Leveraging Our National

Investments to Energize
the American Travel Experience

April 2021
 Executive Summary

RAM will increase the

safety, accessibility, and
affordability of regional
travel while building on the
01
extensive and underutilized
federal, state, and local
investment in our
nation’s local airports.

Executive Summary
America is home to over 5,000 airports available for public Who Should Read This Report
use, yet only 30 of these airports serve over 70% of all
Investors: RAM is a measured investment. Early returns
travelers.01 Despite this vast network of airports, the majority
are feasible from a variety of independent technologies
are underutilized due to air transportation services that have
and services that will amplify each other as RAM grows.
trended towards consolidation by putting more people into
Importantly, success is not contingent on all technologies fully
fewer, larger aircraft on well-traveled routes. Also, these
maturing before meaningful revenue is realized.
bigger jet-propelled aircraft can only take off from and land on
longer airstrips. Community Leaders: That airport in your jurisdiction
can bring sizable economic development, employment
Regional Air Mobility (RAM) will fundamentally change how
opportunities, and a better quality of life to your community.
we travel by bringing the convenience, speed, and safety of
air travel to all Americans, regardless of their proximity to a Policymakers: Public investment in RAM can catalyze
travel hub or urban center. We advocate RAM technology regional and national goals for renewable energy,
investment as complementary to and an accelerator for sustainability, and economic growth.
Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) and other initiatives that aspire
to transform the airspace. Through targeted advanced Industry: RAM has the potential to develop into a large
technology investments, such as aircraft automation, market that should warrant dedicated exploration alongside
enhanced operational models, more efficient aircraft and other related applications such as Unmanned Aircraft
propulsion systems, and expanded airport renewable energy Systems (UAS) and Urban Air Mobility (UAM).
generation, many of which are already underway, RAM will
Public: Just because we are used to limited options for mid-
increase the safety, accessibility, and affordability of regional
distance travel, and just because we are accustomed to car
travel while building on the extensive and underutilized
culture, does not mean that ground travel is the best choice
federal, state, and local investment in our nation’s local
for every trip. Compared to road trips, RAM offers a more
airports.
advantageous and enjoyable way to travel.

__
01 National Plan of Integrated Aiport Systems, 2021-2025, Federal Aviation Administration, p. 2, 4

April 2021 01
 Contributors

Contributors
The NASA Team would like to formally thank all contributors,
reviewers, designers, and technical editors in their tireless
efforts to bring this white paper to fruition.

Authors Reviewers

Kevin Antcliff, NASA Jeremy Thomas, Reliable Robotics

Nicholas Borer, NASA William Crossley, Purdue University

Sky Sartorius, Boeing Stan Little, Southern Airways Express

Pasha Saleh, Alaska Airlines Zach Lovering, Aera Aircraft

Robert Rose, Reliable Robotics Emilien Marchand, Aera Aircraft

Maxime Gariel, Xwing Bruce J. Holmes, Holmes Consulting LLC

Joseph Oldham, New Vision Aviation Peter Shannon, Radius Capital

Chris Courtin, Electra.Aero Ben Marcus, UP Partners | AirMap

Marty Bradley, Electra.Aero Christian Bailey, Curated Innovation

Satadru Roy, Georgia Tech Richard Abbott, Explorer Aircraft

Bryan Lynch, Explorer Aircraft

Arnel Guiang, FLOAT Shuttle Technical Editors & Designers

Paul Stith, Black & Veatch Aryn Sperandio, True Story Consulting

Dengfeng Sun, Purdue University Kurt Niedermeier, kngraphicdesign.com

Susan Ying, Ampaire Anabella Tourkaman, Universities Space Research Association

Michael Patterson, NASA

Vince Schultz, NASA

Roei Ganzarski, magniX

Kevin Noertker, Ampaire

Cory Combs, Ampaire

Rich Ouellette, Boeing (ret.)

April 2021 02
 Executive Summary

Voices From the Near Future: RAM will Transform Travel

Chicago
Groton

Centerville

Newport
News
Bakersfield
Dallas
Catalina
Island Marfa

_____________________________

Ever since I went back to work

after our youngest son was _____________________________
born, it seems like we just can’t
find a moment to relax. My My family has lived in
mom suggested a weekend southwest Texas for _____________________________
getaway, and I really wanted to generations. It’s a great place
spend some time by the water. to be, but it sure is remote. You I knew when I came to America
But the traffic is so bad – we wouldn’t think so if you go to that it would be hard being so _____________________________
spend hours frustrated and the airport! I’ve worked there for far from my parents. It was a
tired and have to turn around two decades, and we’ve dream to run my own farm, but Our latest project has me
and do the drive again the next recently had to double our staff we’re so far out that it’s a traveling to Connecticut for
day. It’s just not worth it. I work just to handle the workload. We struggle to get all the way to periodic and sometimes
just outside the Bakersfield get these new planes bringing Chicago to catch a flight. When last-minute quality assurance
airport solar farm, and I saw a people in and out all day. The we found out my dad was inspections. I used to dread
bunch of quiet planes. My same planes, but without about to go in for an these trips when it took three
colleague told me cheap flights people – not even pilots! – unexpected surgery, it seemed working days for what is usually
are available to lots of places bring cargo at night – and that there was no way I could a 4-hour inspection – it didn’t
now, and after a quick search, I they’re super quiet! It was weird see him in time. I don’t love to matter if I drove, took the train,
saw there’s an airport on at first unloading cargo from a fly, but my wife arranged a trip or an airplane. Now, I go to the
Catalina Island! My husband plane with no pilot. I never that started from a nearby airport in Newport News in the
and I took a flight the next really thought about how much airport I didn’t even know morning and jump on one of the
weekend, and I swear it was like more passenger traffic and existed, and she scheduled it northbound airplanes, normally
being in our own private limo in especially air cargo we get now, to get me to Chicago in perfect getting dropped off in Groton
the sky. We felt spoiled! It was but I guess it’s way cheaper time to walk onto the next flight after only one or two stops in
so relaxing to take a little time with these new planes. It makes to Mexico City. I was scared at between. I usually finish up in
for ourselves. On our way back, a big difference. We just got a first to be in such a small plane, time to fly back in the evening
we split a flight with a nice shipment of flu vaccines in from but it was smoother and quieter to get home in a single day. I
family, and it made us start to Austin last week, and my wife than I ever expected. I don’t love getting a couple of days
think about when we could do tells me they’re going to get know who felt better when we back on these trips, and it’s
this with the kids. I see this whole area vaccinated with first saw each other – me or my good for the company, too –
Fullerton and Carlsbad have a few more shipments. It’ll be dad! On my flight back home, I they don’t have to pay to put
airports, so maybe we’ll go to nice to get ahead of flu season landed in Chicago and the me up in a hotel for those extra
the theme parks when they’re a this year. It makes me proud to small aircraft was already nights or for all that wasted
little older. It’s a whole new way be a part of keeping my waiting to take me back home! driving time.
to travel – we’re hooked! community safe. I’m actually looking forward to
flying again!

April 2021 03
 Introduction

Air transportation
in the USA:

5,050
under-utilized,
public-use airports
in the U. S. 04
minutes from

16 your closest
airport 02 of all trips between 50
1.6% and 500 miles are taken
by air 03

0.6%
of U.S. airports currently
in annual grant
$3.2B funding to local
airports 05
support 70% of domestic
air travel 06

Introduction
You may live in an urban metroplex or a rural expanse, enjoy The result of the air travel statistics shown above is that
snow-capped mountain peaks or poppy-filled desert valleys, the average American has limited travel options. Unless a
root for the Red Sox or the Yankees, and drink soda or pop. person’s desired origin and destination are near major air
But, one thing that is true for most Americans is that they live transportation hubs, they will have to travel great distances
within 16 minutes of an airport.02 This fact is thanks to an to reach an airport with reasonably priced commercial
extraordinary air transportation infrastructure in the United service. They will wait in long lines, fly non-direct routes, and
States that has received strong national investment for endure a lengthy ground transportation journey from the
decades. airport to reach their ultimate destination.

If an affordable, efficient, robust, and environmentally friendly When it comes to distances of a few hundred miles, also
aircraft network were implemented across these thousands known as mid-distance travel, it’s no wonder 73% of
of airports, more people would be able to choose convenient Americans prefer road trips over flying despite the added
air travel over cars for mid-distance trips around 50-500 miles. time and unforeseen issues that road work and accidents
RAM’s vision is to make these local airports the community may cause while driving.07 These obstacles are still better
hubs they were always meant to be, and innovative aircraft, than commercial air travel’s inevitable delays, security woes,
operational models, and infrastructure are the keys to making cramped seats, and a myriad of other frustrations that we
that happen. have all experienced.
__
02 Advanced Air Mobility Markets: Where is the Opportunity? McKinsey & Company, January 14, 2021
The most common mode for regional travel – taking to
03 Long-Distance Travel, Bureau of Transportation Staistics the highway – costs billions in upkeep. The National
04 Number of U.S. Airports, Bureau of Transportation Statistics Transportation Research Board recently recommended that
05 U.S. Department of Transportation Announces $76 Million in Airport Improvement Grants

