C h a p t e r 1 9

S y s t e m D e s i g n

for Sludge P u m p i n g

CARL N. ANDERSON
DAVIDJ. HANNA

CONTRIBUTORS
Robert H. Brotherton
George R. Brower
Geoffrey A. Carthew
Michael C. Mulbarger
Wyett C. Playford

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the key associated with scum, screenings, grit, ash, and chem-
issues involved in the design of sludge pumping sys- ical slurry pumping are not addressed, but note that
tems. A number of significant problems, not usually these materials behave, in general, entirely differently
met in the design of other pumping systems, are from waste water sludges.
encountered in pumping sludge. These problems The key to pumping sludge is to use (1) a pump
include: properly sized to develop sufficient head, and (2) a
smooth pipe sized to produce the proper velocity
• Variability in the nature of the pumped material (neither too high nor too low) without constrictions
• Resulting variability in the frictional headloss char- or projections and with as few bends as possible. The
acteristics key to maintaining such a system is to have large,
• Sludge behavior (as a non-Newtonian fluid) that easily opened cleanouts on the pump, at any elbows
makes traditional design (such as that for water on the suction side of the pump, and (where possible)
pumping) inappropriate at all elbows on the discharge side of the pump.
• The need to understand complex fluid mechanics Quick-disconnect air and/or water hose connections
and not rely on "rule-of-thumb" approaches. on both the suction and discharge sides of the pump
Due to the unusual and complex fluid mechanics are desirable where possible. Sludge lines should
associated with the wide varieties of sludges, design- rarely be smaller than 150 mm (6 in.) and should
ers are cautioned (1) to treat each sludge pumping preferably be larger. Glass-lined pipe is superior
application as a unique design problem, and (2) to where high concentrations and large amounts
develop site-specific design criteria based on detailed of grease are present. Glass lining is expensive, how-
evaluation of the specific sludge characteristics. The ever, whereas cement-mortar lining—which is also
discussion in this chapter is limited to such problems satisfactory—is not. The elimination of elbows and
of sludge systems as the selection of pumps, pipe, constrictions is of more practical importance than
valves, and cleaning and flushing stations. Problems extreme smoothness for reducing friction.
 The procedures presented in this chapter are • Due to the nature of biological solids, fresh un-
applicable only to short pipelines. Long pipelines digested sludges and sludges from combined waste-
(1.6 km [1 mi] or longer) present a host of complex water behave more erratically than digested sludges.
problems, briefly stated in Section 19-5. In general, • Sludge flow can be either laminar or turbulent. Both
extensive field testing and a thorough understanding flow regimes, shown in Figure 19-1, are widely used.
of the literature and past experience with sludge
pumping to develop engineering judgment is required
for the successful design of systems for transporting Flow in Pipelines
sludge over long distances.
Sludges are most efficiently moved within a treatment
system or between locations by pumping through
19-1. Hydraulic Design pipelines. The unique flow characteristics of sludge
present unusual difficulties in estimating the fric-
Some of the traditional, well-known difficulties in tional flow characteristics, and the literature contains
evaluating the hydraulics of sludge flow [1] are as some information on hydraulic design parameters for
follows: several types of sludges, the bulk of which is on
digested and raw sludges [3-8]. Before 1970, designers
• Sludge is nonhomogeneous and has variable, pecu- typically relied on empirical rules and unreliable
liar properties. methods for predicting frictional headloss, although
• Parameters useful for water (such as Reynolds the fundamental theory was available [4]. Better
number) do not directly apply to sludge, which is understanding was provided by the literature of
a non-Newtonian fluid that may or may not be- the 1970s [9-12], and still more valuable knowledge
have as a Bingham plastic. Consequently, viscosity has been gained from later studies [2, 13-18]. A brief,
cannot be treated as a constant in pressure-drop noncomprehensive summary of fluid mechanics appli-
calculations, and special methods must be used to cable to sludge systems is presented below.
calculate the friction loss.
• Friction losses decrease with decreasing solids con-
centration, a lower proportion of volatile solids, Headloss in Laminar Flow
and increasing temperature. The suspended solids
concentration is generally accepted as the most Sludges generally behave as non-Newtonian fluids.
dominant variable. Because frictional headloss depends on the fluid
Shear stress, sy, at pipe wall, N/m2 or Ib/ft2

Curvature due
plug flow in
middle of pipe

Slope = coefficient of rigidity, T\

Yield stress, syo

Slope = viscosity, JJL

Apparent rate of shear (oc velocity), 1/s
Figure 19-1. Comparison of waste water sludge and water flowing in pipes. After EPA [2].
rheology (viscosity, elasticity, plasticity) as well as on after flow begins. A Bingham plastic is described by
pipe diameter and flow velocity, it can be many times two constants: (1) the yield stress (Figure 19-2) and
the headloss for water. Thixotropic behavior (resist- the coefficient of rigidity (Figure 19-3).
ance to flow until the shearing force is significant), An efficient procedure for using both constants is
grease accumulation on pipe walls, the increase of presented in depth by Mulbarger et al. [13], whose
friction with an increase of solids, and (to a lesser curves are included here as Figures 19-2 through 19-5.
extent) a high proportion of volatile solids contribute Designers are urged to provide additional data from
to the uncertainty of predicting headloss. known projects and to perform the suggested testing
For water (a Newtonian fluid), pressure drop due to develop site-specific data, particularly when pump-
to flow is directly proportional to the fluid velocity ing sludge long distances. Once the two parameters,
and viscosity under laminar flow conditions. When the yield stress and the coefficient of rigidity, are
critical velocity is reached, the flow becomes turbu- obtained, laminar flow headlosses and the two critical
lent. Critical velocity is a function only of Reynolds velocities can be obtained from Equations 19-1
number (see Chapter 3 and Figure B-I). Unlike through 19-4. Babbitt and Caldwell performed early
water, sludges often move in the laminar flow region pioneering work in this study of hydraulics using a
where, for non-Newtonian fluids such as sludge, the method by Bingham [3, 4, 6]. The Bingham equation
pressure drop is not proportional to flow. The precise is applicable only under laminar flow, and its deriv-
Reynolds number at which turbulent flow character- ation includes an approximation that makes it conser-
istics are encountered is uncertain for sludges. Con- vative at very low velocity. The Buckingham equation
vention has evolved to an accepted definition of two [15] may be used to avoid this approximation, but it is
critical velocities for sludge: a lower critical velocity more difficult to solve. Further difficulties arise in
(below which flow is laminar) corresponding to a measuring the two parameters, sy and y\, and because
Reynolds number (J?) of 2000 and an upper critical sludge is not exactly a Bingham plastic. Even so, the
velocity (above which flow is turbulent) correspond- Bingham equation is useful for estimating laminar
ing to an R of 3000. As discussed below, there is some flow headlosses. In SI units, the equation is
debate about the best way to evaluate the laminar-
turbulent transition. At any rate sludge behaves much
like a Bingham plastic, a substance with a straight-
line relationship between shear stress and flow only

Raw primary sludge Values used

Secondary sludge for design
Digested sludge
Median + standard
deviation
Yield stress (sy), Ib/ft2

Yield stress (sy), Pa

Sludge solids, %
Figure 19-2. Yield stress versus sludge solids.
 Raw primary sludge
Secondary sludge
Digested sludge
Median + standard

Coefficient of rigidity (^), kg/m • s

deviation
Coefficient of rigidity On), lbm/ft • s

Values used
for design

Sludge solids, %
Figure 19-3. Coefficient of rigidity versus sludge solids.

where H is the headloss in meters, L is the length of tions to be actually experienced. However, it is far
pipe in meters, sy is the yield stress in Pascals, p is the better to collect specific data for tempering both the
density in kilograms per cubic meter, D is pipe diam- designer's personal experience and the published in-
eter in meters, r| is the coefficient of rigidity in kilo- formation.
grams per meter-second, v is mean velocity in meters It is possible to define an apparent viscosity, \x.
per second, and g is 9.81 m/s 2 . However, the viscosity of Bingham plastics is not a
In U.S. customary units, characteristic of the fluid alone, as it is with Newton-
ian fluids. Instead, viscosity depends on the relation-
ship shown in Equation 19-2. The dynamic viscosity
(19-lb) in SI units is

where H is the headloss in feet, L is the length of pipe (19-2a)

in feet, sy is the yield stress in pounds per square foot,
y is specific weight in pounds mass per cubic foot, D
is the inside pipe diameter in feet, r| is the coefficient where JUL is the coefficient of viscosity in Pascal-
of rigidity in pounds mass per foot-second (Figure seconds and other terms are as previously defined.
19-3), v is mean velocity in feet per second, and g is In U.S. customary units,
32.2 ft/s . Although Equation 19-1 correlates well
with field data, an approximation is included that
(19-2b)
could sometimes cause errors exceeding 10%. The
approximation can be eliminated by solving the
Buckingham equation [15] by successive approxima- where |JL is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity in pounds
tions—a tedious task without a computer or a pro- mass per foot-second andg c is 32.2 lb m • ft/lb • s2. The
grammable pocket calculator. The development of other terms are as previously defined.
site-specific data and a comparison with published The dynamic viscosity of Newtonian fluids can be
information are recommended, and if the pipeline is measured with a viscometer. For sludge, however, the
longer than approximately 1 km (0.6 mi), site-speci- dynamic viscosity depends on the pipe diameter and
fic data are vital. It is acknowledged that specific data velocity of flow, so it cannot be measured directly
are an ideal that is not likely to blanket all condi- with a viscometer.
 Detailed examples of calculations using this devel- with the designer's experience) by an additional 50%
opment are presented by the U.S. EPA [2]. or more.

