I.

Materials in Manufacturing

Manufacturing materials are often grouped as metals, ceramics, polymers, and

composites but a simpler distinction can made by separating them into metallic and
nonmetallic.

Metallic Materials Nonmetallic Materials

examples:
iron, copper, aluminum,
magnesium, nickel, examples:
titanium, lead, tin, and zinc wood, brick, concrete,
and alloys of these metals glass, rubber, and plastics
such as steel, brass, and
bronze

properties:
luster, high thermal properties:
conductivity, high electrical weaker, less ductile, less
conductivity; they are dense than the metals,
relatively ductile; and and have poor electrical
some have good magnetic and thermal conductivities
properties

Although metals have traditionally been the more important of the two groups,
the nonmetallic materials have become increasingly important in modern manufacturing.
Advanced ceramics, composite materials, and engineered plastics have emerged in a
number of applications. In many cases, metals and nonmetals are viewed as competing
materials, with selection being based on how well each is capable of providing the
required properties.

Where both perform adequately, total cost often becomes the deciding factor,
where total cost includes both the cost of the material and the cost of fabricating the
desired component. Factors such as product lifetime, environmental impact, energy
requirements, and recyclability are also considered.

II. Casting Processes

Casting processes are divided according to the specific type of molding method
used in casting, as follows:

Sand Casting

Sand casting consists basically of pouring molten metal into appropriate cavities
formed in a sand mold. The sand may be natural, synthetic, or an artificially blended
material.

The two common types of sand molds are the dry sand mold and the green sand
mold. In the dry sand mold, the mold is dried thoroughly prior to closing and pouring,
while the green sand mold is used without any preliminary drying. Because the dry sand
mold is more firm and resistant to collapse than the green sand mold, core pieces for
molds are usually made in this way. Cores are placed in mold cavities to form the
interior surfaces of castings.

ME ELEC 3 | ALDIANO, KRISTINE E.

 To produce a mold for a conventional sand cast part, it is necessary to make a
pattern of the part. Patterns are made from wood or metal to suit a particular design,
with allowances to compensate for such factors as natural metal shrinkage and
contraction characteristics.

These and other effects, such as mold resistance, distortion, casting design, and
mold design, which are not entirely within the range of accurate prediction, generally
make it necessary to adjust the pattern to produce castings of the required dimensions.
Access to the mold cavity for entry of the molten metal is provided by sprues, runners,
and gates.

Allowances must be made on patterns to counteract the contraction in size as the

metal cools. The amount of shrinkage is dependent on the design of the coating, type of
metal used, solidification temperature, and mold resistance. Allowances are required in
many cases because of unavoidable surface impurities, warpage, and surface
variations. Good practice dictates use of minimum section thickness compatible with the
design.

Centrifugal Casting

Centrifugal casting consists of having a sand, metal, or ceramic mold that is

rotated at high speeds. When the molten metal is poured into the mold, it is thrown
against the mold wall, where it remains until it cools and solidifies. The process is
increasingly being used for such products as cast-iron pipes, cylinder liners, gun
barrels, pressure vessels, brake drums, gears, and flywheels. The metals used include
almost all castable alloys. Most dental tooth caps are made by a combined lost-wax
process and centrifugal casting.

Permanent-Mold Casting

As demand for quality castings in production quantities increased, the attractive

possibilities of metal molds brought about the development of the permanent-mold
process. Although not as flexible regarding design as sand casting, metal-mold casting
made possible the continuous production of quantities of casting from a single mold as
compared to batch production of individual sand molds.

Die Casting

Die casting may be classified as a permanent-mold casting system; however, it

differs from the process just described in that the molten metal is forced into the mold or
die under high pressure (1000–30,000 psi [6.89–206.8 MPa]). The metal solidifies
rapidly (within a fraction of a second) because the die is water-cooled. Upon
solidification, the die is opened and ejector pins automatically knock the casting out of
the die. If the parts are small, several of them may be made at one time in what is
termed a multicavity die. There are two main types of machines used: the hot-chamber
and the cold-chamber
types.

Plaster-Mold Casting

In general, the various methods of plaster-mold casting are similar. The plaster,
also known as gypsum or calcium sulfate, is mixed dry with other elements, such as
talc, sand, asbestos, and sodium silicate. To this mix is added a controlled amount of
water to provide the desired permeability in the mold. The slurry that results is heated
and delivered through a hose to the flasks, all surfaces of which have been sprayed with
a parting compound. The plaster slurry readily fills in and around the most minute
details in the highly polished brass patterns. Following filling, the molds are subjected to
a short period of vibration and the slurry sets in 5–10 min.

Molds are extracted from the flask with a vacuum head, following which drying is
completed in a continuous oven. Copes and drags are then assembled, with cores

ME ELEC 3 | ALDIANO, KRISTINE E.

when required, and the castings are poured. Upon solidification, the plaster is broken
away and any cores used are washed out with a high-pressure jet of water.

Investment Casting

Casting processes in which the pattern is used only once are variously referred
to as lost-wax or precision-casting processes. They involve making a pattern of the
desired form out of wax or plastic (usually polystyrene). The expendable pattern may be
made by pressing the wax into a split mold or by the use of an injection-molding
machine. The patterns may be gated together so that several parts can be made at
once. A metal flask is placed around the assembled patterns and a refractory mold
slurry is poured in to support the patterns and form the cavities. A vibrating table
equipped with a vacuum pump is used to eliminate all the air from the mold.

Formerly, the standard procedure was to dip the patterns in the slurry several
times until a coat was built up. This is called the investment process. After the mold
material has set and dried, the pattern material is melted and allowed to run out of the
mold. The completed flasks are heated slowly to dry the mold and to melt out the wax,
plastic, or whatever pattern material was used. When the molds have reached a
temperature of 100°F (37.8°C), they are ready for pouring. Vacuum may be applied to
the flasks to ensure complete filling of the mold cavities. When the metal has cooled,
the investment material is removed by vibrating hammers or by tumbling. As with other
castings, the gates and risers are cut off and ground down.

ME ELEC 3 | ALDIANO, KRISTINE E.