06 National Plan of Integrated Aiport Systems, 2021-2025, Federal Aviation Administration, p. 4

07 Do Americans prefer planes, trains or automobiles?, Tyler Schmall, SWNS

April 2021 04
 Introduction

the combined state and federal spending to maintain our

Interstates be raised from $20-$25 billion to $40-$70 billion
annually.08 These investments are necessary to maintain the New capabilities associated with RAM can be placed into
ground infrastructure already in place – billions more are three main categories:
needed to further improve access and throughput. • Community-compatible aircraft
All of this is to say that if you’re driving, you’re not alone. • Autonomous capabilities for operational enhancements
But, that doesn’t mean more driving is the best solution to
how we can optimize our mid-distance travel experience in • Seamless ecosystem
the future. In the following pages, our vision for enhanced While the complete RAM vision is realized at full scale in a
RAM addresses the regional travel problems we face with future where all three work in concert, each point in isolation
practical, affordable, and effective solutions that define a would meaningfully transform the industry.
new era of transportation.
Community-Compatible Aircraft
Vision of Regional Air Mobility (RAM)
“Community-compatible aircraft” can be defined two
RAM focuses on building upon existing airport infrastructure ways. First, they are able to operate physically close to
to transport people and goods using innovative aircraft communities. This is due to characteristics like their low
that offer a huge improvement in efficiency, affordability, emissions, low noise, and steep climb/descent profiles
and community-friendly integration over existing regional reducing nuisance factors. Their ability to operate from short
transportation options. These aircraft, that typically carry runways that can be located closer to the populations they
less than 20 passengers or an equivalent weight in cargo, serve is also a factor. Second, community compatibility
are flexible in terms of where they can take off and land, provides overall value such that the communities served,
even using existing runways and infrastructure to maximize despite some drawbacks, on average they reap a net
compatibility with today’s airports. In short, RAM provides air benefit. This benefit comes mostly from increased access to
accessibility that is dependable, efficient, and affordable. air mobility for individuals and communities, so it is essential
RAM presents an exciting, convenient, and affordable way to keep operations safe and costs affordable whenever
to see more, do more, and dedicate less time in transit to possible.
do so. Unlike car travel, RAM does not rely on a path-based When community-compatible aircraft are available, the
road system where only two or three routes are desirable. It frequency and density of flights can grow at existing
uses a node-based system where aircraft are free to travel airports where, currently, runway quantity, runway length,
“as the crow flies” from one airport to the next – gridlock, and noise restrictions are actively limiting operations with
road construction, and accidents no longer slow you down. more traditional aircraft. Most importantly, the two sides of
Importantly, RAM uses the thousands of existing and mostly community-compatible aircraft – the low nuisance factor
under-used airports across the United States. and the community access – work together to assuage any
Regional Air Mobility provides a cost-effective solution social and political opposition to the growth of air mobility.
to connect communities that have been underserved by Along with the two main tenets of community-compatible
current aviation norms while also providing needed relief to aircraft, there is also an opportunity to energize the local
capacity-constrained aviation hubs. As this new generation community through renewable energy.
of aircraft is developed, communities will welcome the Energy Options
benefits of utilizing their local airport infrastructure to provide
One of the challenges associated with travel is the monetary
a conduit for new opportunities in their region.
and environmental costs of burning fossil fuels. Aviation is
It may all sound like a fictional episode of The Jetsons, but responsible for a small but growing portion of global carbon
these technologies will be commonplace in our near future. emissions, and current aviation architectures are almost
exclusively powered by oil-based energy sources. This has
One of the most powerful aspects of the vision is that already led to movements to curb travel by air, so any vision
multiple technologies do not need to mature simultaneously that looks to expand air travel will be met by increased
in order for RAM to advance. When innovations are environmental scrutiny.09 Critical RAM technologies,
contingent on too many pieces working together, the particularly the use of electrified aircraft propulsion, can
probability of successful implementation diminishes. reduce the environmental impact associated with air travel.
Instead, RAM’s scale will simply multiply as each technology These innovations may include fully electric motors or those
and capability is introduced. And, crucially, each new that use hybrid architectures or alternative fuels.
component moves the needle by itself without relying on the __
simultaneous coupling to other new technologies. 08 Renewing the National Commitment to the Interstate Highway System, Transportation Research Board

09 Flight-Shaming Is Now A Thing – Will It Keep You From Traveling? Forbes, July 2, 2019

April 2021 05
 Introduction

One of the most

powerful aspects
of the vision is that
multiple technologies
do not need to mature
simultaneously in order
for RAM to advance.
Bringing a large consumer of electrical energy to the airport if autonomous or semi-autonomous operations are initially
helps improve the return on investment for airport renewable only allowed for cargo or repositioning flights, they will still
energy solar projects. Regional airports typically sit on contribute to lowering overall costs. This will also reduce
the need for onboard pilots to just a portion of operations.
hundreds of acres of public-use land, which is well-suited for
renewable sources such as solar power generation. Whether Even if decoupled from other RAM enablers like new
this energy is used to charge the batteries of electric RAM technologies, a seamless ecosystem, and advancements
aircraft, ground transportation, or sequester carbon as part of in electric propulsion, obtaining a pilot license still poses a
a fuel offset, RAM operations are well-positioned to catalyze difficult, time-consuming and expensive barrier that could slow
the transformation of local airports into renewable energy hubs down RAM’s impact and growth. That’s why creating small
and well-distributed networks of self-sufficient grids. aircraft that can operate independently, or autonomously, from
an onboard crew removes a significant obstacle to accessing
Autonomous Capabilities for Operational
personal, on-demand aviation as it exists today. If a paying
Enhancements
customer can occupy what was once the pilot’s seat, potential
Advancements in autonomous (pilotless) capabilities will revenue can also be found there. As trust in autonomous
enable new or lower-cost operations for RAM services. Even operation grows, future passenger-carrying operations
if an autonomous capability only moves the professional pilot will benefit from reduced operating costs and increases in
from the aircraft to the ground, it still addresses three major revenue.
factors inhibiting growth.
Seamless Ecosystem
1. A service network with both aircraft and pilots incurs
major costs and overhead due to rebalancing (e.g., RAM can access thousands of existing airports available
transporting pilots to their home airport even if the flight today. Better yet, travelers will not be required to put as
isn’t full, referred to as “dead legs”). Unlike pilots, aircraft much time into planning and preparation as they have grown
don’t mind sitting idle (e.g., to accommodate asymmetric accustomed to with the typical commercial airline experience.
demand cycles) and don’t necesarily need to have a The user experience for scheduled RAM flights will feel
“home” that they need to return to at the end of the day.
smooth, uniform, and seamless from one airport to the next.
2. Trends in commercial pilot shortages will only get worse On-demand flying should be as simple to access as a car-
with growth in RAM operations. share style experience that feels as quick and convenient as
having your own car (minus the headache of actually owning
3. Since RAM aircraft carry fewer passengers than large
transports, the relative per-passenger costs of a pilot, and maintaining that vehicle).
including occupying space that could be used for revenue,
can be sizable. Remote and/or autonomous operations
can reduce these costs and increase route flexibility. Even

April 2021 06
 Introduction

Most importantly, no matter what business model is used The Future is Now
(scheduled, charter, or other on-demand operations), users
The concepts presented in this paper are new to most people,
should not need prior knowledge or experience to successfully
and questions regarding RAM are normal and expected.
use the RAM system. This includes everything from the
While we may not be able to address every potential item, we
journey to the airfield, security screening (when necessary),
will address concerns related to passengers, communities,
baggage handling, boarding, inflight experience, egress, and
infrastructure, and public policy through discussion of the
transfer to the next transportation mode. Most aircraft that fit
following key aspects of RAM:
into the RAM vision are not required to have a flight attendant
so travelers must be able to navigate the entire process easily, 1. Market Landscape
safely, and on their own. Here, the practices used by some
2. Your Travel Experience
recent on-demand charter operators and emerging Urban Air
Mobility (UAM) operations, discussed later on in this paper, 3. Electrifying RAM
may be leveraged to ensure that the passenger experience is
4. Autonomous Systems
seamless, pleasant, and safe.
5. Infrastructure Landscape
Most RAM operations can be integrated into existing airport
infrastructure so that no additional services or facilities will be 6. Parallel Trends
needed. Alternatively, additional benefits come about when
With an informed understanding of the entire environment,
airports add services or modify their operations, such as
you will be empowered to ask more questions and decide
participating in a common fleet management, inspection and
for yourself if RAM is a critical part of the future American
maintenance systems, adding additional electric infrastructure,
transportation portfolio.
facilitating connections to ground transportation (especially at
rural or unattended airports), or participating in small-scale
parcel sorting to harmoniously blend cargo and passenger
operations.

Ensuring smooth transitions between all user touch points is

one of the most critical aspects of RAM in order to reconcile
our very decentralized and heterogeneous modern-day
airport system. Fortunately, creating more uniformity is also
the aspect that requires the least amount of investment in
new technologies and should motivate stakeholders to fully
participate in large-scale RAM operations.

RAM presents an
exciting, convenient,
and affordable way to
see more and do more
and to dedicate less
time in transit to do so.
April 2021 07
 Market Landscape

RAM will operate aircraft so

quiet and unobtrusive, and
provide services so
accessible and useful, that
stakeholders will want RAM
flights in their communities.
Market Landscape reducing or eliminating regional jet services. A recent NASA
report studied this market extensively, including a look at
the technology and market factors that could help restore
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed price and
this service. This study included sensitivity analysis of
route restrictions previously imposed on U.S. air carriers by
market conditions with respect to cost reductions. The study
the federal government. This allowed domestic air carriers
considered aircraft with seat capacities from 20 to 80 seats
to compete for routes, enabling a vastly different network of
and concluded that a hypothetical 40% reduction in operating
origin/destination pairs to emerge. High-demand routes were
cost compared to today’s regional aircraft would push the
served by numerous airlines, reducing ticket prices for these
market to a huge expansion in small regional flights serving
travelers. However, lower-demand routes, which could be
far more airports.11
served by smaller aircraft with lower revenue potential and
margins, started to get squeezed out. As such, Congress From 2015-2016, NASA and the FAA hosted several events
established the Essential Air Service (EAS) program to open to the public to establish a roadmap for development
maintain some level of scheduled air service for small of enhanced aerial on-demand mobility (ODM).12 These
communities that were served prior to deregulation. workshops gathered together aviation producers, commercial
operators, researchers, standards organizations, regulators,
The EAS program primarily provides subsidies to air carriers
and users to understand the barriers to ODM and a path
to maintain air services to local communities for what would
to mitigate these barriers. While the ODM workshops have
otherwise be unprofitable routes. When it was first created
been cited by other mobility efforts, such as those in the
in 1978, it was expected to “sunset” in 10 years; however,
UAM realm, one presentation from the 2016 gathering of
funding for the program has been appropriated every year
a commuter airline operator highlighted that, of the routes
since its inception. In 2020, approximately 170 communities
served by their service, almost all of the routes below 100
participated in the EAS, including 60 in Alaska alone, at a
miles were able to be sustained without EAS subsidies using
cost of $312 million.10 The future of EAS is uncertain, as it
their current aircraft. If this were true for all commuter airlines
is a frequent target of critics seeking to reduce government
and EAS routes, a savings upward of $312M to taxpayers
expenditures. However, support of its continued existence
annually could be realized.13 They also outlined requirements
well past its original sunset date hints at the challenging
for a modern commuter aircraft. Aircraft conforming to
economics associated with these routes in a purely
these requirements were investigated in a 2016 NASA-
competitive market landscape.
sponsored study, including the introduction of new propulsion
In the 1990s, the commercial aviation market saw a large technologies and novel aero-propulsive integration.14 In
growth in routes, fueled in part by market conditions and the this study, the authors estimated a total cost reduction of
introduction of new regional jets in the 50-passenger class of approximately 25% from a baseline modern aircraft was
service. The new aircraft gained broader acceptance by the possible with electric propulsion technology (with a fixed
traveling public, and airlines were able to keep these regional number of hours of operation per year and an onboard pilot).
jet operations cost-competitive with existing turboprop aircraft
flying these routes. The result was an increase in short-haul __
10 Essential Air Service Program, American Association of Airport Executives
traffic, serving more of the traveling public with additional 11 Seat Capacity Selection for an Advanced Short-Haul Aircraft Design, Ty Marien, NASA Langley
origin and destination pairs. This bounty diminished during 12 NASA Strategic Framework for On-Demand Air Mobility, NASA Aeronautics Mission Directorate

the 2000s, when a confluence of conditions led to airlines 13 Essential AIr Service Program, American Association of Airport Executives

