PHYSICS

Lect. Dr. Pretorian Simona

Fundamental of Physics for Engineers
02 V. Pârvan C 209b
Timişoara, 300223, România
[email protected]
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZihywtixUYo The Map of Physics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OmJ-4B-mS-Y The Map of Mathematics
PHYSICS BETWEEN FEAR and RESPECT, vol.3, V. Dorobanţu, Simona Pretorian, Ed.
Politehnica Timişoara, 2009;
QUANTUM MECHANICS, vol. 1, V. Dorobanţu, Ed. Politehnica Timişoara, 2005;

Contents:

NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
THERMODYNAMICS
ELECTRODYNAMICS
QUANTUM MECHANICS

The Feynman lectures on physics : Mainly mechanics, radiation, and heat,

Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands, Addison-Wesley 1963, Central
Library of the Politehnica University of Timisoara
https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/
HyperPhysics hosted by Georgia State University and authored by Georgia State faculty
member Rod Nave http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/index.html
EVALUATION FOR PHYSICS
Seminar and laboratory -Continuous assessment= activity during the
semester (33.33%) :
Seminar (50% for Continuous assessment )
- 2 tests (week 5/6 and 13/14)
- involvement in seminars sessions (extra points)
Lab (50% for Continuous assessment )
- 5 lab reports on conducted subjects
- involvement in lab sessions and small experiments to be conducted at
home on a voluntary basis (extra points)

Exam(66.66%)
- Attendance and involvement in lectures, homework assignments (extra
points)
 MODEL in PHYSICS

MODEL = “a surrogate (object), a conceptual representation of a real thing”

D. Hestenes
WHY???

In order to describe and explain observed physical phenomena and to predict

the outcomes of new phenomena.

For a study - ONLY the relevant aspects (or variables) of the system
for that study.

NO model ~ include all the characteristics of the real system,

~must include all the entities of the real system.

“in order to understand physical laws you must understand that they are all some
kind of approximation” Feynman
International System of Units
The seven base units
 International System of Units
https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-
330/sp-330-section-2#2.3.1
THE five CONSTANTS are chosen in such a way that any unit of the SI (since 2019)
can be written either through a defining constant itself or through products or
quotients of defining constants.
The International System of Units, the SI, is the system of units in which

•the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the cesium 133
atom ΔνCs is 9 192 631 770 Hz,

•the speed of light in vacuum c is 299 792 458 m/s,

•the Planck constant h is 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 (J s = ....),

•the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C,

•the Boltzmann constant k is 1.380 649 × 10−23 J/K,

•the Avogadro constant NA is 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol−1,

•the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz,

Kcd, is 683 lm/W,
Det. h, k, e ---Lab experiments C217
 International System of Units
The 11th CGPM (1960, Resolution 12) adopted a series of prefix names and prefix symbols to form the
names and symbols of the decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units, ranging from 1012 to 10–12.
Prefixes for 10–15 and 10–18 were added by the 12th CGPM (1964, Resolution 8),
for 1015 and 1018 by the 15th CGPM (1975, Resolution 10), and
for 1021, 1024, 10–21 and 10–24 by the 19th CGPM (1991, Resolution 4).

Table of all approved SI prefix names and symbols.

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

101 deca da 10–1 deci d

102 hecto h 10–2 centi c
103 kilo k 10–3 milli m
106 mega M 10–6 micro µ
109 giga G 10–9 nano n
1012 tera T 10–12 pico p
1015 peta P 10–15 femto f
1018 exa E 10–18 atto a
1021 zetta Z 10–21 zepto z
1024 yotta Y 10–24 yocto y
 CLASSICAL MECHANICS
There are three equivalent approaches for the Classical Mechanics:

1.1 Newtonian Mechanics;

1.2 Lagrangean Mechanics;
1.3 Hamiltonian Mechanics.

Every approach consists in a set of differential equations, and by

solving them, when it is possible, we can know the state of motion.

Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the cause (forces).
Dynamics is the study of motions studying also the causes of motion (how the
motion arrive from forces).
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
PHILOSOPHIAE NATURALIS PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA, Isaac
Newton, a fundamental book for the humanity published in Latin language in 1687,
republished in 1713 and 1726
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Concepts
•A finite region of space, bordered from surroundings, having as essential
quality the mass BODY.
A body whose dimensions can be neglected in its motion MASS POINT.

•Mass the substance quantity existing inside a body .

•FOR CLASSICAL PHYSICS, the space
the scene where the bodies evolve;
independent of what happens inside it;
with Euclidian geometry.
•According to Newton, “absolute, true, and mathematical time , of itself,
and from its own nature flows equably without regard to anything external”

The motion of a particle is completely specified if we know, at every

moment, the spatial COORDINATES and its velocity.
COORDINATES are, naturally, related with the frame of reference.
Reference frame: System of axis bound to an observer and equipped with a clock to measure time.
Obs. If we ignore Earth’s astronomical motion then the ground can be usually assumed an inertial frame.
If we ignore Sun’s astronomical motion then the Sun can be assumed an inertial frame.
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Velocity
Position VECTOR relative 𝐫Ԧ = xԦi + yԦj + zk (m) Motion law 𝑟(𝑡);
Ԧ
to the frame of reference
rԦ2 − rԦ1 ΔԦr ∆𝑟=
Ԧ displacement=the
Average velocity vav = = (m/s) final position 𝑟Ԧ2 relative
t 2 − t1 Δt
to initial position 𝑟Ԧ1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_c
"the rate at which an object changes its position." ontinue=195&v=pfTTHx9kCHk

If we go to the limit, for t → 0 ⟹ instantaneous velocity

=the first derivative of the position vector with respect to time= the time
rate of change of the position vector.
𝚫𝒓 𝐝 𝐫Ԧ Velocity law v(t);
𝐯 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 𝐝𝐭
The magnitude of velocity is called speed.

If we know the velocity law 𝐯 𝐭 𝟏 𝐭𝟐

𝐯𝐚𝐯 = ‫׬‬ 𝐯 𝐭 𝐝𝐭
we have the average velocity 𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 𝐭 𝟏
The motion law from velocity law
Displacement vector magnitude can be
different from the travelled distance!!!!!!!! rԦ = නvdt + cԦ1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79WW8RcuSL0
From initial conditions
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Acceleration
Position vector relative to the 𝐫Ԧ = xԦi + yԦj + zk (m) Motion law 𝑟(𝑡);
Ԧ
frame of reference

∆𝐯
Average acceleration 𝐚𝐚𝐯 = (m/s2)
∆𝐭

𝚫𝐯 𝐝𝐯
Instantaneous acceleration 𝐚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = (m/s2 )
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 𝐝𝐭
=the first derivative of the velocity with respect to time

d v d2 rԦ
a= = 2 a = vሶ = rԦሷ
dt dt

The velocity law from acceleration law

v = න adt + c2
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/acca.html#c1
From initial conditions
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
The directions of velocity and acceleration -kinematics

The velocity always has the direction of Δ𝑟Ԧ (d𝑟)

Ԧ , meaning it permanently
follows the “road”, in other words is tangent in every point of the trajectory
The acceleration has the direction of Δv (dv) y
(C) d𝑟Ԧ
v
y
rԦ
(C) 𝑟Ԧ + 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
v1
Δ𝑟Ԧ v1 x
rԦ1
y
Δv (C)
𝑟Ԧ2 v2 v
x
a
v + dv dv

http://physics.info/motion-graphs/
x
 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE (the one-
dimensional case : Ox)

𝐫Ԧ 𝐫Ԧ 𝐭 = 𝐱Ԧ𝐢
O Ԧ𝐢 M x dx
𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟏 𝜟𝐱
𝐯𝐚𝐯 = = , 𝐯=
𝐭𝟐 − 𝐭𝟏 𝜟𝐭 dt

