ELECTRONIC WARFARE (EW)

Training Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students should know:
a. What is Electronic Warfare (EW)?
b. What are the aspects of Electronic Warfare (EW)?
c. What are ECM, ECCM and ESM?

Introduction

1. Almost all kinds of military operations depend, to a greater or lesser degree, on electronics. It is
therefore essential that we have a clear understanding of the problems and vulnerability of electronic
systems in military application. It is essential for two reasons - firstly we should know how best to
interfere with and degrade enemy electronic systems, and secondly how to protect our own systems
from enemy's interference. This is the business of Electronic Warfare (EW).

Electronic Warfare

2. Electronic Warfare (EW): Electronic Warfare is the use of electronics means to prevent or reduce
an enemy's effective use electromagnetic spectrum, while ensuring unhindered use of the same by our
own forces.

Types of Electronic Warfare

3. There are three areas of electronic warfare that we need to study. These are:

a. Electronic Countermeasure (ECM): ECM is that division of EW involving actions taken to

prevent or reduce an enemy's effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
b. Electronic Counter-Counter Measure (ECCM): ECCM is that division of EW involving
actions taken to ensure friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum despite the enemy's use
of EW.
c. Electronic Support Measures (ESM): ESM is that division of EW involving actions taken
to search for, intercepts, locates, records and radiated electromagnetic energy of the enemy
for the purpose of exploiting such radiation in support of subsequent military operations. Thus,
ESM provides a source of EW information required conducting ECM and ECCM.

Electronic Counter Measures on Radar

4. In war, radar may be subjected to ECM with the object of reducing its effectiveness. ECM on radar
is also called jamming. The ECM on radar is of two types: Active and Passive. These are discussed
below.

5. Active ECM: Active ECM measures are those in which a jammer transmits electronic energy with
a view to create interference in the operations of enemy radar. Several forms of active ECM's are:

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 a. Noise Jamming.
b. Repeater (or Deception) Jamming.

Noise Jamming

6. Receiver noise generally limits the sensitivity of most microwave radars. Raising the noise level by
external means, as with a jammer, further degrade the sensitivity of the radar. Noise is a fundamental
limitation to radar performance, and therefore, can be an effective countermeasure. When jamming
occurs, radial strobes in the direction of the jammer will appear on the PPI display. The direction to
the jammer can be determined, but its distance from the radar and the ranges of any targets masked by
the noise strobe is not likely to be known. If the noise enters the radar via the antenna side lobes, the
entire display can be covered with noise and no target information can be obtained.

Figure: Noise Jamming.

7. The ECM power arriving at the radar competes with the radar's desired echoes. The jammer power
received at the radar varies inversely as the square of the distance and the jammer (one-way
propagation). On the other hand, radar echo power varies with distance inversely. As a result, there
will be some distance below which the radar echo will exceed the jammer signal. The jammer will
have a built-in advantage at long ranges, but as the range decreases the echo signal will increase more
rapidly than the jamming; so that ultimately a range may be reached at which the echo signal becomes
greater than the jamming signal and becomes visible on the screen. This range is called the Burnt
through, Breakthrough, Self-Screening or Crossover Range.

8. Noise jamming may be accomplished in many ways. Some of them are:

a. Spot Jamming.
b. Barrage Jamming.
c. Sweep Jamming.
d. Multipurpose Jamming.
e. Repeater Jamming.

9. Spot Jamming: A jamming whose noise energy is concentrated within the radar receiver bandwidth
is called spot jamming. Spot jamming best achieves continuous jamming of one radar. The ‘Spot’ in
this instance is a narrow bandwidth, sufficiently wide however, to cover the spread of frequencies
around the radar carrier frequency. A spread is inherent in any pulse or continuous-wave radar. This
method provides the maximum jamming noise power, but can jam only one radar at a time. This is a
severe limitation where a number of radars are operating in different frequencies.

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 Figure: Spot Jamming

10. Barrage Jamming: The enemy can track a narrow-band jammer easily if the radar has frequency
agility plus well-trained operator. This limitation can be avoided by using a wide frequency-band
jamming called barrage jamming. A barrage jammer is able to jam many radars operating within the
same geographical area, each at a different frequency. But as the available power is now distributed
over a wide-band this method has the disadvantage that the jamming power in the given narrow band
or operation of any radar is reduced compared to the jamming power of a spot jammer. Thus, for
successful jamming the barrage jammer must have as high a power as possible.