14 Design Studies of Commuter Aircraft with Distributed Electric Propulsion, Alex Stoll et al., Joby Aviation

April 2021 08
 Market Landscape

The 2016 commuter aircraft study highlighted other to local communities that may be more averse to
opportunities to reduce commuter aircraft costs. One of the disturbances.
main underlying assumptions in the study was a utilization of
• Near-term technology options, such as electric propulsion
1,500 hours per year, as listed in the requirements provided and reduced crew operations, can reduce hourly
by the commuter airline. Utilization refers to the number of operating costs for regional aircraft.
hours the aircraft is operating and determines the impact
• Operating models that increase utilization beyond that of
of costs that do not vary or vary little with the number of
current commuter airline operations, for example through
hours flown, known as fixed costs – insurance, interest, etc.
a mix of services such as passenger and cargo, can have
– on the overall hourly operating cost of the aircraft. One a substantial impact on reducing operating costs.
of the challenges with regional aircraft is that utilization is
generally lower than for larger aircraft that can keep a steady Not in My Backyard (NIMBY)
pace of flights throughout their operating lifetimes, stopping
Large portions of the population can benefit from enhanced
only for fuel, cargo/passenger loading, and any required
access to RAM. From cargo solutions to on-demand flights to
maintenance. A modern 150-passenger class airliner may
other applications that may emerge from these capabilities,
see a utilization of 3,500 hours or more per year – a pretty
the potential within the RAM vision presents new and
impressive sum that reduces the impact of fixed costs on
innovative ways to utilize air travel so that it is convenient,
the hourly operating cost of these transports. While the route
environmentally responsible, and financially viable.
structure of regional aircraft involves less time in the air than
these larger workhorse transport aircraft, finding innovative However, airports sometimes attract negative attention
business and operating models that increase utilization is a from local residents – generally due to noise and emission
key component to reducing the impact of fixed costs. Using concerns. Despite advances in technology and more
the 2016 commuter aircraft design study as a guide, doubling stringent regulations regarding noise and emissions,
utilization could help reduce total costs by 10-15% from increasing operations at local airports with today’s aircraft
interest and insurance savings alone. As well, as the RAM may accelerate the negative perception of living close to
model is proven, it will become more popular, attracting more an airport for many residents. It is exceptionally important
customers as time goes on. RAM’s convenience and other for RAM to be a good neighbor. As discussed later, new
positive attributes will eventually speak for themselves, thus propulsion technologies, aircraft capabilities, and operating
reducing costs even further. practices will help operations blend into the background of
the local environment. RAM will operate aircraft so quiet and
One final aspect of the 2016 study was the impact of the cost
unobtrusive, and provide services so accessible and useful,
of the pilot, which accounted for an additional 10-15% of total
that stakeholders will want RAM flights in their communities.
operating costs. Regulations governing the minimum number
of flight crew onboard an aircraft correspond to the number of On-Demand Service
passengers. The study in question considered nine-passenger
aircraft, with a minimum required crew of one pilot. The Travelers have long been able to charter aircraft, opening up
compensation for the single-pilot flight crew on that aircraft access to the full range of local airports in the United States.
is only divided by as many as nine seats – as compared to a Others may have access to a privately owned aircraft, either
150-passenger airliner, with a required crew of five (two pilots as individuals or through their business. When available,
and three flight attendants), which can amortize crew costs private aircraft offer exceptional freedom to travel across the
over far more seats. Technologies that reduce the required nation – the freedom to explore a vast number of destinations
flight crew, or perhaps eliminate the need entirely, can further on a schedule dictated by the traveler. For a variety of
reduce this impact on the bottom line. These crew reductions reasons, this mode of transport has not traditionally extended
do not have to initially target passenger operations – instead, to the majority of the public.
repositioning and cargo flights are good candidates for
Developments in recent decades have sought to democratize
opportunities to tackle these costs.
access to on-demand air travel services. Fractional ownership
Altogether, these studies point to some salient themes that and airplane sharing services have tried to increase the
will be explored in this paper: utilization of smaller aircraft. In 2002, NASA’s Small Aircraft
Transportation System (SATS) envisioned the use of modern
• As costs go down, the market favors smaller seat classes general aviation aircraft to enable a network of personal on-
of aircraft, which can serve more airports. Serving more
demand air transportation that would be more widely available
airports means compatibility with runway field length
to the general public.15 Other entities have tried to seize on
restrictions, limited terminal facilities, and proximity
the SATS vision as new technologies were developed to
__
15 Small Aircraft Transportation System Concept and Technologies, Bruce Holmes et al., NASA Langley

April 2021 09
 Market Landcape

connect people in new ways. ImagineAir and FlyOtto propulsion technologies, increasing levels of autonomy,
attempted to provide ride-sharing services to reach and improved operational capability may have on regional
consumers who may not otherwise be aware of on-demand transportation systems.17 The study focused on the Midwest
aviation services. Today, there are several emerging region of the United States as a case study. It estimated the
companies such as FLOAT, Surf Air Mobility, JetSuiteX, and reductions in travel time and/or cost that could be achievable
others that continue this vision. As connectivity technology through the broader use of small aircraft for regional
has improved, so too has the ability of on-demand air service transportation. The study showed that RAM will be most
providers to reach new travelers. successful as regional airports become better equipped with
appropriate charging/fueling and maintenance capabilities
Zip Aviation Study
to give travelers as many potential destination options as
The Zip Aviation Study, funded by NASA’s aeronautics
possible. Additional infrastructure would not be necessary until
strategy office, considered the implications of introducing
the current number of small airports became saturated. Most
electric, highly automated, small aircraft into a business model
importantly, the study found that the ride-sharing economy
analogous to Zipcar.16 The concept assumed that automation
and autonomy are the two biggest enabling factors to regional
could be introduced into the aircraft so that individuals
transportation systems. This analysis clearly presents the
could obtain certification for safely operating these highly
potential of combining new technologies and business models
automated aircraft with only a weekend of training. Then,
to develop a transportation system that everyone can afford.
these individuals would be able to quickly and easily rent an
aircraft from their local airport to take a trip by air, similar to Scheduled Service
how Zipcars are rented.
Regional scheduled air passenger service today accounts
The potential market for trips in these on-demand aircraft was for approximately 3% of total air traffic.18 As noted earlier, the
projected with Virginia Tech’s Transportation Systems Analysis economics of serving these routes is challenging with the
Model for a range of estimated cost levels. Findings revealed aircraft and operational models that have been used in the
that if flight ticket costs could be reduced by 50% or more, past. However, the RAM concept can take some lessons from
there would be a large jump in demand, making the entire previous regional operations, both in their successes and
Zip model viable. The study focused on trips with a 300-mile failures.
range limit, on average, and found that with enough interest,
One of the challenges with connecting passengers on
these trips would only cost a traveler roughly two times what it
longer routes is simply getting them to a major airport in the
would cost to operate a car the same distance; but the actual
first place. There are currently nine U.S. airports that are
time saved, and with it headaches and stress, could prove
considered capacity-constrained, meaning too many people
immeasurable.
and planes are trying to use the same limited resources at the
Midwest Market Analysis same time.18 This number is projected to grow to at least
Researchers at Purdue University, in collaboration with NASA, __
16 High Speed Mobility Through On-Demand Aviation, Mark Moore et al., NASA Langley
conducted a study to understand the impacts that electric
17 Future RAM Analysis Using Conventional, Electric, and Autonomous Vehicles, Satadru Roy et al., Purdue U.

18 National Plan of Integrated Aiport Systems, 2021-2025, Federal Aviation Administration, p. 7, 15

Advanced aircraft
designs can creatively
be reconfigured to
carry cargo, along with
passengers, without the
latter feeling like cargo
themselves.
April 2021 10
 Market Landscape

eleven by 2030, with an additional six considered to be at The overnight parcel shipping business built by UPS and
risk of reaching constraints in this time period. Nearly all of FedEx has become one of the most profitable segments of
the major “hub” airports are on the capacity-constrained list, their business model and is an enormous part of national and
meaning that airports will be restricted in how many new worldwide commercial air traffic. Amazon Prime and Walmart
flights, if any at all, can be added. The capacity of an airport to are also driving the need for next-day delivery. Amazon
handle flight operations is largely independent of aircraft size, already offers same-day/one-day service to 72% of the U.S.
meaning that a small aircraft and a traditional airliner take population.21 Using RAM technologies to reduce costs and
up the same runway capacity, even if the latter serves over increase utilization will further increase access – lowering
a hundred more passengers. This would seem to eliminate costs to the population that already enjoy this service and
small regional aircraft from consideration at these major enabling access to the remaining 28% of the market.
airports.
The infrastructure to support next-day delivery depends
However, the nature of these smaller regional aircraft on population density and geography such that population
generally means they can operate from much shorter drives sales-per-region and the size of the region drives the
runways than their large jet transport brethren. This opens up delivered cost of the sale. Clearly there are many details to
possibilities – several major airports have smaller, secondary consider, but when discussing Regional Air Mobility and its
runways that can serve regional traffic. Many have crossing likely usefulness, RAM systems may be the only means for
runways that are limited in use due to the wind configuration. rapid delivery to remote locations. Technologies, such as
However, regional aircraft may be able to make use of Land autonomy and electric propulsion, can drive down the price of
And Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) to use runway capacity transporting cargo and provide a low-risk, revenue-producing
that may not otherwise be usable by larger aircraft that need test case to ensure reliability of these technologies before
more runway. This unique approach has been used in the past transporting passengers.
– for example, in the 1980s, Ransome Airlines used LAHSO
An aircraft sitting idle or underutilized, just like a machine tool
operations to squeeze in extra flights at National (now Ronald
or a tractor, is losing money. The more time a plane spends
Reagan National) Airport in Arlington, Virginia.19
working, the more revenue it generates. The addition of cargo
Though the economics can be challenging, there are still flights to passenger flights (or vice versa) will help decrease
several operators of small regional aircraft today. They may be RAM costs because cargo transport enables an airplane
partially subsidized through programs such as EAS and are to be flown both day and night, not just during peak hours
able to find niche markets that are not otherwise well served when passengers generally prefer to fly. And, using the same
by both major air carriers and ground transportation options. aircraft for both passengers and cargo means that even if the
They may even work in collaboration with these carriers flight doesn’t sell all of its seats, it can still operate profitably
through code-share agreements. Some of these carriers thanks to cargo on board. All major commercial airlines
have spurred the development of new regional aircraft. For already take this hybrid approach to flying passengers as well
example, Cape Air, whose aging fleet of Cessna 402 aircraft as cargo, as do operators in states like Alaska that already
have been out of production for decades, served as the have a robust RAM operation in place. RAM applications that
launch customer for Tecnam Aircraft’s new P2012 Traveler. match passenger travel needs with aircraft may also include
RAM offers the potential tipping point for a large-scale shift in cargo demand so that RAM aircraft can accommodate both.
regional transportation towards smaller passenger classes.
Point-to-point flights originating from smaller airports will
RAM for Improved Cargo Transport not have passenger/cargo demand density as high as hubs.
Some flight segments may only be able to fill a few of the
Regional aircraft have been a staple of air cargo for decades.
available seats, and demand for cargo can help cover costs
Their ability to land at small, unimproved airstrips gives them
and add revenue. Advanced aircraft designs can creatively
unique access and range, particularly when the alternative
be reconfigured to carry cargo, along with passengers,
is ground travel that may not be practical or even feasible.
without the latter feeling like cargo themselves. Demand for
For example, FedEx operates more than 200 single-engine
passenger flights to remote locations and/or locations more
Cessna 208 Caravan aircraft, which can carry up to 3,000
convenient than the hubs currently utilized by commercial
pounds of cargo and land on short runways. Recently, FedEx
airlines will be a hallmark of RAM service, but that demand
served as the launch customer for the twin-engine Cessna
will vary, so loading flexibility will help maximize the utility of
408 SkyCourier, which is expected to enter service this year.20
the aircraft. Furthermore, combining passenger and cargo
__ operations can increase the utilization of RAM aircraft,
19 A Brief History of Ransome Airlines, David Laird, Clipper Pioneers, Inc. reducing the impact of fixed costs on total operating costs.
20 FedEx Express Introduces New Feeder Aircraft, FedEx Newsroom, November 28, 2017

21 Amazon can already ship to 72% of US population within a day, this map shows, Eugene Kim, CNBC

April 2021 11
 Your Travel Experience

The Customer Journey:

_____________________________ _____________________________

Book It Sit Back

Book spontaneously, even _____________________________ Relax or be productive – no _____________________________
while on your way to the airport, need to keep your eyes on the
or schedule in advance. Hop On road. Hop Off
Never miss a beat. Get dropped Go directly to an automatically
off right next to the plane or arranged waiting rideshare or
walk through a small building parked car.
or gate.