Data for Different Sludge Types Laminar-Turbulent Transition

There is now a growing database for different types Two general approaches have been developed for the
of sludge for estimating sludge coefficients [16-18]. transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The first
These data indicate that an increase in the content of approach was developed by Babbitt and Caldwell
unstabilized (undigested) biological solids in a sludge [3, 4, 6] and many authors since then, including MuI-
causes an increase in the coefficient of rigidity and, barger et al. [13, 14] and Carthew et al. [18]. Equa-
hence, an increase in the dynamic headloss in sludge tions 19-3 and 19-4 present upper and lower critical
pipelines. The headlosses may be considerably higher velocities based on a Reynolds number between 2000
than those indicated for the worst case in Figure 19-4. and 3000. The lower critical velocity in SI units is
Considering the variability of the data in Figures 19-2
and 19-3, it is wise to be conservative when designing
for unstabilized sludges or sludges containing metal
salts, and the values indicated in Figures 19-2 and (19-3a)
19-4 should probably be adjusted upward (tempered

Velocity, m/s
Friction loss for sludge times that for water

Typical critical
velocity at
intercept

Typical
turbulent
flow head losses

Velocity, ft/s
Figure 19-4. Recommended design curves. Headloss prediction for worst-case design.
and the upper critical velocity is Hanks and Dadia [19] criticized the use of the
Reynolds number only and suggested the addition of
the Hedstrom number for a more rigorous determin-
(19-4a) ation of the transition turbulent flow of a Bingham
plastic. Although somewhat complex, the approach
where both critical velocities are in meters per second. requires only the yield stress, coefficient of rigidity,
In U.S. customary units the lower critical velocity is density, and pipe diameter. The Hedstrom number is
defined in SI units as

(19-3b)
(19-5a)
and the upper critical velocity is
where H is the dimensionless Hedstrom number and
(19-4b) other terms are as defined above. In U.S. customary
units,
where both critical velocities are in feet per second.
Equations 19-2, 19-3, and 19-4 have been used by (19-5b)
several authors and work fairly well for most sludges.

Velocity, m/s
Friction loss for sludge times that for water

Typical
critical velocity
at intercept

Typical
turbulent
flow headlosses

Velocity, ft/s
Figure 19-5. Recommended design curves. Headloss prediction for routine operation.
where H is the dimensionless Hedstrom number and lent as well as laminar flow, and the EPA manual [2]
other terms are as defined above. A special Reynolds provides example calculations.
number is also calculated (see Figure 19-6) and the Some engineers select velocities to avoid the
plotted position of H and R on Figure 19-6 indicates laminar-turbulent transition. The laminar-turbulent
laminar versus turbulent flow. transition of Newtonian fluids causes unstable, un-
For sludge pipelines, the Hedstrom number is predictable headlosses. Sludge, however, is non-New-
usually about 105 to 106. In this range, Figure 19-6 tonian, and data [18] indicate only a change in trend
implies critical velocities not too different from those at the critical velocity—not the abrupt jump that
of Equations 19-3 and 19-4. If it is important to know occurs in the headloss of Newtonian fluids.
whether flow will be laminar or turbulent (as in a There are a number of procedures and equations
sludge heat exchanger, because laminar flow would available for the design of either water or sludge
virtually prevent heat transfer), check both methods. pipelines. In general, it is just as important for a
Allow a generous safety factor because a turbulent designer to understand the practical significance of
zone near the pipe wall can coexist with a plug pipe roughness and interior pipe conditions as it is to
flow zone near the center of the pipe [20]. select the most appropriate design equation or pro-
cedure [22]. The approach of Hanks and Dadia [19] is
probably the most accurate method to predict head-
Headloss in Turbulent Flow loss under turbulent conditions. To use this method
calculate the Hedstrom number from Equation 19-5
It is often practical to provide sufficient velocity to and the Reynolds number as presented in Figure 19-6
produce turbulent flow, especially for sludge with a and read the friction factor from Figure 19-6. Losses
low solids content. Under turbulent conditions, head- in SI units are computed from
loss vanes with velocity raised to an exponent of 1.7
to 2.0 [18]. Pipe roughness can be highly significant,
and if so, procedures such as Hazen-Williams (Equa- (19-6a)
tion 3-9) may be used for sludge. In a smooth pipe,
turbulent flow of sludge produces a headloss that is where Ap is differential pressure in Pascals and / is
similar to or somewhat higher than the headloss with found from Figure 19-6. In U.S. customary units,
water. Major references include papers by Caldwell
and Babbitt [4, 6] and Hanks and Dadia [19] and
encyclopedia articles by Hanks [20] and Darby [21]. (19-6b)
The test pipe data of Carthew et al. [18] cover turbu-
Friction factor, f

Newtonian
curve

R1 Reynolds number, R = ^

Figure 19-6. Theoretical friction factor for sludge analyzed as a Bingham plastic. After EPA [2].
where Ap is differential pressure in pounds per square headloss by the factors from Figure 19-4 (worst case)
foot and/, again, is found from Figure 19-6. All other or Figure 19-5 (routine design). These figures cover
terms are defined above. laminar and turbulent flow conditions, both of which
As with water under turbulent conditions, the are widely used. At lower velocities, sludge friction
friction loss in sludge flow is approximately propor- decreases only slowly as velocity drops. With water,
tional to velocity squared but modified by a multi- however, friction drops sharply as velocity drops.
plier found by using Figure 19-4 or 19-5. Hence, the sludge/water headloss ratio increases as
Mulbarger et al. [13,14] suggested a 50% allowance velocity decreases. Above a critical velocity, sludge
for worst-case design for headloss under turbulent flow flows more like water and friction varies as velocity to
conditions. The 50% allowance is equivalent to using a an exponent of about 1.85. Figure 19-4 includes a
Hazen-Williams C of about 110 instead of 140. The factor of 1.5 in this region. Headloss also varies with
difference between sludge and water increases with an solids content, especially at the lower velocities.
increase of solids under both laminar and turbulent Consider the following when using Figures 19-4
flow as shown by recent experiments [18]. If the two and 19-5:
Bingham parameters (sy and r\) can be determined with
accuracy, the procedure of Hanks and Dadia [19] may • Figures 19-4 and 19-5, supplemented with data pub-
be a more exact method. It is certainly wise to allow for lished since 1980, are far more accurate than popular
an increase in pipe roughness due to moderate deposits references published before 1970. These figures were
of grit and grease. The above safety factor, however, proposed by Mulbarger [13, 14] to represent the
may not suffice under some conditions, especially at general case(s) based on further examination of
higher solids concentrations. Wherever more accuracy data derived in his earlier work [13].
is needed (as in all but short pipelines), the graph of • Figures 19-4 and 19-5 must be used correctly. The
Figure 19-6 should be used. water headloss is computed as a basis for the sludge
headloss. Most engineers are comfortable with the
Thixotropy approach of (1) calculating headlosses for water for
a selected pipe roughness and then (2) multiplying
Sludges sometimes exhibit characteristics of thixotro- the headloss by a selected sludge factor. The factors
py; at other times they display characteristics similar to in Figures 19-4 and 19-5 are based on an H-W
those of a Bingham plastic. In thixotropic behavior, C factor of 140 for water. Do not use a different C
flow resistance depends on the time at rest, so high factor even if you would do so for water. Minor
pressure is needed to start the fluid moving after it losses should never be computed as equivalent pipe
has been at rest. Because some studies have shown lengths but should be computed separately. Minor
that sludge is markedly thixotropic, it is good practice loss coefficients may be taken as roughly the same
to assume that thixotropy may occur and, hence, raise for sludge as for water.
the friction loss in suction piping. Suction piping • Some sludges may exceed the "design worst-case"
should therefore be as short as practical. After passing curves of Figure 19-4. For undigested activated
through a pump, thixotropic effects are unlikely to be sludge, the design worst-case should be raised by
important, except when restarting a pipeline that has a factor of 1.5 until more data are available.
been shut down while full of concentrated sludge. A similar factor may apply to primary and second-
ary sludges that contain aluminum or iron salts.
• The charts should be used with great caution for
Simplified Headloss Calculations pump suction piping in the calculation of available
net positive suction head (NPSHA). Even if
Most of the above information has been available for NPSHA appears to be adequate, long suction pipe-
many years but has not been widely used. A recent lines represent poor practice and should not be
advance has been the compilation of Figures 19-4 and allowed because of possible thixotropy.
19-5. The use of these figures is demonstrated in Ex- • Lower velocities and larger pipe may or may not
ample 19-1, Section 9-3, in which sludge is considered reduce total friction headlosses. Calculate head-
to be a Bingham plastic with values of sy and r\, as losses for at least two pipe sizes and evaluate capital,
shown in Figures 19-2 and 19-3. The factors obtained operating, and maintenance (pipe cleaning) costs
from Figures 19-4 and 19-5 are compared to losses for before deciding the pipe size (see Example 19-1).
water using the Hazen-Williams equation with a C • Figures 19-4 and 19-5 are inadequate for highly
value of 140. Choose velocity and percent solids, com- accurate results. Accuracy is especially important
pute the friction headloss for water, and multiply the when the pumped distance is large or when signifi-
 cant variations in sludge are expected. A strongly the pump capacity is reduced and the head is raised
suggested guideline is to conduct a specific testing by throttling a discharge valve.
program whenever (1) the pipeline is more than The impeller can be specified to include one or more
1.6 km (1 mi) long, (2) the sludge is expected to vanes and to be enclosed, semi-enclosed, or open. Ef-
be at or over 7% solids, (3) a fluctuation in fluid ficiencies tend to be higher for enclosed impellers and
characteristics of the sludge is likely to occur, or (4) lower for open impellers. Closed impellers are best
calculations based on Figure 19-4 indicate a fric- suited for large return-activated sludge pumps or raw
tion head greater than 15 m (50 ft). waste pumps with suction and discharge pipes of
• Do not assume that resistances obtained by testing 200 mm (8 in.) or larger. Open or recessed impellers
will never be exceeded. Design the facility to allow are better for smaller-volume pumping applications
for diluting the sludge to ensure an adequate involving stringy material and for suction and dis-
installation. charge piping sizes of 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.). Cen-
trifugal pumps are not recommended for very small
volumes of sludge with suction and discharge piping
19-2. Types of Pumps less than 100 mm (4 in.). Note that many designers
object to pipe smaller than 150 mm (6 in.) and refuse
Depending on the application, sludge pumps can be to use pipe smaller than 100 mm (4 in.) for sludge in
centrifugal, vortex, combined screw-centrifugal, air any circumstances.
lift, or positive-displacement pumps such as plunger
(or piston), progressive cavity, diaphragm, rotary lobe,
and high-pressure piston. These pumps are described Vortex Pumps
in Chapter 11 and compared in Table 25-10. In general,
centrifugal pumps are most suitable for pumping large The impeller of a vortex pump (also called a "recessed
volumes of sludge at low (2 or 3%) concentrations, impeller pump") develops a vortex in the incoming
whereas higher concentrations and intermittent pump- fluid so that most of the solids never touch the impeller.
ing warrant the use of a positive-displacement pump. The openings through the pump are large because the
impeller is almost entirely out of the liquid flow path,
so the plugging often encountered with nonclog pumps
Centrifugal Pumps is eliminated. (Despite the name, nonclog pumps often
clog.) Hence, the size of solids is limited mostly by the
The preferred choice of centrifugal pumps for sludge size of the suction and discharge nozzles. Vortex
applications is the nonclog pump because of the need pumps have the advantages of less maintenance,
for larger passages through vanes to prevent obstruc- greater reliability, and greater ease of parts replace-
tions. In general, pumps for moving sludge fall in the ment. But the sizing of vortex pumps is critical because
low end of the mixed-flow range of specific speeds. they have very flat system head curves—a major com-
Sludge pumping applications for which centrifugal plication when pumping thicker sludges (because of
pumps are suitable are limited to relatively low the highly variable pressure drop). Internal fluid recir-
(<1%) concentrations if pumping raw primary culation is a concern, the efficiency is very low (only
sludge, and moderate (<5%) concentrations if pump- 45% or less), and in some types the impellers cannot be
ing digested and return sludge. Sludge pumps must be trimmed. In summary, the vortex pump is a desirable
sturdier with larger, more reliable bearings, shafts, selection when the sludge pumping system require-
seals, and other internal components. Reliability is ments are such that reliability is paramount in the
preferred over pumping efficiency. pumping of sludge with a low (say, 4% or less) concen-
One of the major problems in selecting a centrifu- tration of solids. Vortex pumps can pump up to about
gal pump for sludge is the difficulty in obtaining the 6% solids, but a variable-speed drive and a reliable
proper size for both flow and head conditions. (An flowmeter are required to allow process control at
example of the range of design considerations is pre- higher solids contents. Rugged mechanical construc-
sented in Example 19-1.) Due to the wide range of tion also becomes critical as varying process conditions
expected flow conditions, variable-speed (V/S) con- may require the pump to operate away from its best
trol is usually used. The discharge valve should not be efficiency point (BEP). A positive means of moving
throttled in an attempt to control flow because throt- sludge through the suction piping into the pump must
tling promotes increased valve wear, plugging of the be available if pumping is to be reliable.
pipeline, and wasted energy. Velocity criteria in the Horizontal mounting is recommended, because ver-
sludge piping system are often compromised when tical installations can result in noise and/or cavitation.
 Restrictions are often built into the discharge pas- sludges with stringy and fibrous materials are said to
sages of the pump to steepen the flat system head be good applications for both of these pumps.
curves, so do not fail to specify the size of sphere
that must pass entirely through the suction, dis-
charge, and internal passages of the pump. Air Lift Pumps