Ex. –uniform linear motion x(t) = 4 + 3t

-Uniformly accelerated linear motion x(t) = 2 + 3t − 10t2

v(m/s)
Exercise:
15

𝟏 𝐭𝟐
𝐯𝒂𝒗 = ‫׬‬ 𝐯 𝐭 𝐝𝐭 =? ? ? ?
𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭𝟏 𝐭 𝟏

O 2 6 12
 PLANAR MOTION (two-dimensional case : XOY)

M 𝐫Ԧ 𝐭 = 𝐱Ԧ𝐢 + 𝐲Ԧ𝐣
y

rԦ 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝐯 𝐭 = Ԧ𝐢 + Ԧ𝐣
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Ԧ𝐣
O x
Ԧ𝐢 x

Ex. circular uniform motion 𝐫Ԧ 𝐭 = 𝟑𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟒𝐭 Ԧ𝐢 + 𝟑𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒𝐭 Ԧ𝐣 (m)

relativ motion (boat Crossing a River– reference)

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Kinematics/Boat/Boat.html
https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Kinematics/RelativeMotion/RelativeMotion.html
 THREE –DIMENSIONAL CASE

z
𝐫Ԧ 𝐭 = 𝐱Ԧ𝐢 + 𝐲Ԧ𝐣 + 𝐳Ԧ𝐤
z
M
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝐳
𝐯 𝐭 = Ԧ𝐢 + Ԧ𝐣 + Ԧ𝐤
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
rԦ

Ԧ𝐤
Ԧ𝐣 y 𝐫 𝟐 = 𝐫Ԧ ∙ 𝐫Ԧ = 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐
Ԧ𝐢 O y
x
𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐯 ∙ 𝐯 = 𝐯𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐯𝐲 𝟐 + 𝐯𝐳 𝟐

Ex. helical Motion 𝐫Ԧ 𝐭 = 𝟑𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟒𝐭 Ԧ𝐢 + 𝟑𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒𝐭 Ԧ𝐣 +5t (mm)

 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Trajectory
rԦ = xԦi + yԦj + zk

If we know, at every moment, the spatial coordinates of a body with respect

to a frame of reference, then we can find the trajectory or the path of the
body by eliminating time between them.
𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ x(t) f (x, y, z)=0
y(t) trajectory equations
z(t)

The path is univocal determined only if

we know the INITIAL CONDITIONS,
namely rԦ(t = 0) and v(t = 0)

If the movement is planar, then the path

means the y(x) graphic.

Foucault pendulum http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TrajectoryOfFoucaultsPendulum/

 Trajectories-examples Hidden (additional)
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/topics/RadialCurves.html slide !!!!!!
Straight line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola
Trochoid
A trochoid is the locus of a point at a distance from the center of a circle of radius r
rolling on a fixed line
𝑥 = a𝑡 − 𝑟 sin 𝑡
Cycloid (a=r) y = a − r cost

Curtate cycloid (a<r)

Prolate cycloid (a>r)

Hellix
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Degrees of freedom

The number of independent coordinates, which

characterize the mass point position, represent the degrees of freedom
for that particle.

The particle’s number of degrees of freedom is equal to

the difference between the number of coordinates and the
number of constraints between these coordinates.

For a rigid body …….

 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
First Newton’s law

An object will remain at rest or in uniform linear motion unless acted

upon by an external force (net force).

“Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi
quatenus illud a viribus impressis cogitur statum suum mutare.”

The Andrew Motte’s translation from the original statement (1729) is

“Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon”.
https://archive.org/stream/100878576#page/82/mode/2up

The tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line is called inertia, and the first law is sometimes called the law of inertia.

Net force is the overall force acting on an object.