Your Travel Experience

Booking for Seamless Travel Renewed Passenger Experience
The prevalence of online and app-enabled services has As RAM grows, consumers will begin to see the amenities we
changed consumer behavior on the ground (think Airbnb and have come to expect at larger hub airports available at local
Uber), and innovative companies are trying to modernize air airports, such as long-term car parking, lounge and waiting
travel by bringing the same conveniences and efficiencies to areas, secure access to the tarmac, and food and beverage
the skies. Most of us are familiar with how Uber car service options. And, if you are flying out of a smaller regional
works: A user downloads the app, attaches a payment system airport with no terminal, users will often be able to park near
to it, and orders a class of car on demand. The future of air the plane itself. RAM will grow to feel like a VIP private jet
travel could look similar if we begin to normalize mid-distance experience but accessible to far more people. Even as RAM
air travel. Several companies, such as FlyOtto, ImagineAir, becomes increasingly popular as a regional mobility solution,
FLOAT, and Blackbird, have already begun to modernize how the demand for regional travel will be distributed across 5,000+
we book aircraft in this market. RAM does not need to reinvent airports, instead of 30, creating less potential for bottlenecks.
this process, but rather provides a more cost-effective option
to book on the various platforms that have already been Furthermore, noninvasive security screening will be available
developed to provide a more seamless booking experience. in cases where it’s required, and passengers will be able to
By employing the 5,000+ local airports that already exist within carry their luggage (and water bottles and other liquid-based
the United States, coupled with advancements in smaller, products) directly on board—no conveyor belts, no baggage
lighter, and potentially autonomous aircraft, new technologies carousel wait times. Companies such as JetSuiteX, Blade, and
enable a seamless travel experience. UberAir have already developed this experience for air travel.
Once again, a new experience does not need to be invented;
RAM will simply leverage existing investments and operation
models to provide a seamless experience for the regional
traveler.

April 2021 12
 Electrifying RAM

Getting You There with their weight, the amount of power they produce, and
how the electricity is stored or generated on the aircraft.
The “last mile” is a term used in transportation planning Recent developments in electric motors, spurred on by
to describe the movement of people and goods from a huge investments in electric ground vehicles, have allowed
transportation node (e.g., airport) to their destination. RAM electrified aircraft propulsion to become a reality. Today,
works best when travelers have several options to get to their electric motors have been successfully demonstrated on
final destination from the airport. Uber, Lyft, or other rideshare test flights and even certified for commercial use. New
platforms will likely play an important role, and studies show designs generate several hundred horsepower at weights
that even electric scooter companies are open to placing that are comparable to turbine engines in the same power
bikes and scooters at the airports for arriving passengers.22 class. Continued investments in both the public and private
Billions of dollars of investment, from both the public and sector indicate that safe, reliable, lightweight electric motors
private sectors, are already being poured into electric grid capable of producing thousands of horsepower will be
upgrades. RAM can integrate into the electric infrastructure available in the near future. Electrification of the propulsion
not just for the aircraft but to allow for innovative last-mile system aligns well with RAM for the following reasons:
transportation options as well (e.g., autonomous cars). • Improved efficiency: Electric motors use far less energy
than their combustion counterparts. Unique and more
efficient aircraft designs are possible because electric
Electrifying RAM motors present new design options for improved
performance. These designs are particularly well-
Many of the ideas discussed in this paper are not some suited to the smaller aircraft size classes which enable
future concept. They already exist and will become more widespread RAM.
cost effective as time goes on. As shown above, there • Reduced lifecycle emissions and compatibility with
is a market for smaller, lighter aircraft, and once new the future electric grid: Focusing operations at small
technologies are successfully integrated with operational regional airports brings in a new, large electricity
models, RAM’s potential can be realized. customer that can impact capital investment decisions
for airport-scale renewable power generation. In
When the Wright brothers first demonstrated powered flight the near-term, these aircraft could leverage existing
in 1903, they used the thrust from two propellers linked to a investments in the grid; in the long-term, this reduces
small gasoline-powered engine of just a few horsepower to the total lifecycle emissions for these aircraft operations.
help push their machine through the air. In the decades that • Reduced noise and maintenance compared to current
followed, aircraft propulsion systems largely consisted of aircraft with combustion engines: Engine noise can
piston engines driving propellers to generate thrust. Both the be virtually eliminated, and electric motors have far
engine and propeller became increasingly sophisticated, and fewer moving parts, reducing maintenance needs. The
by World War II, aircraft had engines capable of producing ability to turn propellers slower and climb faster also
contributes to reduced aircraft noise in a surrounding
several thousand horsepower, powering aircraft that flew
community.
hundreds of miles per hour and could carry many tons of
payload.
Efficiency
World War II also kicked off what would become a One of the benefits of electric motors over their gas-powered
revolution in aircraft propulsion: the jet engine. Though contemporaries is efficiency. On a piston or turbine-powered
initially unreliable and incredibly fuel-hungry, the jet engine aircraft, anywhere from half to two-thirds of the energy
would be refined within a few short decades to become stored in the fuel goes right out the tailpipe. A modern
the dominant source of propulsion for many aircraft roles. electric motor will convert more than 90% of electricity
Today’s gas turbine engines are a far leap from the early provided to it into mechanical power. This means that an
jet engines developed during World War II – more reliable, electrically powered aircraft may not need to store – or
more powerful, and more efficient than ever. If you are a waste – as much energy to produce the same amount of
passenger on an airplane with more than about ten seats, mechanical power as a gas-powered engine. This efficiency
chances are it is using a gas turbine engine of some type. benefit is especially important, since fuel is a large portion
of an aircraft’s total operating cost. In addition, the lower
Electric motors have been around for longer than piston or
efficiency of gas-fueled engines is directly traceable to the
gas turbine engines. They have generally not been used
environmental impact of aircraft operations.
for aircraft propulsion because of challenges associated
__
22 More than 82% of the US population — upwards of 268 million people — lives in an area where Uber
operates as of 2018. Uber Across the United States, Jonathan Wang, Uber, Medium

April 2021 13
 Electrifying RAM

14
RAM can be a catalyst for
enhanced adoption of
renewable energy by
leveraging the same
locations that are used as
landing facilities – those
thousands of public-use
airports.

Unfortunately, the means for storing electric energy are quite Environmental Impact
heavy. A modern battery suitable for aviation applications may
contain less than 1/50th of the energy stored in gasoline or jet Electricity is not necessarily emission-free, as approximately
fuel for a given weight. This results in aircraft with far shorter two-thirds of the electricity produced in the United States
range, or that are far heavier for a given range, and therefore is generated from processes that involve greenhouse gas
require more power. emissions. If the electrical energy is generated onboard the
aircraft from an energy-rich fuel, such as may be for hybrid
So, why bother? The answer is that the improvements aircraft, then those engines are subject to the same physics
in electrified aircraft propulsion are opening up new of the gas-powered propulsion systems the hybrid system
opportunities while also revitalizing existing ones. The hobby replaces, meaning that the gas-powered portion of the hybrid
aircraft and drone industry very quickly adopted battery- system will still put half to two-thirds of the stored energy out
electric propulsion as the dominant choice about two decades the tailpipe.
ago. Despite the increased weight of the batteries, the
lightweight, powerful electric motors proved to be far more In the past few decades, there has been a global trend
reliable and simpler to operate. This was one of the key towards cleaner energy generation. Recent national
components of the explosion in the small UAS (i.e., drones) mandates have been considered to further increase the
market. Those same trends apply to slightly larger aircraft as amount of “clean(er)” electricity generation in the United
well. Many aircraft that use gas-powered engines today do not States, so, over time, the balance of emissions generated by
need the long ranges that their fuel of choice affords. Rather, electricity production will improve. Regardless of a national
they may be involved in very short missions – pilot training mandate, RAM can be a catalyst for enhanced adoption of
at the local airport, short flights to local airports, aerial renewable energy by leveraging the same locations that are
sightseeing – where increased reliability and lower operating used as landing facilities – those thousands of public-use
costs are more important than long range capabilities. It is airports.
these missions, which are generally too expensive for most These airports typically consist of hundreds to thousands
of the public to consider, where electrified aircraft propulsion of acres of public-use land that, for safety reasons, is fairly
architectures will first shine. sparse, undeveloped, and flat. A small fraction of most

April 2021 14
 Electrifying RAM

airport land use is devoted towards the operation of developer of a hybrid-electric retrofit aircraft, for its passenger
aircraft. Megawatts of solar energy fall on large storage operations in Hawaii.24
and maintenance buildings, passenger facilities, parking
Electrified aircraft propulsion is also enabling entirely new
lots, clearway fields, and other areas daily, and most of it is
aircraft designs and missions. Unlike most gas-powered
unharvested for local use. While airport solar farm projects
engines, the power-to-weight ratio and efficiency of electric
have expanded in the past decade, they are typically limited
motors is far less dependent on their size. In general, smaller
in size. This is due to the return on investment associated with
gas-powered engines are less efficient or less powerful for a
these projects, since they are limited by the local consumers
given weight, so it is desirable to use fewer piston or turbine
of electricity, which may be airport operations or the needs
engines on an airplane for a given power level to reduce
of the surrounding community. By introducing another large
weight or increase efficiency. Since this is less true for electric
consumer of local energy, either directly as electrical power
motors, airplanes with far more motors than the public is
or other energy storage products that leverage airport
used to seeing are being developed. NASA’s X-57 Maxwell
renewable power, RAM can dramatically improve the return-
is a flight demonstrator for distributed electric propulsion
on-investment potential for local airport renewable generation
technology, with the final variants of this aircraft using up to
projects - without causing some of the headaches associated
14 electric motors to enable a more aerodynamically efficient
with moving or storing peak renewable power elsewhere on
aircraft in cruise flight.25 Aircraft such as Joby Aviation’s S4
the grid. NASA is currently investigating how much airport-
use six electric motors to enable efficient cruise while also
generated solar could offset or even eliminate regional aircraft
providing vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) capability.26
electrical loads from the national power grid.
Wisk’s Cora aircraft uses dedicated electric motors for VTOL,
Aircraft Design and Integration and then shuts these down for cruise flight.27 These are but
two of the many different electric VTOL (eVTOL) aircraft now
Design advancements due to electrification are already taking
in development and offer a glimpse of the new types of aircraft
a toehold in aviation. Pipistrel, winner of the 2011 Green Flight
that electrified propulsion can enable.
Challenge, recently brought a two-seat electric training aircraft
to the market, with other entrants such as Bye Aerospace __
23 The 2011 Green Flight Challenge Sponsored By Google, CAFE Foundation
close behind.23 Harbour Air, a regional seaplane service, is
24 Island Hopping with Mokulele Airlines, Ampaire
developing electrically powered retrofits of its floatplanes to 25 X-57, NASA
reduce operating and maintenance costs for its otherwise 26 All-Electric Air Mobility, Joby Aviation

short routes. Mokulele Airlines is partnering with Ampaire, 27 Discover the Future of Urban Air Mobility, Wisk