Air lift pumps are sometimes used for the thin sludges
Combined Screw-Centrifugal Pumps produced at oxidation ditches or other small, extended
aeration-activated sludge plants. Because the control
Recognizing the inherent problems in pumping of pumping rate is limited for a single pump, they are
sludge, pump manufacturers have periodically offered often installed in multiples. Air lift pumps are used for
innovative designs. One type (such as the Chicago activated sludge return where the lift is low—typically
Pump Scru-Peller*), used for half a century, com- less than 2 m (6 ft)—and the pipeline is short [23]. The
bines a two-flight screw conveyor with an open- pump itself is almost indestructible and, except for the
type, two-blade centrifugal nonclog impeller. It was splashing and the daily need for cleaning, requires
designed and applied particularly for primary sludge virtually no maintenance. The air blowers, however,
pumping. The sharp stellite edges of the screw con- do require maintenance. The pump has several disad-
veyor and impeller and the stellite shear bars in the vantages: (1) it is difficult to regulate flow (so process
screw housing cut or shred stringy materials. control is also difficult); (2) the pumpage changes er-
The advantages of the Scru-Peller pump are its ratically with small variations in the air delivered; and
ability to (1) cope with stringy materials, (2) produce (3) the efficiency is low (typically less than 30%). The
a steady discharge, (3) develop heads up to 50 m best way to regulate discharge is to maintain the max-
(160 ft) at 160 m3/h (700 gal/min), and (4) minimize imum air pressure entering the pump and close (or
clogging effects and associated downtime and main- open) the air exhaust ports at the bottom of the pump
tenance. The disadvantages are primarily higher first column. Flushing connections are recommended.
cost and operating costs as compared with costs for a
centrifugal nonclog pump, but less as compared with
costs for a vortex pump. The pump is best applied for Plunger Pumps
intermittent pumping instead of continuous duty.
A pump that has often been used to replace an The plunger (or "piston") pump has long been a
inefficient vortex pump is the combined screw-centri- workhorse and is one of the most commonly used
fugal impeller pump (such as the WEMCO Hidros- types for pumping sludge. The piston is driven by
tal'1 in Figure 11-36). This type of pump has been an exposed drive crank whose eccentricity is adjust-
applied to sludges for about 16 years in the United able and, thus, varies the stroke length to suit the
States. The design was developed to pump live fish desired output. The discharge from a plunger pump
without damage for canneries. The impeller has two is therefore a series of interrupted sinusoidal pulses,
sections (screw and centrifugal) that combine the so the "pulsed" flow (at the peak of the sine curve) is
clog-free features of a vortex pump with the gentle greater than the average flow. The pulsing effect is
action of a screw pump at the higher efficiencies of a reduced with multiple piston (duplex or triplex)
centrifugal pump. The large open channels in the pumps and/or with air chambers. Design calculations
fluid path provide pumping without the abrupt must be based on the peak of the pulsing flow. The
changes in direction that capture stringy materials. approximate flow variations as a percentage of the
It is claimed that the corkscrew action of the screw average flow are shown in Table 19-1. Because the
section helps to start thicker sludges moving. The tabular values are based on the assumption of a rigid
advantages of this pump include (1) higher (up to machine and an incompressible fluid, the observed
80%) efficiencies, (2) nonclog operation, (3) gentle effects may be somewhat less. Nevertheless, discuss
fluid action without high turbulence, (4) a steep this aspect of pump performance with the pump
head-capacity curve, (5) low NPSH requirements, manufacturer. Air chambers should be specified on
and (6) a nonoverloading power curve. The disadvan- the suction side when the suction head is more than
tage is that for a given flow rate, it is larger and more 4.6 m (15 ft), and they should always be furnished on
expensive than a centrifugal pump. the discharge side. Air chambers, or pulsation damp-
Both of these pump types may be useful when the eners, induce a more uniform flow. The volume of an
combination of steady discharge with clog-free oper- air chamber or dampener for simplex pumps should
ation is desired. The pumping of primary sludge and be six to eight times the displacement of one plunger
Table 19-1. Approximate Flow Variations as a Per- Progressing Cavity Pumps
centage of the Average Flow in Plunger Pumpsa
Progressing cavity pumps (see Figure 11-6) are ad-
Flow variations vantageous if a smooth, steady, predictable discharge
as a plus or minus is required. The pump produces a relatively constant
Pump Number of percentage of
configuration plungers average flow output of flow because as one cavity reduces in size,
the opposing cavity is increasing at the same rate.
Simplex 1 320 Flow capability is a function of rotor speed, rotor
Duplex 2 160 diameter, rotor eccentricity, and helix pitch. Pressure
Triplex 3 125 capability is a function of the number of rotor/stator
Two duplexes 4 133 stages [2]. These pumps are available with a wide
a
After Henshaw [24].
variety of flow and head ratings and are very useful
when pumping thicker sludges if they do not contain
per stroke (F5); for duplex and triplex pumps, the grit, debris, or abrasives.
volume should be three to four times Vs [25]. The Because a progressing cavity pump acts as a check
kinematics of reciprocating pumps produce periodic valve when inactive due to the minimal clearances
variations in flow, velocity, and head conditions, so between the stator and rotor, check valves may be
design the system to prevent the coincidence of har- eliminated, but isolation valves must always be pro-
monics with the fundamental harmonics of the suc- vided. If static back pressure is high, however, the
tion or discharge piping [26]. pump might rotate backward unless either a check
The advantages of plunger pumps are (1) superior valve or antireverse gearing is used. The size of solids
reliability, (2) ease and simplicity of maintenance and that can pass through a progressive cavity pump is
repair, and (3) low cost of replacement parts. But the limited to less than 45 mm (I3Z4 in.) in diameter, so
most important advantage is their constant capacity the sludge must not contain large solids. Unless sludges
when the head varies or when the head cannot be are relatively free from grit and other abrasives, wear is
reliably estimated. The pump motor must, of course, accelerated, which causes costly and frequent mainten-
be large enough for the maximum pressure condi- ance. Operating speed is limited to about 300 rev/min
tions. A procedure for calculating the head for a or less to minimize wear. However, the pump clogs at
plunger pump is given in Example 19-2 in Section 9-3. very low speeds. A general recommendation is to pro-
The disadvantages of plunger pumps include: (1) vide an adequate velocity through the system piping
pulsating flow, which tends to induce "rat-holing" in while (at the same time) pumping at 200 rev/min or
the sludge sump, (2) noise and vibration, (3) filth and slightly more. Pump speed should be discussed in depth
smell, (4) frequent replacement of the balls in the ball with the pump manufacturer.
check chambers, and (5) the reluctance of some op- Progressing cavity pumps have a reputation for a
erators to maintain or repair them. The piston fre- high rate of wear and the requirement of more main-
quently tends to tilt during the downstroke, thus tenance labor than any other widely used type (see
causing rapid wear. Piston guides are recommended also rotary lobe pumps in this section). Wear of the
to reduce this tendency. metal rotor on the elastomeric stator increases clear-
Plunger pumps should be designed and operated at ances and reduces flow and pressure, so rotors and
the maximum discharge stroke setting for the best stators must be replaced frequently—typically once a
operation. Two in-line ball check valves on both sides year and sometimes more often. Replacement parts
of the plunger pump are also recommended (1) for are expensive and difficult to install. Ample room is
better backflow protection if back siphoning from the needed to slide internal pump parts out of the casing,
discharge to the suction tank is possible and (2) to so the pump requires significantly more floor space
make the operation of the pump smoother if the suc- than other pumps. A recommended installation is
tion head is high. The use of two ball check valves along shown in Figure 19-7.
with other design features should be discussed in detail
with the pump manufacturer. Ball check valve seats
should be stainless steel or bronze and should be re- Diaphragm Pumps
placeable without disturbing the valve chamber piping.
If a pulsating discharge rate is acceptable, positive- Diaphragm pumps, especially the spring-assisted, air-
displacement reciprocating pumps are recommended operated type (such as the Dorr—Oliver type ODS),
as the primary means of sludge pumping due to their have been successfully applied to low head sludge
reliability in pumping the thicker and heavier sludges. pumping service for at least 20 years. The spring acts
 Flexible coupling
(flanged coupling adapter, grooved)