 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
DYNAMICS -FORCES AND MOTION
• Force? An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to
change its state
“If you insist upon a precise definition of force, you will never get it!” Feynman

Action at a distance Contact forces

Gravitational force Friction force
Electromagnetic force (ex. when one solid body slides on another 𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁)
(“are fundamental forces- we analyze these
forces by means of the field concept”)
“Molecular forces are forces between the atoms, and are the ultimate origin of friction.
Molecular forces have never been satisfactorily explained on a basis of classical
The gravitational/electric field is the physics” Feynman
“condition” produced by a source The resistant force
(mass/electric charge) and the force is the
response of a probe (mass/electric charge)
(ex. air resistance for fast movement in air of a solid body 𝐹𝑟 = −𝛼 𝑣)
to the field. “this law is not in the same class as the basic laws of physics, and further study of it will
only make it more and more complicated” Feynman
Elastic force
(ex. in a deformed spring 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = −𝑘𝑒𝑙 𝑥)
Tension force (ex. string tension)
Action force (upon a body)
Reaction force (ex. normal reaction force)

All contact forces arise from electromagnetic interactions between the

charged particles in the bodies making contact.
• Force? An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to
change its state
“If you insist upon a precise definition of force, you will never get it!” Feynman

“In analyzing forces by the use of fields, we need two kinds of laws pertaining to fields.
The first is the response to a field, and that gives the equations of motion. For example, the law
of response of a mass to a gravitational field is that the force is equal to the mass times the gravitational
field; or, if there is also a charge on the body, the response of the charge to the electric field equals the
charge times the electric field.
The second part of the analysis of nature in these situations is to formulate the laws which
determine the strength of the field and how it is produced. These laws are sometimes called the field
equations. “ Feynman

“In nuclear analysis we no longer think in terms of forces, and in fact we can replace the force concept
with a concept of the energy of interaction of two particles”, “the forces disappear as soon as the particles
are any great distance apart, although they are very strong within the 10 -13cm range”
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
The Newton’s Second Law
The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to
the resultant force applied and is in the direction of the resultant force.

𝐝(𝐦 ⋅ 𝐯) [F]SI=Newton
Ԧ
𝐅= 1N=1kg·m/s2
dt

“Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam

rectam qua vis illa imprimitur.”
The Andrew Motte’s translation:
“The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made
in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed”.
motus, the quantity of motion was later called the momentum,

𝚫(𝐦 ⋅ 𝐯) = 𝐅Ԧ ⋅ Δt

Only if the mass is constant in time:

𝐅Ԧ = 𝐦 ⋅ 𝐚
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Concepts: linear momentum and impulse

Linear momentum 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 (N·s)

An impulse occurs when a force 𝐹Ԧ acts over an interval of time Δt=t2- t1 , and
𝐭
Ԧ
it is given by Impulse=‫𝐭𝐝𝐅 𝟐 𝐭׬‬ or
𝟏
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = 𝐅Ԧ𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 ).

The second Newton law is a relation between impulse and momentum variation:
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = ∆𝐩

Momentum is dimensionally equivalent to impulse N·s

 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

Conclusions to the Newton’s Second Law

• Newton’s first law says that the motion state (or the rest state) changes only
if a force is applied, and the Newton’s second law says how we make the
changing, namely the force change the body’s momentum;

• Knowing the force expression, we have a second order differential equation

and solving it – when it is possible - we find the time dependence of velocity
v(t) , respectively of the radius vector 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ ;

•The linear momentum conservation law for an isolated physical system;

 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Newton’s Third Law
When two objects interact they exert equal and opposite forces on each
other.
𝐅Ԧ12 = −𝐅Ԧ21

“ Actioni contrariam semper et aequalem esse reactionem: sive corporum

duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse aequales et in partes contrarias
dirigi.”

“To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or the mutual
actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to
contrary parts”.