The more energy

efficient the aircraft, the
further operating costs
can be reduced and the
sooner you will be able
to fly at a lower cost
from your local airport
to your desired
destination.
April 2021 15
 Electrifying RAM

Another critical element of electrified aircraft propulsion also reduce environmental impacts through zero or reduced-
concepts is the huge reduction in noise that is possible. emission operations, enabled by renewable energy sources
Electric machines themselves have no high-pressure exhaust and lower noise levels.
or mechanical imbalances that can lead to excess noise.
New Aircraft Designed for Electric Power
They can produce exceptional torque at lower motor speeds
than combustion engines, enabling them to spin propellers at Unlike combustion engines, electric motors are highly efficient
slower speed but still generate high thrust levels. Propeller tip regardless of their size. This allows aircraft designers to
speed is a large contributor to propeller noise. Electric motors strategically situate electric motors on the aircraft to provide
can produce the same amount of power regardless of altitude both aerodynamic and propulsive benefits. Therefore, electric
or air temperature, which means the aircraft can climb faster propulsion aircraft can be designed to use even less energy
and higher, even from hot, high locations. Climbing faster is than both electric retrofits and conventionally fueled aircraft.
very important for noise, since airplanes that are higher up As these benefits are realized, electric aircraft of the future
produce less noise on the ground. Furthermore, the ability may look distinctly different from those flying today. The more
to use multiple, purposeful motors like the X-57 means that energy efficient the aircraft, the further operating costs can be
future electric aircraft may have more thrust during takeoff, reduced and the sooner you will be able to fly at a lower cost
greatly increasing current aircraft climb rates. Tomorrow’s from your local airport to your desired destination.
aircraft may be able to climb fast enough and use quiet
Electric Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) for Access
enough motors and propellers that the “noise footprint” of the
Short takeoff and landing (STOL) capability enabled by
aircraft – the region where someone on the ground can hear
electrified aircraft propulsion will spur future growth of RAM
the aircraft – is contained within the airport boundary.
markets by connecting high-value locations without airports
Electrification Pathways (such as city centers), where a new short takeoff/landing strip
could be added into the existing regional airport network.
The approach taken to electrify RAM aircraft may be Traditional STOL aircraft can require up to 2,000 ft of runway.
accomplished with any or all of the following: Augmented with electrified propulsion, eSTOL aircraft may
• Retrofit existing aircraft with new electrified powertrains require as little as 200 ft.
by swapping out traditional combustion engines.
This runway length reduction comes from a “blown wing”
• Gradually replace entire fleets with aircraft that design, where propellers blow a sheet of high-velocity air over
are specifically designed to take advantage of the a large portion of the wing. This increases the aircraft high-lift
unique benefits of electric propulsion (e.g., better capability, allowing them to fly at very low forward speeds and
aerodynamically designed aircraft), capable of using therefore take off and land in much shorter distances than
nearly all existing runways.
conventional airplanes.
• Introduce electric short takeoff and landing (STOL)
aircraft making electric aircraft valuable in rural, Electric motors are able to change power more quickly than
suburban, and even urban areas that may have engines, allowing them to be used effectively for approach
constrained landing facilities or are otherwise not already flight path control. This will allow electric aircraft to more
served by a local airport. easily land on shorter runways, especially when combined
with improved approach guidance, control technology, and
Integrate Electric Motors into Existing Aircraft
pilot assistance systems.
The lower cost of electric energy and the mechanical
simplicity of electric motors both lend themselves to overall STOL aircraft are not required to operate off the existing
cost reductions. These propulsion systems have fewer network of regional airports. However, there are near- and far-
moving parts and lower part counts and are therefore much term ways in which they are beneficial to the development of
easier to manufacture and maintain. Based on an early a RAM system. Near-term value comes from the ability to use
electric propulsion demonstration project in California, a “stub” (i.e., shorter) runways at large airports as well as noise
two-seat training aircraft’s energy costs were reduced by reduction thanks to STOL aircraft’s ability to reach higher
85% and annual inspection costs were reduced by 50% altitudes before leaving airport grounds. Far-term value will
compared to the traditional piston engine variant of the same be realized in reduced infrastructure costs (shorter runways
aircraft.28 Similarly, a plug-in hybrid version of a six-seat use less pavement and land, requiring less maintenance) and
aircraft is demonstrating close to 50% reduction in energy improved access, especially for residents of more densely
costs compared to the base aircraft while covering the same populated areas.
distance in the same amount of time. Electric aircraft can
__
28 Sustainable Aviation Project, Joseph Oldham

April 2021 16
 Autonomous Systems

Autonomous Systems of technologies. Huge industry investments in smartphones

led to the development of low-cost microprocessors, solid-
Pilots do more than control an airplane – they are integral to state accelerometers and gyros, high-bandwidth wireless
flight safety. The FAA establishes that “the pilot in command of communication, and lighter-weight, higher-capacity batteries.
an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority Development of cheaper, high-efficiency brushless electric
as to, the operation of that aircraft” and that during any motors, along with further developments in lighter-weight
“in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot in rechargeable battery technology, transformed the hobby
command may deviate from any rule.” The heroic efforts of the aircraft industry seemingly overnight from combustion engines
entire flight crew on US Airways Flight 1549 (the “Miracle on to electric powertrains. This paved the way for the consumer
the Hudson”) in 2009, along with the actions of the rescuers UAS industry – “hobby drones” – to explode into the market.
quick to respond to the scene, resulted in all 155 passengers
and crew surviving what could have been a catastrophic Today’s consumer UAS industry continues to push
event. This is one of many examples where the actions of the boundaries. Commercial UAS operations include mapping,
flight crew saved lives. aerial surveys, and remote monitoring. Several companies
have plans to introduce cargo services on these aircraft,
However, in the past decades, pilots have not necessarily including delivery to a customer’s front door. As these aircraft
been on board the aircraft they are operating. In the post- become ubiquitous, they will need to be operated safely
World War II era, many surplus aircraft were converted into and responsibly, both with respect to people and property
remotely piloted drones and mostly used for target practice. on the ground and other aircraft in the air. Regulators have
This too saved lives – it enabled the military to test new introduced new rules for these systems, ranging from how
systems, including those used to defend against adversaries, they participate and are identified in the National Airspace
without putting an aircrew needlessly in danger. As the System to how the aircraft themselves are built and tested.
military capabilities progressed, so too did the missions of its
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) – no longer simply “drones” These small UAS systems have further evolved from needing
– to tackle missions dubbed too “dull, dirty, or dangerous” for a remote pilot “hand-flying” the aircraft to the aircraft now
onboard aircrew. RPAs such as the General Atomics MQ-9 automatically flying itself -- known as autonomous operation.
Reaper and Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk have In the simplest case, some degree of automatic action is
become modern staples for the U.S. Department of Defense. required when remotely piloted aircraft lose link with their
remote pilot, such as pre-programmed actions executed
The idea of remotely piloted or fully computer-controlled to maintain the required level of safety. More sophisticated
aircraft is now commonplace in civil aviation as well. Small, autonomous systems make decisions, execute contingency
consumer Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) - often known plans, and otherwise complete a mission with little or
as “drones” to the general public – burst onto the scene no control input from a crewmember. The path towards
earlier this century. This was spurred on by a convergence increasingly autonomous aircraft operation involves the

In all cases, the ability

to demonstrate safe
operation – for those
on the ground or in
the air – will set the
pace for adoption of
autonomy.
April 2021 17
 Autonomous Systems

inevitable increase in sophisticated UAS operations as well as go next – understanding the necessary flight path, altitudes,
increasingly simplified controls for aircraft with onboard flight weather, airspace restrictions and outages, the impact of
crew. In the former case, autonomous operations for cargo- these on vehicle performance and endurance, and other
carrying UAS are increasing in scope and frequency, which factors that will influence decisions in the future. Communicate
will help drive development of fully autonomous operations. refers to participation in the airspace system among other
In the latter case, passenger-carrying flights, particularly users – providing others with accurate knowledge of the
those driven in the Urban Air Mobility space, see a path for aircraft’s position, intent, and status, as well as gathering
simplified onboard operator requirements as a pathfinder information on other aircraft and airspace conditions.
for eventual autonomous operations with passengers. In all
Advancements in technology have helped simplify some of
cases, the ability to demonstrate safe operation – for those
the tasks that fall under “aviate, navigate, and communicate,”
on the ground or in the air – will set the pace for adoption of
enhancing an aircrew’s effectiveness by allowing them to
autonomy for operation of different missions and associated
focus on fewer, more critical tasks. The aviation industry
aircraft.
refers to novel technology that makes aircraft easier and
Simplified Piloting safer to operate as Simplified Vehicle Operations (SVO). The
introduction of SVO technology will make becoming a pilot
The modern aircrew executes functions that are colloquially
more accessible to more people and ultimately accelerate
known as “aviate, navigate, and communicate.” Aviate refers
RAM.
to maintaining control of the aircraft and its support systems
– keeping it stable, in control, and with all systems operating Existing and Near-Term Flight Crew Aids
in their normal limits. Anything that threatens the control or Systems that provide the pilot better situational awareness
continued operation of the aircraft is dealt with under this about the aircraft surroundings, such as accurate weather
function. Navigate refers to planning for where the aircraft will conditions, obstacles, and other airplanes, are invaluable.