Eccentric plug valve

Inline pressure monitor
with high pressure alarm
and shutdown switch

Belt guard
Gear motor
or hydraulic Pump input shaft Drive unit
drive equipped with non-
reverse device
Cleanout
preferred

Stator and b
rotor

Distance required
to remove stator
plus 2 feet
for maintenance minimum Anchor elbow
to wall using
Anchor fabricated
discharge to steel bracket
wall at elbow with gusseted
base plate

a c
Figure 19-7. Installation recommendations for progressing cavity pumps, (a) Plan; (b) Section b; and (c) Section c.

on the diaphragm to draw sludge into the pumping flow. The type with a single valve for suction and
chamber, so the pump is capable of a modest suction discharge is not suitable for stringy materials, but
lift although high suction lift cannot be sustained reli- valves in tandem pairs can be obtained or the pump
ably [27]. Compressed air forces the sludge out of the can be preceded by a grinder.
pumping chamber. Check valves on the inlet and dis- Membranes typically last about two years if the air
charge connections prevent backflow. Stroke adjust- supply and the solenoid air valve are properly adjusted.
ment and timer control of the air supply solenoid Cracks in the membrane can be readily detected, so the
permits a wide range of pumping rates. Nonassist and membrane can be replaced before it ruptures entirely.
pneumatic-assist types are available. The pump can be A ruptured membrane allows the air lines to fill with
furnished with ball-type check valves in either singles sludge to the muffler, but the muffler liner quickly clogs
or pairs with quick opening covers (recommended). so that little sludge can spill. Cleaning the air lines is a
Capacities range up to 34 m3/h (150 gal/min) as water chore; membranes should be replaced well before
(and 60% or more of such values as sludge) at 350 kPa cracks develop. The O&M manual should contain a
(50 lb/in.2) gauge. Compressed air requirements are warning about the danger of flooding the station with
significant, however, and the air exhaust can be quite sludge if a muffler and liner are not in place. Better
noisy. Diaphragm pumps have a good reputation, protection is afforded by mounting the muffler high
problems are few, and they are suitable for small treat- enough to prevent any possible spill.
ment plants. Another diaphragm pump option consists of a
The disadvantages include: (1) pulsating flow, (2) low-pressure pump using dual free or unbalanced
vibration, (3) requirement for compressed air and diaphragms driven by an eccentric shaft. The features
consequent inefficiency, and (4) high cost per unit of of the pump include a mechanical drive, self-priming
characteristics, ability to operate at speeds reduced to two pumping cylinders of small diameter and long
a "snore" condition, the elimination of check valves stroke. Each cylinder is driven by the pressure of
and moving seals, and an unusually low number of hydraulic oil in an adjacent drive cylinder. Hydraulic
moving parts. The pump is valveless and glandless oil is also used to power-operate the valves, because
and is able to operate dry for a short time without ordinary check valves are not satisfactory in plastic
damage. It has been available since the mid-1980s and fluids with high yield stress. At the pump intake, a
has been successfully applied in over 2000 sludge short screw conveyor may be used to force sludge into
pumping applications. The pump can reportedly han- the pump. The installation is mechanically complex
dle up to 8.5% solids [28]. This type of diaphragm and requires considerable floor space, but other con-
pump is limited to a TDH of 30.5 m (100 ft) (or less veying systems have the same drawbacks.
for the largest model). Maximum solids-handling Very high pressure drops occur, although data are
capacity is 25 mm (1 in.). The pump tends to retain sparse. In one unpublished test of a sludge containing
its performance over its operating life because disc 36% solids, pressure drops of about 3000 kPa
and seal wear is low. Be cautious, however, in speci- (400 lb/in.2) occurred after thixotropic breakdown in
fying this pump because, when overpressurized, it can a pipe only 61 m (201 ft) long [31]. The pressure
break internally without warning. Applications should needed to achieve thixotropic breakdown after a day
be reviewed with the manufacturer in detail. of rest was 4000 kPa (600 lb/in.2). The pipe diameter
was 130 mm (5 in.). In spite of the drawbacks, a
pumping system may sometimes be more cost effective
Rotary Lobe Pumps
than a conveyor belt.
The rotary lobe pump has been applied to wastewater
sludges only since 1970 but with promising results. Its Pump Selection
advantages are: (1) positive displacement with little
agitation or shear, (2) high efficiency, (3) self-priming, For sludge service, maintenance-free operation with
(4) compactness, (5) good accessibility for mainten- pumps that rarely clog is preferable to the operation
ance, and (6) sizes up to 0.12 m3/s (2000 gal/ min). of more efficient units in which these advantages are
The disadvantages are: (1) close clearances that are compromised. Should the process design require a
subject to wear and abrasion (which makes sludges centrifugal pump, however, it is good design practice
containing much grit, abrasives, debris, and rags un- to add a standby positive-displacement pump to
suitable), (2) pulsing flow, although the "twisted lobe" ensure that thicker sludge can be moved.
pump of Figure 11-5 produces uniform flow. Rotary
lobe pumps are so compact that it would be difficult to
19-3. Pumping System Design
replace an unsatisfactory unit with another type
because of space limitations.
The most important criterion for design is to have
Difficulties have been experienced with a number of
sludge pumps capable of transferring the design
rotary lobe pumps (installed between 1980 and 1988) in
quantity of solids throughout the range of expected
which rapid wear of lining materials and sometimes
solids concentrations within the required time inter-
catastrophic loss of liners have occurred, according to
val. In most treatment plant sludge pumping, the
a survey conducted in late 1988 [29]. Some operators
consistency of the sludge changes during pumping.
reported rapid wear of end plates and a resulting loss of
At first, the most concentrated sludge at the bottom
volumetric capacity. The causes were sorption of water
of the basin is pumped. After most of that sludge is
by the liners and failure of the adhesive. The problems
removed, a more dilute sludge with characteristics
have since been corrected [30].
ranging from semisolids to those essentially of water
is pumped. This variability in the fluid characteristics
High-Pressure Piston Pumps causes the pump to operate at different points along
its design curve. Designers must take this variability
Belt conveyors and screw conveyors are usually used into account and size the pump and motor for all
to move dewatered sludge to truck loading points or expected service conditions. If the pump motor is
incinerators. An alternative recently developed is the not sized correctly, the pump may become over-
use of specially designed piston pumps to force dewa- stressed or the motor damaged.
tered sludge through pipes. It is desirable to pump as uniformly as practical,
The basic pump design is derived from concrete but with small systems it is better to pick larger
pumps. A high-pressure piston pump typically has pumps and pipelines than are needed and pump
intermittently with timers. The pump should operate tially during pumping. Consequently, four system
long enough (approximately 10 to 15 min) to heat curves are essential for analysis.
the motor to the operating temperature. The pump
cycle time (subject to review with the manufacturers • Maximum system curve: The pressures that occur
of the pump, motor, and motor starter) should be at with maximum solids concentration. The system
least 15 min. The velocity of pumping is important. operates along this curve when the sludge is most
The friction in starting the sludge movement is much concentrated and when it is being pumped through
greater than in keeping the sludge moving once it is the piping system route that results in the max-
started. In pumping thick sludges, it may be desirable imum static and dynamic loss. This route usually
to flush the line with a more dilute concentration of has the greatest length and the smallest pipe diam-
sludge before the pump is turned off. eter, but differences in the static lifts and heads
between alternative routes must also be considered.
Calculation of System Curves • Average system curve: The pressures that occur at
average operating solids concentration.
Consider (1) the worst possible combination of vari- • Minimum system curve: The pressures that occur at
ability of solids concentrations, and (2) discharge to minimum solids concentration.
the several possible outlets. If several pumps are to • Water system curve: The lowest pressures that can
discharge to a common pipe, each pumping route occur when water without solids is pumped
must be considered for sizing the piping and deter- through the critical route of the piping system.
mining the dynamic headlosses. Two typical sludge The critical route is the one with minimum static
pumping system schematics for an activated sludge and dynamic loss, which is usually the pipe with the
plant are shown in Figures 19-8 and 19-9. Note the shortest length or the largest diameter, but differ-
various pumping routes available in both figures. ences in static lifts between alternative routes must
Furthermore, the static head may change substan- also be considered.