Examples ?
In principle, every problem for point masses can be solved using Newton’s laws,
but they are not sufficient for the motions of rigid and fluid bodies.
YUVAL NOAH HARARI –SAPIENS A brief History of Humankind (The Scientific
Dogma p.284)
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

In principle, every problem can be solved using Newton’s laws.

derivation derivation

𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ v(𝑡) 𝑎(𝑡)
Ԧ
motion law velocity law acceleration
eliminating time

integration integration

v(𝑟)
Ԧ 𝑎(v)
Ԧ

f(x,y,z)=0 𝑎(
Ԧ 𝑟)
Ԧ
trajectory eq.

differ.
Using the Newton’s Second Law – dynamics of bodies that can be
considered mass points

𝐺Ԧ -freefall in the gravitational field of Earth

-vertical throw (down/up) in the gravitational field of Earth
-oblique throw in the gravitational field of Earth
⇕ -free sliding on an horizontal/inclined plane in the gravitational field of Earth
without/with Ff
𝐹𝑔 -satellite in the gravitational field of a planet

𝐹𝑒𝑙 Harmonic oscillations

resistant force -throw with initial velocity in a viscous medium

ex. 𝐹𝑟 = −𝛼 𝑣Ԧ -damped oscillations
-oblique throw in the gravitational field of Earth through a viscous
medium
𝐹 =𝑞𝐸 -motion of an electron in a constant electric field similar with……..

𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 -motion of an electron in a constant magnetic field

NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
1. International System of Units; The seven base units; The decimal
multiples and submultiples;
2. Definitions for average and instantaneous velocity and acceleration; The
directions of velocity and acceleration;
3. The Newton’s laws: The first Newton’s law; Inertia and inertial frames of
reference; The second Newton law; Conclusions to the Newton’s Second
Law; The third Newton law;

PHYSICS BETWEEN FEAR and RESPECT, vol.3, V. Dorobanţu, Simona Pretorian, Ed.
Politehnica Timişoara, 2009; p.16-30
 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Lecture 2

APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS

QUIZ:https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Kinematics/Acceleration2D/Acceleration2D.html

The movement of a mass point under the action of weight;

OTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITIES (introduced after Newton’s laws)

and CONSERVATION LAWS
•linear momentum- LINEAR MOMENTUM’S CONSERVATION LAW
•energy
➢ kinetic
➢ potential
➢ Work; Power;
 Kinematics -the simplest types of motion

Uniform linear motion 𝐯 𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭

OX: 𝐫Ԧ = 𝐱 Ԧ𝐢 𝐝𝐱
𝐯= Ԧ𝐢
𝐝𝐭
𝑣𝑥
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝒙 ∙ (𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 )
Uniformly accelerated linear motion 𝒂 𝒕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐝𝐲 𝒅𝟐 𝐲
OY: 𝐫Ԧ = 𝐲 Ԧ𝐣 𝐯= Ԧ𝐣 𝐚 = 𝟐 Ԧ𝐣
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝒕
𝑣𝑦

𝐯𝐲 𝐭 = 𝐯𝟎𝐲 + 𝐚 ∙ (𝐭 − 𝐭 𝟎 )
𝐭 − 𝐭𝟎 𝟐
𝐲 𝐭 = 𝐲𝟎 + 𝐯𝐨𝐲 ∙ 𝐭 − 𝐭 𝟎 +𝐚∙
𝟐
 Uniformly accelerated linear motion 𝒂 𝒕 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

OY: 𝐫Ԧ = 𝐲 Ԧ𝐣 𝐝𝐲 𝒅𝟐 𝐲
𝐯= Ԧ𝐣 𝐚 = 𝟐 Ԧ𝐣
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝒕
d dy dy
dt dt
=a = නa ⋅ dt + c2 𝒗𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗𝟎𝒚 + 𝒂 ∙ (𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 )
dt

The integration constant c2 determined from the initial conditions: t0, v0y
y = න(v0y + a ⋅ (t−t 0 ))dt + c3 𝟐
𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒗𝒐𝒚 ∙ 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 +𝒂∙
𝟐
The integration constants c3 determined from the initial conditions: t0, y0

position

PART OF A
y0 PARABOLA

0 time
Unifomly accel. lin. motion
 The movement of a mass point under the action of weight
Inclined throw -ballistics
y
𝐺Ԧ = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑔Ԧ vertically down
v