Convergent Autonomy Pathways:

Autonomous
Air
_____________________________ _____________________________
Transportation
_____________________________

Reduce pilot workload and No longer “pilot,” but simply Move operators to ground
SVO: increase safety “operate” the airplane control centers to monitor flights

_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________

Demonstrate aircraft safety over Expand operations to more Replace cargo with passengers
UAS: unpopulated and remote areas congested airspace and over
populated areas

April 2021 18
 Autonomous Systems

Many systems that help the

aircraft avoid dangerous
situations already exist
and have been shown to
reduce most major causes
of accidents.
Many systems that help the aircraft avoid dangerous situations efficiently share the airspace with piloted traffic.
already exist and have been shown to reduce most major
UAS Operations in Low-Risk Environments
causes of accidents. This also allows the pilot’s workload to
be significantly reduced. In short, pilots do not have to do as The drone systems are upgraded to meet crewed aviation
much other work as they did before and can focus on flying the standards. The software is certified to meet the appropriate
airplane. design assurance levels, system safety analyses are built
to ensure that failures are appropriately mitigated, and
“Operate” instead of “Pilot” the aircraft is equipped with necessary navigation and
Today, pilots need special ratings to fly different types of communication systems that will integrate it into the airspace.
aircraft and in different kinds of conditions. A pilot needs to be Once approved, commercial operations to carry cargo or
trained differently to fly an aircraft with two engines vs. one for surveillance purposes (e.g., pipeline monitoring, land
engine, or in clear conditions vs. clouds. Future SVO systems surveys, etc.) are conducted in airspace with little traffic over
could help to consolidate inputs and manage these differences unpopulated areas, including in inclement weather conditions.
so that they are no longer relevant. Just like a modern driver’s As accident-free flight time is accumulated, the operational
license allows someone to drive many types of cars in many envelope is expanded.
conditions, future pilot certification could make more seamless
UAS Operations in Higher-Risk Environments
transitions between types of aircraft and operations.
The operational envelope progressively includes busier
Essentially, airplane automation will be increased to a level airspace, flight over densely populated areas, and flight
where more people can obtain a pilot’s license because the into large/international airports. All aircraft components get
training requirements and associated costs are less. certified, and extensive failure injection tests and system
responses are evaluated. Contingency and emergency
Operate Remotely
procedures are validated. Flights are performed in all weather
As the functions of the pilot become automated, the aircraft conditions.
can safely be controlled from anywhere by a remote operator.
In case of emergency or loss of connection with the ground, UAS for Passenger Operations
the aircraft will have all the necessary information to safely The vehicle and its integration have been thoroughly tested
land at the most suitable airport. Progressively, operators will in all relevant operating conditions. All of the aircraft systems
be able to monitor more than one aircraft at the same time. have been certified to meet manned aviation standards. The
aircraft and its ground control center are ready to transport
No Longer Just a Drone
passengers.
In this construct, existing or newly developed large drones
are upgraded until they are safe enough to carry passengers.
From the outset, the aircraft is designed to be operated
from the ground without a pilot on board. The objective is
to demonstrate that autonomous aircraft can safely and

April 2021 19
 Infrastructure Landscape

Your local airport

is closer than
you may realize

Infrastructure Landscape
In 1946, Congress gave the Civil Aeronautics Administration • Airports should be permanent, with assurance that they
(CAA) the task of administering a federal-aid airport program will remain open for aeronautical use over the long term.
aimed exclusively at promoting development of the United
• Airports should be compatible with surrounding
States’ civil airports. Called the National Plan of Integrated communities, maintaining a balance between the
Airport Systems (NPIAS), this program created the first needs of aviation and the requirements of residents of
general aviation (i.e., local) airports and ensured they were neighboring areas.
built alongside upcoming cities to encourage more flight traffic
• Airports should be developed in concert with
into local communities. In fact, the goal was to situate airports
improvements to the air traffic control system.
so that all of the United States’ population would live within 20
miles of one. • The airport system should support national objectives for
defense, emergency readiness, and postal delivery.
As has been repeated in every National Airport Plan since
1946 (almost 75 years ago), the goals listed below are still • The airport system should be extensive, providing as
many people as possible with convenient access to air
representative of the potential air transportation system that
transportation, typically not more than 20 miles travel to
will be enabled through RAM.29 the nearest location.
• Airports should be safe and efficient, located at optimum • The airport system should help air transportation
sites, and developed and maintained to appropriate contribute to a productive national economy and
standards.
international competitiveness.
• Airports should be affordable to both users and
Government, relying primarily on user fees and placing These airports were originally intended to be commercial
minimal burden on the general revenues of local, state, centers of aviation activity that would bring economic
and Federal Government. development to their regions. However, the advent of the
jetliner meant that most planes needed longer runways for
• Airports should be flexible and expandable, able to meet
takeoff, an option only available at larger airports. Thus, a
increased demand, and accommodate new aircraft types.
small handful of airports evolved into commercial aviation
hubs and regional airports became largely unused for
__ commercial services.
29 Field Formulation of the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems, Federal Aviation Administration, p.3

April 2021 20
 Infrastructure Landscape

While large jet airliners offer many advantages (e.g., Airspace Integration
economies of scale and long range), their inability to leverage
smaller, regional airports also meant unforeseen strain on the Just as the national highway road system is the primary
US highway system. The result? Short- and mid-distance air infrastructure that cars use, airspace management is the
travel became nonviable options and were essentially erased primary infrastructure that governs the skies. The National
from the travel landscape for the general population. Airspace System (NAS) has specific rules and regulations
regarding onboard equipment requirements, air traffic control
Community Energy Hubs clearances, two-way communication, and weather and
visibility requirements in order to be allowed to fly in the NAS.
Airports can make great hubs for synergistic generation and/
Since RAM aircraft share the airspace with all other existing
or storage for alternative energy, such as solar and hydrogen,
users, they need to comply with these same rules and
for ground vehicles, community users, and Regional Air
regulations.
Mobility aircraft. Indeed, 146 airports across the country have
already begun a total of 225 renewable energy projects.30 Today, communication between air traffic control (ATC) and
The largest current airport-based solar farm utilizes 183 aircraft is accomplished primarily by means of voice over
acres at Indianapolis International Airport and produces two-way radio – a system that has been in place since 1930
36.1 million kilowatt-hours per year, enough to power 3,650 when the first radio-equipped control room was established
homes.31 Ground vehicles are being electrified, and billions in Cleveland, Ohio. The system in place today provides a safe
of dollars invested in electric vehicle charging and electric environment for RAM operations to take flight, but this method
grid upgrades will support them. Airports in many parts of does limit scalability in dense environments. Instructions and
the country are rapidly deploying this infrastructure, in some responses can only be communicated at a rate that humans
cases through state regulation, which will support efforts can clearly understand. Each instruction must also be read
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transportation back to ensure it was accurately understood.
sources.32
Many essential components of airspace modernization are
This electric infrastructure provides immediate airport and currently under development. The FAA’s NextGen program
community benefits while paving the way for expansion of to modernize ATC includes digitization of communication.33
alternative-energy-based flight. Because airports can serve Future RAM vehicles will feature increasingly complex and
(and are served by) a multitude of ground vehicle types, data-rich systems, including redundant navigation and
including electric, RAM can utilize the same resources, and collision avoidance systems, which are not supported by the
when airports plan for the needs of alternative energy aircraft present voice-based air traffic management (ATM) system,
while upgrading infrastructure for other uses, the costs especially at scale.
for these upgrades can be shared. This planning can help
The expansion of RAM will be progressive, as will the
reduce barriers to new Regional Air Mobility services that are
modernization of airspace. RAM will not initially be inhibited
introduced as electric aircraft enter the market.
by existing systems and instead will be able to integrate
Solar solutions can also bring energy to remote airport with them. New technologies on board will automatically
communities by utilizing portable solar powered units. As a detect and safely avoid other flying vehicles without need
part of the Sustainable Aviation Project in Fresno, CA, an of human intervention. New vehicles will be equipped with
adapted portable solar charger has been shown to serve both systems and processes that augment and eventually replace
ground vehicles and aircraft, proving that viable infrastructure the voice-based system. One day, autonomous vehicles
options already exist and are ready to support an increasingly could communicate with each other to coordinate airspace
electrified transportation system. decisions to ensure the skies remain safe for everyone. As
technology is deployed both on the airborne side as well on
As more electric aircraft are revealed to the public, state and the air traffic control side, intermediary steps, such as an
local governments around the country are evaluating the operator overseeing unmanned aircraft and interacting with
potential of this technology to improve connectivity, reduce ATC, can help enable the proliferation of RAM. This isn’t
greenhouse gas emissions, and generate new economic simply a wish list of potential technologies that would help
activity. Tests continue to be performed by various private RAM, these are technologies that are in the final stages of
companies and non-profit organizations, and RAM is development and are ready to be deployed in this emerging
showing promise of lowering the cost of operation for aviation market.
businesses that, in turn, can expand commercial opportunities __
at underutilized airports benefiting local communities. 30 Airport Renewable Energy Projects Inventory and Case Examples, Airport Cooperative Research Program

31 IND Solar Farm, Indianapolis Airport Authority

32 Zero-Emission Airport Shuttle, California Air Resources Board, California Environmental Potection Agency

33 Modernization of U.S. Airspace, Federal Aviation Administration

April 2021 21
 Infrastructure Landscape

22
The expansion of RAM will
be progressive, as will the
modernization of airspace.
RAM will not initially be
inhibited by existing
systems and instead will
be able to integrate
with them.
Future air traffic control models could look quite different and and what happens when it does, rather than how it works
may include elements of the Unmanned Traffic Management nominally. Newer technologies do not have the same
(UTM) system developed to support small drones. In contrast experience base as older approaches that are proven and
to conventional voice-based ATM, UTM is a digitized system therefore must “earn” the trust of regulators and operators
in which commands and responses flow between vehicle alike. In the past two decades, several high-profile aviation
and control station through data links.34 UTM operates as a accidents have been the result of technologies designed to
separate, yet complementary, system to the traditional ATM help the aircrew maintain control of the aircraft, but instead
system and may even serve as a model solution for the NAS led to further compromise of control between the aircrew and
– an environment that handles about 10,000 aircraft airborne aircraft. Other issues include energy storage systems that did
over the United States at any given time and for which the not have adequate safety features to prevent propagation of
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) employs approximately fires. These incidences have led to important changes in how
10,000 air traffic controllers. Many of the building blocks aircraft with newer technologies will be certified.
for higher capacity airspace have already been considered
Recently, aviation regulators in the United States and Europe
within the FAA’s NextGen program, and additional required
adopted new rules for airworthiness in an attempt to maintain
new technology includes remote identification of aircraft,
aviation’s high level of safety, but allow for faster, smoother
data exchange protocols, performance requirements, and
adoption of new technologies that may enhance performance
standardization. Each of these technologies will enable more
and accessibility.36 One of the key features of these new
effective RAM services to take to the skies.
airworthiness rules is the adoption of consensus standards
Advances in Airworthiness – standards jointly developed by government regulators,
industry producers and operators, researchers, and members
Commercial aviation boasts an impressive safety record.
of the flying public – as a means to show the aircraft meets
Worldwide, the fatal accident rate for commercial aviation
the stringent safety rules established by law. These rules
in 2019 was about one accident per two million flights.35
apply to smaller aircraft, which include fixed-wing airplanes
This enviable record is due to many factors, including high
up to 19,000 pounds that carry less than twenty passengers.
standards for certification of airline operators and aircrew, as
This change is a critical enabler for adoption of some of the
well as stringent airworthiness requirements for the design,
technologies outlined in this paper – it enables a regulatory
manufacture, and maintenance of aircraft.
environment that is permissive of new technology but also
Despite these exceptionally high standards, challenges __
demands a very high level of safety.
do remain, particularly as new technology is introduced. 34 What is Unmanned Aircraft Systems Traffic Management?, NASA, January 30, 2020

35 Aviation Safety Network releases 2019 airliner accident statistics, Aviation Safety Network, Janaury 1, 2020
Certification often focuses on how a technology may break
36 Small Airplanes: Regulations, Policies & Guidance, Federal Aviation Administration

