australian Farms. ISBN 0642 CGSA Newsletter.
58458 3. www.rirdc.gov.au
Lantzke, N. Windbreaks for Horticulture on the
Coey, R.G. Windbreaks Save Crops. Nambour Swan Coastal Plain. AgWA Farmnote 43/99.
Chronicle 6. 1975. www.agric.wa.gov.au
Cooper, M. Playing Games with the Wind. Small Lewis, T. Windbreaks, Shelter and Insect
Farmers (QLD) 5. 1986. Distribution. Rothamsted Exp. Stn. Span. 11.3.
Feutrill, C. Windbreaks. Australian Citrus News. 1, 1968 pp. 187.
1996, 11. Lewis, J.R. (QDPI) Protect Macadamia Plantations.
Freemen, B. How Artificial Windbreaks Help Q F & V News. 9. 1985, pp. 20-22.
Citrus Growers in Australia. The Citrus and Sub- Madge, D. Windbreaks in Horticulture. Dept. of Ag
tropical Fruit Journal. March 1974, pp. 4-8. & Rural Affairs. (Booklet Sunraysia).

14
McMullen, B. Give yourself a break with
a horticultural windbreak. Good Fruit and
Vegetables. October 1997, pp 71-74.
Menzies, R. Horticultural Windbreaks. NSW
Primefact currently in preparation.
QDPI Hort Branch. Windbreaks to Protect your
Crops. Leaflet 523. May 1959.
Revelant, L. and Doumit, F. Windbreaks for Citrus.
1990. NSW Agriculture and Fisheries Agnote
5/90/2.
The Citrus Industry. 1973 Vol.III. p53.
Wakefield, S. 1989. Designing Windbreaks
for Farms. No.5 in the Farm Trees Series of
leaflets. NSW Agriculture and Fisheries, Forestry
Commission of NSW and Soil Conservation
Service of NSW.

Authors: John Owen-Turner (Consultant) and

Sandra Hardy, NSW Department of Primary
Industries, with contributions from Kym Thiel,
Citrus Growers of South Australia; Tony Filippi,
Murray Valley Citrus Board and George Morris,
WA Department of Agriculture. This fact sheet
has been compiled by CITTgroups Australia from
information previously published on windbreaks.
June 2006

Disclaimer: The information in this publication is provided on the basis of understanding and knowledge at the time of writing in June
2006. Any representation, statement, opinion or advice expressed or implied is made in good faith but on the basis that Australian Citrus
Growers Inc.(ACG), its agents and employees are not liable for any damage or loss whatsoever which has occurred or may occur in
relation to a person taking or not taking action in respect of any representation, statement or advice referred to in this publication.
ALWAYS READ THE LABEL
Users of agricultural chemical products must always read the label before using the product, and strictly comply with the directions on
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publication. Reference to any trade names, specific products and companies in this publication does not necessarily imply endorsement of
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