𝑔Ԧ OX: 𝐹𝑥 = 0
v0 𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐯𝟎𝐱 ∙ 𝐭
𝐯𝐱 = 𝐯0x
α
O x
OY: 𝐹𝑦 = −mg ⇒ 𝐯𝐲 (𝐭) = 𝐯𝟎𝐲 − 𝐠 ⋅ 𝐭
𝑎𝑦 = −g
initial conditions: the initial
𝒕𝟐 velocity (v0 ,α) and initial
y 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒐𝒚 ∙ 𝒕 − 𝒈 ∙
𝟐 position O(0,0) at t0=0
𝐯𝟎𝐱 = 𝐯𝟎 ∙ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂
𝐯𝟎𝐲 = 𝐯𝟎 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂
Projectile motion (desomposition )
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/si http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/
mulation/projectile-motion Applets/CompoundMotion/compound2.html
 The movement of a mass point under the action of weight
Inclined throw -ballistics

https://commons.wikimedia.or
g/wiki/File:Inclinedthrow.gif

Trajectories of three objects thrown at the same angle (70°).

THE BLACK OBJECT doesn't experience any form of drag and moves along a parabola.
The blue object experiences Stokes' drag, and the green object Newtonian drag.
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/Applets/Projectile/projectile.html
.

The movement of a mass point under the action of weight

g ∙ t2
rറ(t) = v0x ∙ tറi + v0y ∙ t − റj -the motion law
2

g ∙ t2
rറ(t) = v0 cos α ∙ tറi + v0 sin α ∙ t − റj
2

Ex. (seminar 1) 𝑟Ԧ = 4𝑡Ԧ𝑖 − 5𝑡 2 𝑗Ԧ

We can identify v0=4m/s α= 0

g=10m/s2
 The movement of a mass point under the action of weight
𝐠 𝐱𝟐
The trajectory equation 𝐲 = 𝐱 ⋅ 𝐭𝐠 𝛂 − 𝟐 ⋅ 𝐯 𝟐 ⋅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛂 x(t) = v0 cos α ⋅ t
𝟎
t2
y(t) = v0 sin α ⋅ t − g ⋅
Climbing time 𝐯𝟎𝐲 𝐯𝟎 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂 2
𝐭𝐜 = =
(condition to stop 𝐠 𝐠 vx (𝑡) = v0 cos 𝛼
climbing vy=0) vy (t) = v0 sin α − g ⋅ t
Maximum height 𝐯𝟎 𝟐 ⋅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛂
𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
(use climbing time in y(t) ) 𝟐𝐠

Descent time until to the

same horizontal with the
throwing point
𝒈 ⋅ 𝒕𝒄 𝟐 𝒗𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ⇒ 𝒕𝒅 = = 𝒕𝒄
𝟐 𝒈
𝐯𝟎 𝟐
The distance on OX 𝐱= 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝟐𝛂 )
on the same horizontal with
𝐠
the throwing point –use t=2tc
in x(t)
v0 2
The distance x is maximum the sinus is equal to 1, meaning  =45o : xmax =
g
OTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITIES (introduced after Newton’s laws) and
CONSERVATION LAWS
•linear momentum- LINEAR MOMENTUM’S CONSERVATION LAW

•energy
➢ kinetic
➢potential
➢Work; Power
 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

The Newton’s Second Law

𝐝(𝐦 ⋅ 𝐯)
𝚫(𝐦 ⋅ 𝐯) = 𝐅Ԧ ⋅ Δt 𝐅Ԧ =
dt

Linear momentum 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 (N·s)

An impulse occurs when a force 𝐹Ԧ acts over an interval of time Δt=t2- t1 , and
𝐭
Ԧ
it is given by Impulse=‫𝐭𝐝𝐅 𝟐 𝐭׬‬ or
𝟏
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = 𝐅Ԧ𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 ).