April 2021 22
 Parallel Trends

Parallel Trends the explosion in e-commerce. More people than ever are
ordering goods online that they previously purchased from a
One of the most challenging parts of putting together a vision brick-and-mortar store. As e-commerce continues, so must
for the future is to accommodate every future possibility. It is cargo delivery. RAM may not be able to get a package to your
clear that, while compelling, the ideas associated with RAM doorstep, but it could quickly get it to your remote community,
will evolve in concert with other technologies and trends. RAM where another modality will take it “the last mile.”
can provide value in a host of different futures, but this also
requires that early efforts are executed with an appropriate Virtual presence has arrived and is likely here to stay,
appreciation for other activities that, at first blush, may seem lowering business travel demand and increasing reliance
competitive with RAM, or otherwise could inhibit development on e-commerce. To be successful in this environment, RAM
of key RAM operations or technologies. needs to aggressively target technologies to lower operating
costs so that prices can be kept low to attract personal and
Virtual Presence leisure travel. A RAM operator will want to include cargo as
One of the strongest recent trends has been the explosion part of their portfolio. RAM operators may even try to solicit
of virtual presence in place of physical travel. Improvements innovative partnerships with pleasure and leisure destinations.
in communication technologies have made more robust Advances in Automobiles
telepresence options available, and the COVID-19 pandemic
caused a dramatic disruption across the air transportation The personal automobile has been a staple of the American
market. As the world hunkered down to “slow the spread,” household for generations. It is also by far the most preferred
many of the prior stigmas associated with working from home form of transportation for regional trips today – it offers
have been disproven or disappeared entirely. Meetings, flexibility, convenience, and generally low cost as compared
reviews, and even happy hours have gone virtual. Travel will to other travel options. Modern highways and roadways snake
return once the virus is contained, but in what form? throughout the country such that just about anyone in the
continental US has a route to travel, if they have the time.
Businesses and workers alike may celebrate the cost
savings and convenience associated with virtual presence, The challenges with regional travel by automobile are well-
but personal and leisure travel demand will remain. People known, and in fact these challenges are some of the major
still want to visit their families, explore new places, and targets for which RAM is the solution. However, improvements
feel the sand between their toes. Furthermore, the growing in automobile travel are being pursued, principally along
acceptance of “work from anywhere” may in fact push people three major themes: lower operating cost and emissions
to take more trips – working during the day and enjoying a through electric vehicles, lower ownership cost and greater
new setting in the evening – just for a change of environment. convenience through ridesharing, and increased safety
and improved operator experience through autonomous
One other notable feature of the recent pandemic has been technologies. Of these, the first two (electric vehicles and

Advanced automobiles
will help with the
development of RAM
technologies and will
be a key component of
getting travelers to and
from local airports.
April 2021 23
 Parallel Trends

ridesharing) are already a growing part of the market, States, via new routes or other policy-based methods, rail
and companies are investing billions of dollars into more service will most certainly be more cost-effective than air
autonomous operations (“self-driving cars”). travel on the same routes. However, if demand on a route is
high enough to justify ground infrastructure, it’s likely high
The good news is that these advancements are not
enough for existing commercial airline service. Therefore,
necessarily competitive to RAM. Industrial-scale investment
rail threatens airliners and big highway arteries more than it
in automotive electric powertrains and energy storage will
threatens the potential of RAM. Given that RAM is a node-
help mature and reduce costs associated with electric aircraft
based system rather than a path-based system, RAM can
architectures, though the two domains will not be directly
easily adapt to changes in travel patterns as new rail systems
compatible. Ridesharing and even self-driving vehicles help to
or other travel opportunities are available to the public.
dramatically increase accessibility to local airports – solving
the “first and last mile” problems of any airport transfer. Should rail travel increase, regional airports could also be
reasonable candidates for rail stations, serving as transfer
RAM still has advantages over advanced automobiles. RAM’s
points for both passenger and cargo rail lines. Airports
infrastructure is far from capacity constrained, whereas
encompass large swaths of municipal land that can be
today’s roadways are highly congested, and their expansion
used for storage depots, parking lots, warehouses, and
requires expensive investments and possible acquisition
other facilities needed for rail stations, without getting into
of land through eminent domain – an idea that is generally
issues associated with eminent domain in order to acquire
unpopular. Travel by air, particularly without numerous
more space. Such an arrangement could also provide RAM
transfers, should be faster than by the ground on many
operators with a new source of passenger and cargo demand.
regional routes. Self-driving vehicles may help to increase
safety, speed, and throughput – but America’s roadways will RAM operators should monitor and encourage development
still be, at best, a mix of autonomous and personally driven of rail stations at key airports. The potential loss of revenue for
vehicles for decades to come. RAM on a specific route may be offset by the passenger, and
especially cargo, service transfer points that could occur at a
Advanced automobiles will help with the development of
local airport. If travel by rail increases, then America’s airports
RAM technologies and will be a key component of getting
are unique resources available to the regional traveler – they
travelers to and from local airports. For long distances and/
offer a multitude of potential mode transfer options.
or congested ground travel pathways, RAM should still be
a preferred option for regional travel, given that low-cost, Advanced Transport Aircraft
community-capable aircraft are part of the solution.
At first glance, a modern jetliner may not look all that different
High-Speed Rail from the transports that dominated air travel in the 1960s.
However, huge advances have been made in jet transports
One of the most efficient ways to transport cargo or
– new materials, digital systems, and leaps in turbine engine
passengers over long distances is via rail. The railways of the
technology have occurred since jetliners first took to the skies.
United States are primarily used to transport cargo – in fact,
A modern jet transport consumes half as much fuel as it did
over a quarter of all freight is moved via rail. Passenger rail is
in the late 1960s. These modern aircraft are more efficient,
not used in the United States as much as in other countries,
quieter, and safer than ever before. These advances have
though light rail mass transportation options are available in
come at a steady pace, as manufacturers and operators
many major urban areas, particularly in the northeast.
continually invest in raising an already high bar.
High-speed rail systems have been proposed for the United
Future transport aircraft will continue to push the boundaries
States as one solution for low-cost regional transportation.
for increased efficiency and safety. Manufacturers are
These systems serve densely traveled routes, with
investing in hybrid-electric technology and associated
limited stops that enable mode transfer to a traveler’s final
integration of propulsion into the airframe for more efficiency
destination. The cost to develop these systems can be high,
improvements. Flight crew aids akin to SVO, and even
given that new rail networks will likely be needed rather than
autonomy, are areas of continued investment. Manufacturers
improving existing railroads that favor more moderate speeds.
and operators have recognized that bigger is not always
Still, should such systems gain wider favor, they could provide
better and have targeted a portfolio of aircraft sizes that
the American traveler with a safe, low-cost, low-emission,
includes smaller passenger counts than today’s larger
convenient form of regional travel. Travel by rail is also one of
passenger aircraft. Some of these smaller aircraft in particular
the most weather-tolerant methods of transportation.
could be competitive for RAM operations.
Should travel by rail become more prevalent in the United

April 2021 24
 Parallel Trends

Overall, RAM should be able to complement these advances At their core, both UAM and RAM share many similarities.
in larger transport aircraft. Today, commuter airlines “code Both recognize that advanced electrified propulsion
share” with major airlines at several different hub airports, architectures, increased utilization, and SVO/autonomy will
expanding the customer base of the airlines and enhancing dramatically reduce the costs associated with operation of
the experience and options for the commuter passengers. these aircraft. Both recognize that community acceptance is
The smaller commuter aircraft that cross over with RAM can a key component to near-ubiquitous operations. Both look to
operate at some major airports without impacting capacity displace travelers from automobiles into the skies.
constraints, using “stub” runways or LAHSO.
UAM and RAM diverge in terms of markets served and
While aviation in general is responsible for only a small infrastructure requirements. UAM operations tend to focus on
percent of global carbon emissions, the sector is projected eVTOL aircraft, giving them great access to urban cores via
to make up a larger portion of total emissions in the years to newly constructed vertiports. RAM leverages the plethora of
come. Governments and concerned members of the public existing, underutilized airports throughout the United States,
are increasing pressure, in the forms of policy, revenue, obviating the need for vertical takeoff and landing. This latter
and consumer movements towards lower emissions. These characteristic means that RAM aircraft will have more payload
actions will push aircraft operators to invest more heavily capability and/or range, and generally be cheaper to operate,
in lower-emission aircraft and routes. The smaller size than a comparable UAM aircraft. However, the RAM aircraft
and generally shorter range of RAM aircraft makes them will not be able to fully serve lucrative markets of the many
ideally suited to low-emission or even zero-in-flight emission short trips in urban cores.
electrified propulsion solutions, which could paradoxically
VTOL aircraft could serve shorter-range RAM markets,
increase reliance on RAM in a future where aviation
though a dedicated RAM aircraft will be able to serve the
emissions are heavily regulated.
same mission for less cost due to the high power and energy
RAM aircraft will have fewer than twenty passengers, which demands of vertical takeoff and landing. VTOL UAM aircraft
means they will be certified under a more flexible set of would have the advantage of being able to directly access
airworthiness standards than larger transports. RAM can some urban core areas that RAM aircraft could not, which
serve as a pathfinder to certification of larger aircraft – and could drive more market share towards UAM-for-RAM
emissions-reducing technologies such as hybrid-electric or missions. Ultimately, the market will decide if shorter-range
all-electric propulsion systems will first cut their teeth in RAM. RAM markets will favor the increased access of VTOL UAM
Some of these technologies will eventually move up towards aircraft or lower-cost RAM aircraft.
the larger transport aircraft.
As energy storage technologies mature, the range of both
Advanced transport aircraft technologies will be synergistic UAM and RAM aircraft should increase, and/or the cost of
with RAM operations. RAM should drive customers to the operation should decrease. Eventually, the flexibility of UAM
major airlines and their larger transports at larger airports. aircraft with longer ranges will be very competitive with the
If RAM can be competitive with ground travel, these aircraft lower cost but more limited takeoff and landing capability of
could become a larger segment of air travel than the current RAM aircraft on shorter RAM routes. It is quite feasible that
regional market. The advanced propulsion architectures of longer-range UAM aircraft could displace RAM aircraft on
RAM aircraft will also work to drive down fleet emissions, some shorter routes. That said, a successful RAM operator
which can be very helpful in situations where aircraft may find their increased range leads to new markets that
emissions are heavily scrutinized by policy or the public. could not previously be served at an appropriate cost.

Urban Air Mobility RAM and UAM both rely on similar core technologies, and
both RAM and UAM will benefit from the investment already
The idea of UAM has been around in some form for decades,
occurring in these technologies. RAM should target routes
but the most recent development in this space was catalyzed
that would not otherwise be served by near- or mid-term
by the 2016 release of Uber’s Elevate white paper.37 Since
UAM. UAM and RAM should be able to synergistically
this paper was published, billions of dollars of capital have
interact – a RAM user could shift modes to a UAM aircraft at
been invested into a dozen or more credible electric vertical
a regional airport for travel into a busy urban core or other
takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft designs, as well as into
remote area without an adequate RAM landing facility. In
efforts to develop urban vertiports that allow for quick intracity
the far-term, combined UAM and RAM operations may be
travel. The investments and markets have been scrutinized
able to compete with routes currently dominated by larger
by both pundits and skeptics, and while the future is far from
transport aircraft – the RAM aircraft could serve non-capacity
certain, there is a tantalizing market potential at stake.
__ constrained airports on longer-range routes, with UAM aircraft
37 Uber Elevate: Fast-Forwarding to a Future of On-Demand Urban Air Transportation, Uber, October 27, 2016 bringing customers to and from these regional airports.