PRIMARY
SETTLING
TANK NO. 2

Primary
scum
pumps
PUMP ROOM
Primary
sludge pumps

PRIMARY
SETTLING
TANK NO. 1
Figure 19-8. Primary sludge and scum piping. 1, raw wastewater from pumping station; 2, raw wastewater to
settling tanks; 3, settled effluent to aeration tanks; 4, sludge drawoff; 5, sludge to sludge thickener (normal route) or to
digesters (alternate route); 6, sludge bypass to aeration tanks; 7', scum removal; 8, scum pumped to truck for disposal;
9, scum semiliquid to influent well; 10, tank drains to plant sewer; <g), air-operated valves. Courtesy of Stearns &
Wheeler Engineers and Scientists and J. Kenneth Fraser & Associates.
 Waste activated
sludge pumps
FINAL PUMP ROOM FINAL
SETTLING Sludge recirculation SETTLING
TANK NO. 1 pumps TANK NO. 2

Figure 19-9. Return and waste activated sludge piping. 1, influent from aeration tanks; 2, settled effluent to chlorine
contact tanks; 3, recirculation sludge drawoff; 4, recirculation sludge to aeration tanks; 5, waste activated sludge
(WAS) drawoff; 6, WAS to thickener via control building; 7, sidewall drawoff; 8 scum drawoff; 9, scum to pumping
station via plant sewer; 10, tank drain; 11, drain to plant sewer. Courtesy of Stearns & Wheeler Engineers and
Scientists, and J. Kenneth Fraser & Associates.

In the design of centrifugal pumps, the motor 1. Plot the maximum, minimum, average, and water
power required is maximum for the water system system curves (see Figure 19-10 in Example 19-1).
curve because the flow rate is maximum. However, 2. Examine the curves in Step 1, choose a candidate
in the design of positive displacement pumps, the pump, superimpose a plot of the pump H-Q
maximum system curve is the most critical because curves, and locate the operating points on each
the pump must deliver its unvarying flow rate with of the system curves.
the most concentrated sludge. 3. If a constant-speed (C/S) pump is to be used, select
the smallest impeller size that intersects the three
Design Procedure for Centrifugal Pumps sludge system curves beyond the required flow.
For vortex pumps with a choice of impeller
A design procedure for selecting a centrifugal (or sizes, use the largest impeller diameter and be
vortex) sludge pump and motor [14] is outlined sure the pump has a positive suction head
below for the plant shown in Figure 19-8. For illus- (including allowances for headlosses at design
trative purposes, it is assumed that only one pump flow rates).
discharges at a time and that each outside duty pump 4. If a variable-speed (V/S) pumping unit is to be
is dedicated to a separate settling tank. The middle used, select the maximum pump speed required
pump is the common standby and is set up to take for the three sludge system curves.
over the duty of either pump 1 or pump 3. Were 5. If a C/S pump is to be used, the intersection of the
several pumps to operate simultaneously, the total pump H-Q curve for the impeller found in Step 3
flow pumped through the system must be considered with the water system curve determines the power
in determining total head. Note also that the scum required. Either calculate the power or find the
pump is a positive-displacement pump that can also smallest horsepower-designation curve beyond
serve as a backup to the centrifugal pumps. this intersection. A C/S pump installation makes
 Example 19-1
Design of a Vortex Pump System for Sludge

Problem: In the process design of a municipal activated sludge plant, a maximum of 13,600 kg/d
(30,000 lb/d) on a dry basis of primary sludge solids (with no industrial component) must be
transferred. The layout consists of two duty pumps and a standby pump, as shown in Figure 19-8.
Note that there are several piping discharge routes, but for the purpose of this example, consider
a system of 107 m (350 ft) of 150-mm (6-in.) piping and a static head of 3.2 m (10.5 ft) at average
design conditions.
For this example, (1) plot the system curves, (2) select pumps for the V/S drives, (3) select
the driver, and (4) check the computed headloss by a different method.
Solution: For problems of this kind, consider:
• Several discharge piping routing options with varying pipe sizes, lengths, and static heads
• Varying static heads on any or all piping routes due to operating conditions
• The likely design feature of different-sized suction and discharge piping
• The varying mass and concentration of solids that must be transferred
• Variations in flow rates over the design life from initial operating conditions to final design con-
ditions. (Consider ranges in solids concentration at both initial and final design conditions.)
Determine pump capacity. The required pumping capacities to transfer 13,600 kg (30,000 Ib) of
dry sludge solids per day are found from the following expressions:

SI Units U.S. Customary Units

volume of sludge (m3/d) volume of sludge (gal/d)
mass of dry solids (kg/d) mass of dry solids (lb/d)
density of water (1000 kg/m3) specific weight of water (62.41b/ft3)
specific gravity of sludge specific gravity of sludge
percentage of solids (as a decimal) percentage of solids/100

Solve the expression for cubic meters per day (or gallons per day) for a reasonable range of
solids (10, 5, 3, and 1%). For the purpose of this example, assume the specific gravity of the
sludge is 1.00.
10% solids:

5% solids:

3% solids:

1% solids:

Estimate two duty pumps, each dedicated to a separate settling tank (including the third pump
as a common standby) and each operating 6 h/d and at different times. The discharge rate
required of each pump is
10% solids:
5% solids:

3% solids:

1% solids (essentially water):

Fluid velocities at pump capacities. Find the velocity in 150-mm (6-in.) pipe at the pump
discharge rates above for maximum (10%), average (5%), low (3%), and minimum (1%) solids
concentrations:

Velocity (m/s) Velocity (ft/s)

Sludge Discharge 150-mm 100-mm Discharge 6-in. 4-in.
concentration (m3/h) pipe pipe (gal/mi n) pipe pipe
10% 11.3 0.18 0.40 50 0.6 1.3
5% 22.7 0.35 0.80 100 1.1 2.6
3% 37.8 0.59 1.34 167 1.9 4.3
19% 113 1.77 4.02 501 5.7 12.9

The velocities for 150-mm (6-in.) pipe are somewhat low for sludge service, so tabulations
for 100-mm (4-in.) pipe are added.
(1) Plot system curves. Plot system curves for 10, 5, 3, and 1% solids flowing in 150-mm
(6-in.) and 100-mm (4-in.) pipe by determining headlosses on the basis of Hazen-Williams
C= 140. Then multiply the headlosses by the friction factors from Figure 19-4 (for worst case)
or from Figure 19-5 (for routine operation). Headloss predictions for worst-case design are
recommended for the maximum system curve. Headloss predictions for routine operations
are recommended for all other system curves. The calculation for one point on the 5% solids,
routine curve for 150-mm (6-in.) pipe is given below to illustrate the procedure.