The second Newton law is a relation between impulse and momentum variation:
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = ∆𝐩

Momentum is dimensionally equivalent to impulse N·s

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
From Newton's “necessity” (see the second law), the linear momentum of a
body is defined as:
𝐩=𝐦∙𝐯 (Nˑs)

If we have a certain number of bodies (n) in the system, each having its own
mass and its own moving velocity, and these bodies form a𝐧physical system,
then the total linear momentum of the system is:
𝐩 = ෍ 𝐦𝐢 ∙ 𝐯𝐢
𝐢=𝟏

𝐝𝐩
From Newton’s second law, if the force 𝐅Ԧ = 𝟎 then =𝟎
𝐝𝐭
⇒ 𝒑=constant
The total linear momentum of an isolated physical system
is conserved.

Ex. Two-dimensional elastic collision.

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics
/Collisions/Collisions.html
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elastisc
her_sto%C3%9F_2D.gif
 ENERGY in CLASSICAL MECHANICS
In 1802 Thomas Young was the first to use the term "energy" in its modern sense;
In 1829 Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in its modern sense and introduced the
term work;
In 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy."

𝐦 ∙ 𝐯𝟐 𝒑𝟐
Kinetic energy 𝐄𝐊 = (J) 𝐄𝐊 = , 𝑝 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝟐 𝟐𝐦

Potential energy or interaction potential:

The expression of potential energy depends on the type of forces that act upon
the bodies of the system (exists only for conservative forces).
The potential energy of a body (a particle, a mass point) depends on where it is,
(on its coordinates regarding a referential system) Ep(x,y,z);

Examples:
-Potential energy for near Earth gravity …….
-Potential energy for a linear spring ………
-Potential energy for gravitational forces between two bodies
-Potential energy for electrostatic forces between two bodies

“The general name of energy which has to do with location relative to something else is called potential
energy.” Feynman
Hidden (additional) slide !!!!!!
POTENTIAL ENERGY

Ep(x,y,z);
𝐅Ԧ = −𝛁𝐄𝐩
𝝏𝑬𝒑 𝝏𝑬𝒑 𝝏𝑬𝒑
𝑭=− 𝒊Ԧ − 𝒋Ԧ − 𝒌 only for conservative forces
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Fx Fy Fz
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝒊Ԧ + 𝒊Ԧ + 𝒌=𝛁
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝑑𝐸𝑝
OBS. In 1-dim Ep(x) → 𝐹 = −
𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝑒𝑙 ∙𝑥 2
Ex Potential energy for a linear spring 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = −𝑘𝑒𝑙 ∙ 𝑥 ⟷ 𝐸𝑝 =
2
Potential energy for near Earth gravity 𝐺 = −𝑚𝑔 (“-” because g and G are in
the opposite sense of OY –origin on the ground) ⟷ 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦
Hidden (additional) slide !!!!!!

𝐅Ԧ = −𝛁𝐄𝐩
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
Ԧ𝐢 + Ԧ𝐣 + Ԧ𝐤 = 𝛁
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳

The gradient of a scalar function of any quantity is defined as a vector field

having MAGNITUDE equal to the maximum space rate of change of the
quantity and having a DIRECTION identical with the direction of displacement
along which the rate of change is maximum.

Obs:
The gradient
• points in the direction of GREATEST increase of a function
• is zero at a local maximum or local minimum (because there is no single
direction of increase)
• is ⊥ to lines of equal potential
• 𝛻𝐸𝑝 is the amount of increase in that direction
 WORK

By definition, the elementary work, đL, is:

đL =𝐅Ԧ ∙ 𝐝Ԧ𝐫 đL=F·dr·cos θ (J)

2
The perpendicular component of 𝐹Ԧ on
displacement d𝑟,
Ԧ does not make work.
A force do work if, when acting, 𝑭
there is a displacement of its point of 1 θ
application in the direction of the force. d՜
r
𝟐