April 2021 25
 Conclusion

26
The local airport you
may not have even
known existed will
soon be a catalyst for
change in how you
travel.

Conclusion
The local airport you may not have even known existed will maintenance costs with electrified aircraft propulsion;
soon be a catalyst for change in how you travel. It will be a (2) lower fixed costs through efficient production and
gateway from your doorstep to the rest of the world. It will be increased utilization, e.g. by combining passenger and
a hub for local, renewable energy. It will make sure that your cargo operations, and (3) reduction of flight crew and/or
community has rapid access to convenient commerce options reduction of flight crew workload through remote piloting
and critical supplies. Best of all, it doesn’t rely on miraculous and autonomous operations. These cost reduction
technology or infrastructure advancements - the groundwork estimates will be realized in cargo and repositioning
is already in place. flights first and include impacts of near-term technology;
further reductions are possible farther term.
1. The United States currently has over 5,000 public-
use airports, which are within 10 miles of 60% of the 4. Electrified aircraft propulsion enables friendlier operations
population and 25 miles of 95% of the population. Only to the community. These technologies themselves reduce
about 500 are served by commercial flights today, but noise and in-flight emissions substantially and enable
community-compatible aircraft, autonomy, a seamless new designs with increased climb performance that can
passenger experience, and high utilization will enable keep noise within the airport footprint.
RAM to become a reality for far more of those airports. 5. The presence of electrically powered aircraft provides
Best of all, substantial operational growth at these a catalyst for renewable generation at the local airport.
airports is easily within reach: only 17 of all US airports Every community has an airport, so every community
are projected to be capacity-constrained by 2030. has a publicly subsidized swath of land that is ripe for
2. A key requirement for widespread RAM is to dramatically placing renewable sources, such as solar panels, on
reduce the operating cost of small regional flights. When the property. RAM aircraft serve as a new customer of
the cost savings occur, adoption explodes. A NASA study energy at the airport, which can impact payback periods
found that a 40% reduction in operating cost compared and lead to greater initial capital investment in larger
to today’s regional aircraft pushes the market to a huge systems. This also reduces potential infrastructure
expansion in small regional flights serving far more burden on downstream grid components – something
airports. that challenges renewable projects today. Overall, this
pushes the United States power and transportation
3. Aircraft operating cost reductions of more than 50% are sectors towards lower emissions.
possible for RAM aircraft through (1) reduced energy and

April 2021 26
 Conclusion

6. Local airports aren’t some major travel hub – the trip 8. While developments are occurring on many fronts that will
from your door to the airplane will be far more painless improve RAM, not all of them are required to be in place
than your current trip to board an airline at a major before some operations start to make sense. Operators
airport. Parking, security, and even getting on and off are already finding new and innovative ways to bring air
the airplane will be far smoother and require less time. travel to more communities, and this will accelerate as
Advancements in ridesharing mean that you won’t be RAM catalysts continue to advance.
stranded – your trip to or from the local airport is now
easier than it’s ever been and will only continue to get 9. RAM can thrive in the presence of advances in other
better. forms of transportation or transportation substitutes –
enhanced telepresence, self-driving/electric cars, high-
7. RAM is not waiting on some major breakthrough, but speed rail networks, advancements in large transport
instead leverages trends and developments that are aircraft, and urban air mobility. In all of these cases,
ongoing. The airports and air traffic system needed to RAM can provide value to the consumer and to the other
execute these flights exist today, and improvements advanced transportation architectures.
to air traffic management are already in the works
This paper articulates a vision for how Regional Air Mobility
for other future aircraft operations that will only add
will transform how we travel. Targeted investments and policy
to RAM’s capability. Multiple groups are investing in
decisions will accelerate the adoption of the RAM vision.
electric powertrains, energy storage, and autonomy,
These include maturation of technologies for advanced
from automobiles to drones to UAM to transport aircraft.
electrified aircraft and automated aircraft operations specific
Many communities have already recognized how their
to RAM applications, policy initiatives that enhance regional
local airports can be renewable energy hubs, and there
airports and expand their operational and energy generation
are existing mechanisms in place for local and federal
capabilities while ensuring that RAM operators are good
funding of these projects. Finally, the safety certification
approaches that apply to the class of aircraft suitable for neighbors, and development of approaches to ensure that
RAM operation has recently been overhauled to allow for RAM users have nationwide access to a safe, affordable,
faster, safer adoption of new technology. and convenient transportation or delivery experiences. Now,
it is up to all of us – as consumers, investors, policy makers,
researchers, or simply citizens of our planet – to help realize
this vision.

Operators are already

finding new and
innovative ways to
bring air travel to more
communities, and this
will accelerate as RAM
catalysts continue
to advance.

April 2021 27
 Appendix

Appendix is different, but each of their regional airports are, and will
continue to be, supported by a mix of federal, state and
local funding – just as they always have been.39 In other
This white paper covers a range of topics to help clarify what
Regional Air Mobility (RAM) is and why it matters. It should words, there is already significant investment being made
not be construed as the final, defining source of all knowledge on maintaining this infrastructure and RAM will simply
when it comes to possibilities and best ways forward as they allow more people to utilize it.
relate to RAM initiatives. Rather, the paper is intended to start
Q How long will electric grid upgrades at airports take to
a conversation with the communities that will be participants in
implement?
what is an evolving RAM process.
A The electrification of the automobile industry has
Frequently Asked Questions happened almost overnight. In 2010, there were 541
electric charging stations in the United States; in 2019,
We fully expect that you, the public, will have many questions. there were 78,301.40 If lessons learned from this
The following list of FAQs and answers should help further the expansion are employed for developing airport charging
RAM discussion. stations, the 5,000+ airports could be quickly electrified.
Q Are autonomous aircraft safe? Q Will increased air traffic create more noise and road
A RAM must be safe to be commercially viable. Those traffic in areas surrounding the airport?
offering RAM vehicles and services are well of aware A Automated aircraft will be able to fly more precise noise
of this, creating a strong safety incentive. Additionally, reduction flight paths. As we’ve seen in the auto industry,
there will be robust oversight from the FAA and electric propulsion will also be much quieter than
other regulators, as well as from safety-conscious current aircraft. In many of the early tests of electrically
stakeholders. Also, autonomous and unmanned aircraft powered aircraft, the aircraft blends into the background
will begin as cargo flights only. Once the safety and of a typical suburban neighborhood. As for road traffic
reliability of the technology is proven with no passengers concerns, the overall benefit of having a functional
on board, the public will feel more receptive to passenger regional airport close by far outweighs the perceived
flights that operate in the same way. negatives. Just think, RAM gains you convenient access
to over 5,000 airports nationwide. You can start your
Q I still love my car. Will we all give them up one day?
journey from the little airport near your house without
A This is not an either/or situation. You can still be a car
fighting your way through parking, ticketing, and security
or motorcycle enthusiast, but for the average person
lines at the major hubs. As well, more functional airports
who requires a practical and efficient way to travel a few
will more evenly distribute airport traffic, so less travelers
hundred miles, RAM is the answer. RAM capabilities
are vying for highway space and parking at major hubs
actually give you more freedom than your car, enabling
like LAX and JFK.
you to travel farther and to more diverse places, in less
time than ever before. Q How often will the average person use RAM each month/
year? Is there potential to use it daily?
Q My car gives me the convenience of door-to-door service.
Will I feel burdened by the multi-modal trip that RAM will A There is a large scope of potential applications for RAM.
create (i.e., traveling from car to plane and back to car)? Leisure travel, business trips, and super-commuters (~4
A A critical mass of RAM systems will solve this. Multi- million Americans travel >90 minutes to work) are all
modal journeys are much more convenient today in many near-term opportunities that will allow users to use this
locations due to 82 percent of the U.S. population having transportation solution daily, monthly, or occasionally.41
access to ridesharing.38 And, that convenience will just
extend to smaller, regional areas as rental car agencies Q How competitive will RAM’s affordability be in comparison
and ridesharing rise to meet the business opportunity. to other modes of regional transportation?
Furthermore, it is expected that the RAM experience will A Current operators are charging $29 for a one-way 75+
be enhanced with the reliability of autonomous ground mile trip.42 As autonomy, a seamless ecosystem, and
vehicles as a last-mile solution. community-compatible aircraft are introduced to this
transportation option, the costs will reduce significantly to
Q As a citizen taxpayer, will I end up footing the bill for the the point of being affordable to nearly everyone.
RAM program? __
38 Uber Across the United States, Jonathan Wang, Uber, Medium
A Just like other transportation modes that utilize public
39 Voluntary Airport Low Emissions Program, Federal Aviation Administration
infrastructure (e.g., car travel), costs are paid directly by 40 U.S. Alternative Fueling Stations by Fuel Type, Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy
users and indirectly through taxes and fees. Every state 41 The surging ranks of super-commuters, Jonathan Berr, CBS News

42 $1,250 per month subscription with ~22 workdays per month, FLOAT Shuttle

April 2021 28
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 A Brief History A Brief History

NASA announces plans to develop the

all-electric X-57 Maxwell to further
advance the design and airworthiness
process of electric propulsion Pipistrel’s Velis Electro
technology for RAM aircraft. achieves type certification in
Ransome Airlines operates commuter FedEx Express works closely Europe – the first for an
flights into capacity-constrained with Cessna on a clean-sheet all-electric aircraft.44
National Airport (DCA) by leveraging design targeted at small- and
“stub” runways and the short takeoff medium-sized cargo markets
The Federal Airport Act allows
and landing capability of their DHC-7 served by RAM operations.
for the construction of some
aircraft.
6,000 airports. The Act helps
foster the growth of air
transportation by providing as
many people as possible with
convenient access to air travel.
An airport is now only 16
minutes away from the average
American.
Xwing completes a fully
Reliable Robotics completes
automated flight of 730 miles
first fully automated gate-to-
with 700 lbs of school supplies
gate remotely operated flight of
and personal protective
a 4-seat aircraft.
equipment for the Navajo Nation.
NASA casts a vision to revitalize
the U.S. Small Aircraft Tecnam develops an all-new
FLOAT (Fly Over All Traffic), an air
Transportation System (SATS) by 9-seat passenger aircraft, the
shuttle service, begins providing
completing focused research Tecnam P2012, designed
daily flights between general
and technology demonstrations. specifically for the needs of
aviation airports around
the RAM market.43
Southern California.

A 4-seat, electric-powered
The world’s first all-electric,
The Airline Deregulation Act aircraft designed and produced
commercially focused
removes price and route by Pipistrel proves to be 4X
seaplane takes flight in British
restrictions. The Essential Air more efficient than a commercial
Columbia. It is a 6-passenger
Service program is created to airliner at the NASA / Google Ampaire partners with Mokulele
float plane powered by
subsidize air carriers on Green Flight Challenge. Airlines to demonstrate the value
magniX and operated by
certain otherwise unprofitable Harbour Air. magniX special of hybrid-electric aviation in
routes to ensure small, remote conditions published by the Hawaii. Ampaire initiates their
communities maintain a FAA. first test flights of the Electric Eel
minimum level of air service. on the island of Maui, flying from
Kahului to Hana.
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43 Photo by N717JG, CC BY-SA 4.0, bg removed, recolored. 44 Photo by Andrejcheck, CC BY-SA 4.0, bg removed, recolored.