Figure: Barrage Jamming.

11. Sweep Jamming: Jamming may be required over a relatively large band, but in order that the noise
power arriving at any radar sufficient to jam it, it may be advisable to transmit over a small bandwidth
and sweep that small bandwidth over a large waveband. Thus, if several radars transmit at different
carrier frequencies or one radar changes frequency (frequency agility), the jammer can achieve a
certain amount of success by sweeping. This means, of course, that each radar is not continuously
jammed (thus reducing the effective noise power) and a good operator might overcome the problems
arising from such jamming.

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 Figure: Sweep Jamming.

12. Multipurpose Jamming: Jammers can be designed so that they simultaneously spot jam a number
of different frequencies lying within a broad band of frequencies (multiple spot Jammer) while at the
same time combine two or more jamming roles, e.g., barrage plus deception jamming. These jammers
are classed as multipurpose jammers (FPJ).

13. Repeater Jamming: It is possible to generate by electronic means false targets in the PPI. To
successfully introduce such targets, it is necessary to establish the search pattern of the radar to be
jammed and to have some knowledge of its circuits. Repeater jamming is also known as Deception
jamming. Repeater acts in two ways. They are:

a. Generation of False Echoes: Appearance on the radar screen of blips which look like real
targets make if difficult for the operator to decide on a correct course of action. A repeater jammer
receives the radar pulses and repeats them, but with some sort of program added, to generate false
information. The simplest form of repeater jammer is a range repeater, which deceives in range by
sending back a succession of pulses with time delays imposed. Thus, false targets, at greater range than
the true target, can easily be produced, and if the jammer can sense the PRF of the victim radar, false
targets at shorter than the true range can also be produced. Further, by making the jammer sufficiently
sensitive to respond to the side lobe transmissions of the enemy radar, multiple targets at false azimuth
can also be generated. Finally, a combination of both techniques can be used.

Figure: False Target Generation.

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 b. Range-Gate Stealing: A range-gate stealer is a repeater jammer whose function is to cause
a tracking radar to “break lock” on the target. Tracking radar can track a target in range by generating
a pair of range gates within the radar receiver and adjusting these gates to center on the target. The
tracking radar is said to be “locked on” the target when the echo is maintained between the two range
gates. As the target moves, the range gates automatically follow. The range-gate stealer operates by
initially transmitting a single pulse in synchronism with each pulse received from the radar, thereby
strengthening the target echo. The repeater slowly shifts the timing of its own pulse transmissions to
cause an apparent change in the target range. If the jamming signal is larger than the echo signal, the
radar tracking circuits will follow the false signal from the jammer and ignore the weaker echo from
the target. In this manner, the repeater “steals” the radar tracking circuits from the target. The delay
between the true echo and the false echo can be lengthened or shortened to such an extent that the
ranges servo limits in the radar receiver are exceeded, or else the repeater can be turned off, leaving
the tracker without a target and forcing it to revert to the search mode.

c. Velocity-Gate Stealing: CW doppler-type radars determine primarily the velocities of

targets and use a velocity gate in a tracking or lock-on situation. This velocity gate is analogous to the
range-gate of a pulse tracking radar and likewise the countermeasure is similar. The object of the
deception system is to steal the velocity gate. Whereas the pulse system works in relation to time (i.e.,
range), the CW system works in relation to frequency; so that to steal the velocity gate the deception
signal has to be shifted in frequency. Once the gate has been ‘captured’ by transmitting the appropriate
deception signal, the shift can be up or down the spectrum, but must not be at a higher rate than the
enemy radar is designed to achieve.

d. Angle Deception: Repeater jammers may also be designed to break conical-scan angle track
by transmitting a signal at the conical-scan frequency. This will either confuse the operation of the
radar antenna servo prevent it following the target.