Item SI Units U.S. Customary Units

Velocity
Friction head, C = 140
Friction factor (Figure 19-5)
Friction loss
Pipe length
Friction head
Static head
Velocity head
TDH

The curves of TDH for 150-mm (6-in.) pipe are shown in Figure 19-10 and those for the smaller
pipe, in Figure 19-11. In comparing the curves of the two figures, the following are evident:
 Flow rate, m3/h

10% Worst case

10% Routine

TDH, m
TDH, ft

5% Routine

3% Routine
Water

Flow rate, gal/min

Figure 19-10. System H-Q curves for sludge in a 150-mm (6-in.) pipe.
• In both sets of system curves the headlosses at high flow rates approach those of water. Note
that some conservative designers would always provide some multiple of headloss above
that of water. However, in this example such high flow rates are beyond those normally
encountered.
• The 10% solids worst-case curve has a 50% safety factor over the routine operations curve. The
safety factor approximates a deterioration of pipe from C = 140 to C = 110. If the designer
believes that the pipe will deteriorate more than this or prefers an additional allowance for
headlosses, then the system curves should be modified accordingly. Note that flexibility in
pump drive speed may allow for future adjustments to higher head conditions.
Based on a review of the system curves, 150-mm (6-in.) piping is selected because of (1)
lower TDH and horsepower requirements, (2) better size selection for maintenance and
cleaning, (3) lower operating costs, and (4) future operational flexibility.
(2) Pump selection. A vortex pump is a good choice for this application. A 100-mm (4-in.)
Model C WEMCO vortex pump is selected. Performance curves for the pump combined with
the developed system head curves for 150-mm (6-in.) piping are shown in Figure 19-12.
A review of Figure 19-12 indicates:

Solids (%) Speed (rev/min) Flow (m 3 /h) TDH (m) Flow (gal/min) TDH (ft)

10a 710 11.3 8.81 50 28.9

10b 600 11.3 6.13 50 20.1
5b 570 22.7 5.67 100 18.6
3b
525 37.9 4.27 167 14.0
lb 640 113.3 5.27 500 17.3
a
Worst-case.
b
Routine operation.
 Flow rate, m3/h

10% worst case

TDH, m
TDH, ft

10% routine
5% routine
3% routine

Water

Flow rate, gal/min

Figure 19-11. System H-Q curves for sludge in a 100-mm (4-in.) pipe.

• Speeds of about 400 to 800 rev/min are adequate for a wide range of operating conditions.
• A speed of 710 rev/min is required to pump 10% solids at worst-case conditions with low
velocity. A speed of 800 rev/min gives better velocity.
• A speed of about 640 is required to pump 1% solids.
(3) Select the driver. Following the pump selection, a decision can now be made to limit the
drive speed to desirable values. The motor horsepower is determined by the intersection of the
water system curve with the maximum drive output speed. In this example, if the maximum
drive output speed is chosen to be 900 rev/min, the motor horsepower must be 20. Select the
best practical motor drive and pump speed combination based on costs, sizes, and equipment
compatibility, and adjust the pump flow rates and times of operation to meet process transfer
requirements.
Possibilities for drives include:
• Constant speed at 900 rev/min, with the time period of pumping adjusted accordingly.
• Variable speed at 900 to 450 rev/min to allow either a slip drive or an AFD (see Section
15-11) with appropriate running time adjustments. (One method is the use of time clocks.)
• Variable speed at 900 to 450 rev/min, a turndown ratio of at least 2:1 to allow a variable-
ratio belt drive to be used.
Without more knowledge of the owner's circumstances, there is no answer better than the
one given here.
(4) Compare headloss by a different method. Always cross-check both the design method
and the actual calculations when designing sludge systems, because an error can have
disastrous consequences. For example, use Equations 19-3 and 19-4 to confirm that the flow
will be laminar, then use Equation 19-1 to check the headloss calculated in Part (1). Consider a
sludge with a specific gravity of 1.02, containing 5% solids, flowing at a rate of 22.7 m 3 /h
(100 gal/min) with a velocity of 0.35 m/s (1.14 ft/s) in a 150-mm (6-in.) pipe.
 SI Units U.S. Customary Units
Equation 19-3a Equation 19-3b

(specific gravity = 1.02) (specific gravity = 1.02)

Equation 19-4a Equation 19-4b

Both lower and upper critical velocities are well above the actual velocity, so the Bingham
equation for laminar flow is applicable.
Equation 19-Ia Equation 19-lb

From Part (1) the friction slope is

(good check) (good check)

flow difficult to control. A V/S pump should ordin- ciency of the driver to convert water power to the
arily be used. required power of the motor.
6. If a V/S drive is to be used, consult the pump 7. The manufacturer's pump performance curves
manufacturer to determine the maximum speed must not be extrapolated because cavitation or
of the drive. The water power required is deter- vibration problems could occur at flows higher
mined by the intersection of the maximum speed than those covered by the manufacturer's curves.
curve and the water system curve. Add corrections If the minimum system curve extends into the
for the efficiency of the pump and the net effi- region beyond that covered by the pump curves,
 select a larger pump. If no suitable centrifugal a WEMCO Hidrostal*). An advantage of a positive-
pump can be found, consult the manufacturer. displacement-type pump is that process control
Always verify the selection of sludge pumps with measurements need not depend on flowmeters. Flow-
several manufacturers. meters may be unreliable and inaccurate in measuring
sludge at low velocities.
The selection of a pump operating speed range of
Critique of Example 19.1 450 to 900 rev/min allows operators to cope with
varying sludge properties. Low pump speeds result
In the pump layout for the primary sludge pumps in significantly less wear and reduced maintenance
shown in Figure 19-8, there are two duty pumps costs but require sturdier construction.
with a common, identical standby pump (the one in
the middle). This design allows a duty pump to be
dedicated to each settling tank, allows separate pro-
cess control for each tank, and gives the operator Design Procedure for Positive-Displacement
much more flexibility. The sludge flow characteristics Pumps
are better with one pump for each tank than with one
pump to serve two tanks, because there are no imbal- The design procedure for positive-displacement
ances in friction head from each tank's suction piping pumps is as follows:
to cause different sludge levels in the tanks.
1. Determine the maximum design pumping capacity
The use of 150-mm (6-in.) piping requires confirm- required at the minimum sludge solids concentra-
ation by the manufacturer for applying the pump tion.
below the speeds shown on the catalog curve. This
2. Determine which combinations of simplex,
pump (4-in. Model C WEMCO) has been applied
duplex, and triplex pumps are feasible using the
successfully for this particular example on the basis
capacities found for each type of pump in a
of eight years of operating experience at a speed of
manufacturer's catalog. (Capacities vary from
300 to 350 rev/min [32]. Some engineers might favor
manufacturer to manufacturer.)
the 100-mm (4-in.) piping because of better scouring
3. Plot the sludge system head curve for the
due to greater fluid velocities, but objects such as
maximum percentage of dry solids sludge concen-
toothbrushes or popsicle sticks can clog such small
tration.
pipe unless grinders are used, so other engineers in-
4. Calculate the actual pulsing flow for each of the
variably avoid 100-mm (4-in.) pipe for sludge service.
pumps under consideration by using the percent-
Note that operational velocities of 0.3 to 0.6 m/s
ages shown in Table 19-1.
(1 to 2 ft/s) occur in the 150-mm (6-in.) pipe at the
5. From the system head curve, read the total head
expected solids concentrations of 3 to 5%. Such vel-
corresponding to the maximum pulsed flow for
ocities are satisfactory in sludge pipelines if the grit
each type of pumping combination. Each type of
content is not excessive. However, a variable-speed
pump specified must meet this total head re-
drive gives the operators the capability of pumping at
quirement, which represents the most critical
greater velocities to clear the pipe. Adequate flushing
condition against which the plunger pump must
water combined with the use of the plunger pump (see
operate.
Figure 19-8 and Example 19-2) provide additional
6. Study manufacturers' publications to determine
assurance for clearing obstructions in the 150-mm
the motor horsepower required. Consult with the
(6-in.) pipe. Hot water is helpful in flushing grease
manufacturer to confirm the selection.
accumulations and is a desirable maintenance fea-
ture. It is unlikely that primary sludge concentrations 7. Select the type of pump most applicable with con-
would reach 10%, although 7 or 8% may be attain- sideration for the following factors:
able. However, the data for parameters sy and T) for • Because the single-cylinder, simplex pumps are
undigested sludge are not extensive, so the use of the least balanced of the pumps, this type exerts
parameters for 10% sludge is justifiably conservative. the maximum loads on pump bearings and
If a more concentrated sludge at lower volumetric gears, and causes the highest friction in the
throughput is desirable, a different type of pump pipe. These considerations are of the greatest
would probably be required. Options include: (1) a concern at high heads.
plunger pump, (2) a progressive cavity pump (if pre- • When design conditions approach 690 kPa
ceded by screening and grit removal), and (3) the (1001b/in.2), it is preferable to select the small-
combined screw-centrifugal impeller pump (such as est possible bore and multiple cylinders.
 Example 19-2
Design of a Plunger Pump Installation
Problem: Design a plunger pump backup for the vortex pumps of Example 19-1. Assume 100-
mm (4-in.) piping.
Solution: As a backup, the plunger pump would be used only when a pipeline is clogged or if all
three vortex pumps were being repaired, so concern is limited to concentrations of solids higher
than about 3% and, hence, to flows of approximately 11.3 to 37.7 m 3 /h (approximately 50 to
167 gal/min).
Pump: Find the pump scheme that approximates the design flow. The capacities per plunger
per number of cylinders for one brand of pump are as follows.

Average rated capacity for various cylinder diameters

Pump
scheme 225 mm 275 mm 9 in. 11 in.
3 3
1 simplex 19.3 m /h 28.4 m /h 85 gal/min 125 gal/min
2 simplexes 38.6 m 3 /h 56.8 m 3 /h 170 gal/min 250 gal/min
1 duplex 34.1 m 3 /h 49.9 m 3 /h 150 gal/min 220 gal/min
1 triplex 52.2 m 3 /h 68.1 m 3 /h 230 gal/min 300 gal/min

One duplex pump with the larger cylinder size is adequate.

Variable-speed drive. Variable speed gives better control over pumping conditions than does
constant speed. At high sludge concentrations, the high flow rates delivered by a constant-
speed pump may result in "keyholing" in which the sludge cannot enter the suction pipe at
high rates. Power is based on the head at pulse flow rates. The ratio of pulse to average flow
rate for a duplex pump is 1.60 (see Table 19-1). Find the head corresponding to the pulse flow
rate from the curves in Figure 19-11.