14. Passive ECM: Passive electronic countermeasures do not generate or amplify electromagnetic
radiation. They act in a passive manner to change energy reflected back to the radar. Passive ECM is
done by physical or mechanical methods. Examples of passive ECM are: decoys, window, tactics, and
radar cross-section reduction.

a. Decoys: An airborne decoy is a device which is launched from target aircraft and which
simulates a genuine target. The simulation can be done in two ways, the first of which is passive and
operates by reflecting enemy radar waves in such a as to give the impression of being genuine target;
the second way operates by actually transmitting deceptive information. Decoys can be free falling or
self-propelled and programmed or controlled to simulate tactical maneuvers; they may be air launched,
rockets fitted with window dispensers or with jammers; they could be drones or missiles with the
reflection characteristics of the parent aircraft. Ground-based decoys are used to simulate ground
targets in order to attract an airborne enemy weapon and draw it away from real targets. Decoys can
carry transmitters of deception signals or they can be passive mechanical reflectors such as corner
reflectors or Lunbery lenses to reflect a large proportion of the radar waves back in the direction of
their source.

b. Window: Window was the code name used in World War II to describe metallized strips of
paper, nylon or glass which are dropped or ejected from an aircraft, or other airborne dispenser, so as

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to produce echoes at an enemy radar. The strips are usually cut to a specific length to be resonant at
the radar frequency. The intention is that the echoes should confuse the radar operator either by giving
the impression of the presence of large numbers of aircraft or by screening the main force of
approaching aircraft; both will cause tracking difficulties. The American term for this of is 'Chaff '.

c. Tactics: It is generally recognized that when improvements are made to a radar the quickest
countermeasures, which can be developed, are the tactical ones. The penetration of enemy territory at
low altitude to avoid early detection is now a familiar technique. The warning given by a passive
warning receiver (now classed as ESM) may alert a pilot to look out for a missile, but choosing moment
to take evasive action needs tactical decision. The destruction of enemy radar, its power supplies or
associated missile launch sites may be considered necessary for tactical reasons. The jammer aircraft
may decide to change its altitude or heading making the operator difficult to track.

d. Reducing the Radar Cross Section: The ability of radar to detect a target in the presence
of noise (whether circuit noise, clutter or jamming) depends on the ratio of the target signal power to
the noise power. The power of the target signal depends amongst other things on the echoing area
(radar cross section) of the target. It is important at the design stage of the aircraft to try all ways
possible to reduce the effective echoing area for the band of frequencies that the enemy radar are
expected to use. A target with doubly curved surface (curvature in two dimensions) will have small
cross section. Using electromagnetic absorbent materials can also reduce the radar cross section of a
target.

ELECTRONIC COUNTER-COUNTERMEASURES (ECCM): RADAR

Introduction

15. Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) are the methods employed to combat ECM.
Planning for ECCM is done right from the planning stage when radars are designed and procured.
ECCM measures are taken at different stages. They are:

a. Overall Planning
b. Equipment Design
c. Circuit Techniques
d. Tactics

Overall Planning

16. A determined enemy using ECM can effectively disrupt any radar provided he is prepared to accept
the cost. One of the purposes of ECCM is to cause that cost to reach unacceptable proportions in
relation to the enemy's resources. Another purpose of ECCM is the fight enemy's ECM at the radar set
with the help of technology so that our radar can operate in spite of ECM.

17. Frequency Allocation: One of the main considerations at the planning stage is the allocation of
operating frequencies. It is easier to jam certain frequencies while some others are difficult. Our aim
is to operate on those frequencies where enemy's task of jamming becomes difficult.

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18. Parallel Operation: It can always be assumed that the enemy will attempt to find and exploit the
weak points in a radar system. Such weak points will, therefore, need protection and one remedy is the
use of parallel operation, i.e., the use of two or more devices to perform the same task. To make the
jammer less effective, it must be forced to spread its available power over more than one radar band.
This can be accomplished with frequency diversity by using two or more radars. 2D air-surveillance
radar in one band used with height finder radar in another band is a good method for achieving
frequency diversity. Both radar bands have to be jammed simultaneously if target location is to be
denied.

Equipment Design

19. Planning for ECCM often affects fundamental radar design. For instance, for ECCM it is often
desirable to have frequency agility designed into the radar, although this does not enhance detection
capabilities.