SI Units U.S. Customary Units

Curve in Average flow, Pulse flow, Pulse TDH, Average flow, Pulse flow, Pulse TDH,
Figure 19-10 m3/h m3/h m gal/min gal/min ft
10% worst case 11.3 18.2 14.3 50 80 47
5% 22.6 36.3 7.3 100 160 24
3% 37.7 60.6 7.6 167 267 25

In Figure 19-13, find the intersection of pulse TDH and average flow. For 3% sludge, the shaft
output is about 5 hp (by interpolation). The speeds should vary about 167:50 or 3:1, and the
maximum speed is 50 rev/min. A variable-ratio belt drive (see Table 15-2 in Section 15-11) is the
recommended choice. Consult with the manufacturer to determine the efficiency and, thus,
the size of motor required. Note that some manufacturers' curves are based on a "nonpulsating"
flow and corresponding head due to probable inclusion of air chambers. Be cautious; use
experience and judgment to interpret the basis of manufacturers' curves and design
accordingly.
 Flow rate, m3/h

10% worst case

TDH, m
TDH, ft

10% routine

5% routine

3% routine

Water

Flow rate, gal/min

Figure 19-12. Performance curves for a 100-mm (4-in.) vortex pump and system curves for a 150-mm (6-in.) pipe.
After VVEMCO.

Critique of Example 19.2 those of water piping systems. The following discus-
sion relates specifically to sludge as an addendum to
There are many other choices that might be made, the general design practices for water and wastewater
because the operating conditions for a backup posi- presented elsewhere in this text.
tive-displacement pump are a matter of judgment.
For example, smaller pumps can be operated for
longer times. Typically, the primary objective (pump-
ing scum) determines the sizing of the plunger pump, Pipe Materials
and then the size is double-checked against the
pump's standby function. The most common pipe materials for sludge piping
systems are ductile iron and steel; regional prefer-
ences are toward ductile iron in the eastern United
19-4. Piping System Design States and steel in the western United States. The
choice depends primarily on costs and availability
Due to the nature of sludge, the requirements of because the performance of either, when properly
sludge piping systems differ in many ways from protected from corrosion, is satisfactory.
 Flow rate, m3/h

TDH, m
TDH, ft

Flow rate, gal/min

Figure 19-13. Performance curves for a duplex, heavy-duty, dual-valve, 275-mm (11-in.) plunger pump with a
maximum speed of 50 rev/min and a 3-m (10-ft) suction lift (for pulse TDH and average flow rate). After Komline-
Sanderson Engineering Corp.

Designers differ on the minimum allowable size of Valves

pipe. Some limit sludge piping to a minimum of
150 mm (6 in.), and some require no less than The discussion in Chapter 5 should be modified by
200 mm (8 in.). Some do not object to 100 mm the following general comments and tempered with
(4 in.) with glass or cement-mortar lining. Pipe used the designer's experience. Note that any valve should
in sludge piping systems should be lined to resist be both accessible and operable from the pump room
corrosion and/or abrasion or to resist grease buildup. floor. If pigs or other cleaning devices must pass
Grease is a significant concern with scum and primary through an open valve, select a ball, cone, or eccentric
sludges, and a smooth surface in piping for digested plug valve, preferably with a full, round port to favor
sludge inhibits the formation of struvite crystals [2]. clog-free operation.
The most common lining for ductile iron and steel pipe
is cement mortar, but an even smoother lining, such as Eccentric Plug Valves
glass, is desirable. The economics and long-term reli-
ability of glass-lined pipe should be evaluated care- One of the most common types of valves, the non-
fully. Any piping system used for sludge service should lubricated, eccentric plug valve, is usually specified to
have take-down couplings at not greater than 10-ft have a port area of at least 80% of the full pipe area to
intervals to facilitate cleaning operations. It may be ensure clog-free operation. These valves can be
possible to achieve the desired goal of reducing main- obtained with a full, round port opening, which is
tenance on sludge pipelines to the same level that is advantageous if the line is to be rodded or pigged.
projected for glass-lined pipe by judiciously selecting However, some pigs can pass through square ports.
the allowable velocities, eliminating bends and pipe Typically, valves smaller than 200 mm (8 in.) are
constrictions or "bottlenecks," and providing ad- equipped with 50-mm (2-in.) nuts for wrench oper-
equate flushing and cleaning facilities in pipes lined ation, whereas larger valves have worm gears and
with cement mortar. The use of polyethylene-lined hand wheels. Synthetic rubber covering is usually
ductile iron pipe is a viable, economic alternative to specified for eccentric plug valves to avoid wear of
glass-lined pipe. If the grit content of the sludge is low, and damage to the seating surface. Eccentric plug
some plastic pipes exhibit good resistance to wear and valves that provide tight shut-off with pressure in
maintain clean internal surfaces. either direction (a distinct advantage in sludge pipe-
lines with multiple flow routings) are offered by at system is relatively maintenance-free, but it does re-
least one major manufacturer. quire an air source and a pressure regulator.

Ball Valves Cone Valves

Consider full-bore ball valves instead of plug valves on Cone valves are designed for throttling control and
applications where a stoppage could require a major have been used successfully on water and raw sewage
process tank (such as a digestion tank) to be dewatered lines to regulate valve closures for elimination of water
to service the valve. In general, three-way valves are hammer effects. Cone valves also replace both the
not used routinely because they usually have smaller pump discharge check and isolation valves. None of
openings and increase the likelihood of clogging. Also, these aspects, however, routinely applies to sludge
if the valve fails both piping routes are out of service service. Apparently, cone valves are not used in sludge
until the problem is corrected. Ball valves are some- systems and one manufacturer's representative stated
times preferred on corrosive service because the rela- that the valve is not intended for such service [34].
tively small body size and weight mean less of an
expensive alloy. Some ball valves are commonly Gate Valves
made of thermoplastic with tension seats [33].
Gate valves are seldom used today in sludge service
Check Valves because of their tendency to collect debris and solids
as compared to the preferable plug valve [27].
Check valves add to the design problem on sludge
systems if they are installed on a vertical pipe because
solids pack on the discharge side. Install check valves Pump Seal Systems
(if used at all) on horizontal pipes.
Most sludge pumps are specified with seal water sys-
Ball Check Valves
tems rather than mechanical seals due to the nature of
the pump service. The seal water flow requirement
Ball check valves are used in (and recommended for) should be reviewed with the pump manufacturer. Seal
plunger and diaphragm pumps (see also Section 5-4). water is taken from a water system but never from the
The balls, made of lead-impregnated synthetic rub- pumped fluid discharge. Potable water must be sep-
ber, are contained in a chamber with a quick access arated completely from seal water by an air gap in the
door to facilitate the frequent replacement required. seal water tank or an acceptable backflow prevention
system.
Stringy materials tend to prevent proper seating of
the balls, so plunger pumps are commonly supplied Seal water lines should have a pressure-reducing
with a pair of check valves in tandem on both suction valve on the seal water header supplying seal water to
and discharge sides of the pump (see Figure 11-31). a series of pumps. The valve prevents the seal water
Diaphragm pumps can also be obtained with pairs of from entering the pump casing at an excessive pres-
ball check valves. The reliability of a plunger or dia- sure that could dislodge the packing and accelerate
phragm pump can be improved by installing a grinder packing and shaft sleeve wear. Seal water leaving the
or macerator ahead of the pump. If grinders are pump should be conveyed by piping to the floor drain
placed too far upstream, they are likely to be less system and never be allowed to overflow the pump
effective because separated and ground stringy ma- base or pump room floor. Pump bases should be
terial tends to become reconstituted. curbed with drain outlets. A typical water seal system
schematic is shown in Figure 19-14 and a suggested
pump drain system is shown in Figure 19-15.
Pinch Valves

Pinch valves are also widely used in sludge service, Flowmeters

especially as relief valves where there is a need to
protect a positive-displacement pump (or other down- The nature of sludge makes it necessary to use flow-
stream equipment) from an inadvertent valve closure meters that do not obstruct the flow. Sludge metering
in the discharge line. The system consists of an air- systems are expensive, often inaccurate, and always
loaded pinch valve at a pipe tee that discharges fluid require preventive and corrective maintenance. Un-
back to the pump suction source. A pinch valve less positive-displacement pumps are used, meters are
 Line Ib/in2 regulated from 0-75
Manual vent w/pressure reducing valve
As required water
Cu pipe from here to pump
Bronze "Y" strainer
5'-8" Max. to be accessible

Bronze
globe valve Brass solenoid valve
from floor

Brass unions
Bronze globe valve
Bronze needle valve
Gauge (to exceed pump shut-off head)
Brass union
Connection to pump stuffing box
Figure 19-14. A typical water seal connection. Courtesy of Stearns & Wheeler Engineers and Scientists and
J. Kenneth Fraser & Associates.