20. Frequency Agility: The spot jammer can be a potent threat to radar if it is allowed to concentrate
large power entirely within the radar bandwidth. The radar system designer must prevent this by
forcing the jammer to spread its power over a much wide band. This can be accomplished by changing
the radar frequency from pulse to pulse in an unpredictable fashion over the entire tuning band
available to the radar. A radar capable of changing its frequency from pulse to pulse is said to possess
frequency agility.

21. Diplexing: Another example of radar design specifically intended for use in EW (and also an
example of parallel operation within a radar set) is the use of diplexing. Diplexing consists of a
common aerial fed from two separate transmitters / receivers operating on different frequencies within
the same band, so that when one receiver is jammed the other receiver supplies the needed information.

22. Inherent Characteristics: The design for the radar set may well include many features, which can
be used in an EW situation. Features like MTI, pulse-width compression, side lobe cancellation or
blanking, and automatic data processing are good means or aide to counter ECM.

22. Power Considerations: A radar should be designed so that it has maximum permissible
transmitter power with high aerial gain. This allows the use of relatively insensitive receiver. As the
receiver is relatively insensitive a relatively high signal power is required for the signal to be detected.
This means that jammer has to generate an even higher power to maintain its purpose. It costs the
enemy more to produce the higher power and if the jammer is airborne there will be extra weight and
possible volume penalties.

23. Circuit Technology: Radar should be so designed that the ratio of signal-to-noise should be
maximized. In an EW situation noise includes jamming and provided there is a prior knowledge of the
type of jamming to be expected, circuits can be designed to maximize the signal-to-jamming ratio.

24. Logarithmic Detector: If the output of the receiver is proportional to the logarithm of the input
envelope, it is called a logarithmic receiver. It finds application where large variations of input signals
are expected. It might be used to prevent receiver saturation or to reduce the effects of unwanted,
clutter targets. It lowers the changes of target detection, but is useful for ECCM purposes.

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25. Sensitivity Control (STC): For STC a circuit generates a waveform in synchronism with the time-
base; the waveform is superimposed on the gain control voltage in such a way as to decrease the gain
as radar range decreases. This helps to stop saturation of the receiver at close ranges and also helps to
remove the glare at the center of a PPI caused by noise jamming.

26. There are many other circuit techniques like: Automatic Video Noise Leveling (AVNL), Fast
Time Constant (FTC), Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR), etc, which help the operator in
countering against ECM.

27. Tactics: Tactics can be broadly described as procedures designed to produce an advantage over an
enemy in a battle situation. The ultimate ECCM is the destruction of the jammer. Ground-based
jammers may be bombed or destroyed by using home-on-jam missiles. Airborne jammers can be
attacked by home-on-jam missile also or by more conventional fighter interceptor. The jammer can be
found by a triangulation method using the existing equipment in conjunction with another passive
receiver.

Electronic Support Measures (ESM)

28. Electronic Support Measures (ESM) is that division of EW which involves actions taken to search
for, intercept, locate, record and analyze radiated electromagnetic energy, for the purpose of exploiting
such radiation in support of EW operations, either pending or immediate. ESM is mainly, therefore,
the collection, evaluation and dissemination of information about a potential enemy's electronic
systems and devices, although it has been found desirable to extend the range of ESM activities to
include threat detection and warning, and the acquisition of, and homing onto a target. In short, ESM
acts as the eyes and the ears of EW.

29. Inevitably electronic equipment must be operated for defense purpose (even in peacetime) for
testing and for training exercises. It is expected that the enemy will employ normal security measures
to protect his electromagnetic energy radiated, but to deny access to his information by others is not
always possible. Now a day, electromagnetic transmissions are capable of being intercepted.

30. ESM is solely passive operation. The collection devices do not themselves radiate energy to any
significant extent and so the enemy cannot electronically detect when ESM operations are being
undertaken. Consequently, opportunities for deception or for planning false information are few.
Furthermore, not only is interception difficult to detect it is equally difficult to counter. The
interception equipment is usually located out of enemy reach, on home territory or interception waters
or airspace. It is only when the hostilities break out, the enemy can see fully the result of ESM
operations against him.

31. Conventional military intelligence activities are widespread and they employ many methods
(including espionage) to gather information. Inevitably some of this information will have particular
relevance to the EW field, and arrangements should be made to pass on quickly and efficiently to those
who need it and who can best use it.

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