Stuffing box
Drain connection to be same
size as connection on pump

PVC union
Reducer
Tee, open at top
PVC drain pipe (min. 1" dia.)
Floor drain and piping (funnel equipped
floor drain and cover)
fair gap
Top of finished floor

Curbing
(optional) Slope
(down)
Figure 19-15. Pump drain system. This arrangement is also applicable to horizontal pumps. Courtesy of Stearns &
Wheeler Engineers and Scientists and J. Kenneth Fraser & Associates.

nevertheless necessary for measuring the flow of considerations. One advantage of a positive-displace-
sludges. It is also desirable to measure solids content ment pump is that the pump itself can be used as a
continuously so that the operators can determine the flowmeter if the number of revolutions or strokes
mass of (dry) solids transferred to track process con- over a specific time period is recorded.
trol. If some means of sampling solids concentrations A concern about meters in sludge pipelines is
is not included, the flow data will only track volumes pipeline cleaning. Flowmeters should be installed in
of fluids and not mass of (dry) solids. the piping system with a bypass for routine main-
Venturi, magnetic, ultrasonic, or in-line density tenance, calibration, and (if needed) a water purg-
flowmeters can be used. The first three are typically ing system (see Figure 20-12). A pipe spool piece
preferable to the fourth due to pipeline obstruction should be available to replace the meter when it is
removed for servicing or when the line must be rodding. All cleanout plugs should be fitted with 25-
pigged. mm (1-in.) or larger plug valves with hose adapters.
The relative accuracy of each type of sludge meter The sludge piping can then first be drained or cleared
is debatable. Many engineers believe the Venturi sys- by high-pressure water in preparation for rodding.
tem is the best overall choice when accuracy, main- Cleanouts for rodding must be located no farther
tenance, and long-term reliability are considered. than 15 m (50 ft) apart unless special rodding tools
Others prefer magnetic or ultrasonic meters. are available.

Grinders Pigging

Grinders or macerators are sometimes provided in The main advantage of cleaning pipe with pigs is that
sludge piping systems for shredding solids, rags, and the pipe length is practically unlimited. Cleaning pigs
other debris to reduce wear on downstream pumps range from soft swabs to flexible, abrasive pigs to
and sludge handling or processing equipment. rigid steel scraper pigs. Block ice or bagged ice
When an upstream sludge grinder is used to pro- cubes can also be used; with this method, retrieval is
tect the pump, add an interlock between the sludge unnecessary and permanent jamming cannot occur.
grinder and the pump to keep the grinder operating Flexible pipe-cleaning pigs can clean several pipe
whenever the pump is running. However, a manual sizes, but are limited in turning around pipe crosses.
bypass should be installed around the grinder so it Transmitter-cleaning pigs enable the maintenance
can be repaired. crew to locate underground pipe failures accurately.
Cleaning the piping with pigs requires provisions
for the insertion and retrieval of the pigs. The pigs are
Pipe Flushing and Draining inserted in an isolated length of pipe one size larger
than the piping to be cleaned and located as close to
Flushing sludge piping systems is a common mainten- the primary pumps as possible. The pig launcher is
ance chore in water and waste water treatment plants. fitted with a pressure gauge, a drain, a high-pressure
Flushing requires an adequate velocity and pressure of water fitting, and an easily removed blind flange or
water to dislodge solids, move obstructions, and gen- mechanical coupling. The pump discharge and the
erally clean the pipe. Flushing connections should be pig launcher pressure gauges should be easily read
liberally provided to allow convenient operations. from one point. Ideally, this control point is pro-
Flushing water should be available to the piping sys- tected from a pipe rupture and includes other con-
tem on both the suction and discharge sides of sludge trols as necessary. The pressure gauges last longer if
pumps. they are filled with glycerin and protected by an
isolation diaphragm and a snubber (glycerine-filled
capillary tubes) to keep sludge out of the gauge and
Pipe Cleaning Stations
attenuate sharp pressure spikes. Pig launching and
retrieval stations are shown in Figures 4-22 and
A well-designed system for pipe cleaning allows the
4-23. The details of cleaning pipe with pigs are
piping system to be maintained in mint condition and
discussed by Playford in the Proceedings [14,
reduces the pumping power requirement. Two sys-
pp. 878-879].
tems used for cleaning pipe are (1) rodding out each
straight section of piping, and (2) cleaning the entire The ease of cleaning pipes with pigs and the in-
pipe with pipe-cleaning pigs. creasing cost of power warrants the installation of
pipe-cleaning, launching, and receiving stations on
most pipe systems and networks.
Rodding

Rodding requires specifying cleanouts on all elbows, Safety Factors for Sizing
tees, and crosses within the pumping station. Require
pipe-sized cleanouts for diameters up to 100 mm Sludge piping systems should be as short as possible
(4 in.) and cleanouts one-half the pipe size on larger with a minimum number of bends. Bends (unless
pipe at bosses on all bends or other angled fittings. replaced by tees or crosses) should be the long-radius
Additionally (or alternatively), bends can be replaced type to minimize the headloss. In addition, the head-
by crosses with removable blind flanges for cleanout or loss contributed by check valves, flowmeters, and
other piping accessories should be considered critic- 2400 kPa (3501b/in.2) has been successful. The appli-
ally in the analysis of the system. If at all possible, cation of such pumps is unusual, but several advan-
omit check valves and fittings that would cause plug- tages include (1) low maintenance, (2) high reliability,
ging of solids or add unnecessary headloss. (3) excellent protection against overpressuring the
In each sludge pumping system, at least two pipeline, (4) clean, quiet operation, and (5) separation
pumps sized at full capacity should be provided so of sludge from most of the pump. Diaphragm pumps
that at least one full-capacity standby pump is avail- not specifically manufactured for sludge or slurry
able. It may well be appropriate to use a positive- service do not have these advantages.
displacement standby pump because of its reliability
and ability to move heavy sludge.
19-6. References

19-5. Long-Distance Pumping 1. Metcalf, L., and H. P. Eddy, American Sewage Prac-
tices. Volume III: Disposal of Sewage, 3rd ed., McGraw-
Pumping waste water sludges through pipelines 1.6 km Hill, New York (1935).
(1 mi) long (or longer) requires greater attention to 2. EPA Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and
issues that are not as critical in pipelines of shorter Disposal, EPA 625/1-79-011, U.S. Environmental Pro-
length. Small variations in the unit dynamic headloss tection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, Cin-
are magnified by the length of piping in a long pipe-
cinnati, OH, (September 1979), pp. 14-4-14-17, 14-29-
line. Dynamic headlosses are significantly affected by: 14-37.
• Concentration of the sludge 3. Babbitt, H. E., and D. H. Caldwell, "Laminar flow of
• Type of sludge (raw, secondary, or digested) sludges in pipes with special reference to sewage
sludge," University of Illinois Engineering Experiment
• Variability of blends if a mixture of sludge is
Station, Bulletin Series, No. 319 (1939).
pumped 4. Caldwell, D. H., and H. E. Babbitt, "The flow of muds,
• Additives used in the wastewater or sludge treat- sludges, and suspensions in circular pipe," Trans, of the
ment process (polymers or metal salts). American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 37, 237 (April
Other design and operating considerations for 1941).
5. Wolfs, J. R., "Factors affecting sludge force mains,"
long sludge pipelines include:
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 22, 1 (January 1950).
• Periodic venting of gases released from solution or 6. Babbitt, H. E., and D. H. Caldwell, "Turbulent flow of
generated by the digestion process sludges in pipes," University of Illinois Engineering Ex-
• Correct sizing of the pipeline to allow for large flow periment Station, Bulletin Series, No. 323 (1940).
rate variation over the system lifetime 7. Brisbin, S. G., "Flow of concentrated raw sewage sludges
in pipes," Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division
• Sludge storage or a backup pipeline to enhance American Society of Civil Engineers, 83(SA3), 1274,
reliability and allow for pipeline maintenance (June 1957).
• Selection of pumps that can perform satisfactorily 8. Chou, T. L., "Flow of concentrated raw sewage sludges
over a wide range of discharge pressures as concen- in pipes," Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division
trations and sludge blends change. American Society of Civil Engineers, 84(SAl), 1557
(February 1958).
The designer of a long sludge pipeline must give 9. Sparr, A. E., "Pumping sludge long distances," Journal
serious consideration to measuring the characteristics of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 43, 1702 (Au-
of the range of sludge blends, solids concentrations, gust 1971).
chemical additives, and sludge conditions (including 10. Dick, R. L., and B. B. Ewing, "The rheology of acti-
temperature) likely to be encountered. The need for vated sludge," Journal of the Water Pollution Control
site-specific sludge testing is highlighted by the vari- Federation, 39, 543 (1967).
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acteristics—particularly when major investments are systems," Proceedings of the Northern Regional Confer-
to be made in pumping transport and storage sys- ence of the California Water Pollution Control Associ-
ation, Monterey, CA (October 19-20, 1973).
tems. Extensive testing is even more necessary when
12. Vesilind, P. A., Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
undigested secondary sludges are to be pumped. Sludges, 2nd ed., Chapter 4, Ann Arbor Science Pub-
These complex problems are covered in more detail lishers, Ann Arbor, MI (1979).
by Carthew et al. [18]. 13. Mulbarger, M. C , et al., "Pipeline friction losses for
The use of specially designed diaphragm pumps wastewater sludges," Journal of the Water Pollution
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14. Sanks, R. L., C. W. Reh, and A. Amirtharajah (Eds.), tee on Engineering Practice in the Design of Pipelines,
Conference Proceedings, Pumping Station Design for the New York (1975).
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Federation, 55, 472^83 (May 1983). sultants. Private communication (February 1989).
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pipes," Journal of the American Institute of Chemical 31. Caballero, R. C , County Sanitation District of Los
Engineers, 17, 554 (May 1971). Angeles. Private communication (undated; tested
20. Hanks, R. W., "Principles of slurry pipeline hydraul- March 1983).
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Mechanics, Vol. 5, Slurry Flow Technology, Gulf Pub- Treatment Plant. Private communication (January
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Newtonian fluids," in N. P. Cheremisinoff (Ed.), En- Power, Special Report (May 1986), pp. 51-51.
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22. Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewater, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Report of the Task Commit-