𝐋 = න 𝐅 ⋅ cos 𝛉 dr
𝟏

When the work done by the force 𝐅Ԧ does not depend on the path (contained
Ԧ we say that the force 𝐅Ԧ is conservative.
in 𝑑 𝑟),
𝟐
OBS: For 𝑭=const. 𝑳 = ‫𝒓𝜟 ∙ 𝑭 = 𝒓𝒅 ∙ 𝑭 𝟏׬‬
 POWER
The power spent by the force 𝐹Ԧ to impress the velocity v to the body is,
by definition , the work done by the force in the unit time
and it is equal to the dot product between the force and velocity vector

𝐝𝐋Ӎ
𝐏= = 𝐅Ԧ ⋅ 𝐯 (Watt)
dt

The average power = the ratio between the work L done by the force F
and the time interval t in which the force acted

𝐋
𝐏av =
Δt
THE CONNECTION WORK  KINETIC ENERGY
dEK d m⋅v⋅v dv d՜
r dL Ӎ
= = mv =F ⋅ v = F =
dt dt 2 dt dt dt
The work- (kinetic) energy theorem: The change in the kinetic
energy of an object is equal to the net work done on the object.

𝐋=
mv𝟐 𝟐 mv𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
−
𝟐
đL=dEK
THE CONNECTION WORK  POTENTIAL ENERGY
(for conservative forces)
2 𝟐 2

L = න 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐫Ԧ = − න 𝛁𝐄𝐩 ∙ 𝐝𝐫Ԧ = −  dE p

𝟏 1
1

𝐋 = − 𝐄𝐩(𝟐) − 𝐄𝐩(𝟏) đL= - dEp

Apps: stopping distance for auto (knowing the coefficient of static friction); car crash,
average impact force from falling object (knowing the impact distance)-Seminar 1-2
 THE CONNECTION WORK  POTENTIAL ENERGY
(for cnservative forces)
Hidden (additional) slide !!!!!!

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝐋 = න 𝐅Ԧ ⋅ 𝐝 ՜
𝐫 = − න 𝛁𝐄𝐩 ⋅ 𝐝 ՜
𝐫 = − න 𝒅𝑬𝒑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜕Ep 𝜕Ep 𝜕E ՜
dEp (x,y,z) = dx + dy + p
dz = (∇E p ) ⋅ d r
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
𝜕Ep 𝜕Ep 𝜕Ep
Since 𝛻Ep = 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

and 𝑑Ԧr = dx Ԧi + dy Ԧj + dz k
 THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The total energy Et =EK +Ep

But, đL=dEK and for conservative forces đL= - dEp

d(EK +Ep)=0

The total energy of an isolated system under the action of

conservative forces is conserved.
By isolated system we understand that system that is so far from other
systems that no external influences are made upon it.

EK (1) + EP (1) = EK (2) + EP (2) = constant

Classical potential well

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/energy-skate-park
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

4. The movement of a mass point under the action of weight- inclined throw -
ballistics (the trajectory equation, climbing time, maximum height, the
horizontal distance);
5. Momentum conservation law; Example;
6. Kinetic and Potential energy; Force from potential energy examples;
7. Work; Power; Conservative forces;
8. The work- (kinetic) energy theorem;
9. Law of conservation of energy; Example;
 Lecture 3
• Friction force
➢ Static friction
➢ Sliding friction
➢ Rolling friction
• Centripetal force
➢ Angular velocity; Angular acceleration
➢ Normal and tangential acceleration in a rotational motion
• Inertial force
• Analysis of movement of vehicles in curves
• Gravitational force
➢ Law of universal attraction
➢ Gravitational acceleration
➢ Gravitational field
➢ Launching satellites: stability and escape condition
 FRICTION FORCE
At macroscopically level the friction force avoids any theoretical approach.
For the sliding friction force there is an empiric formula:
𝐅𝐟 = 𝛍 ⋅ 𝐍  = tg 
•  the sliding friction coefficient and this is determined experimentally
(engineering tables)
•  angle of friction,
• N the force of reaction normal (perpendicular) on the surface on which the
body moves
Feynman considers friction force as a pseudoforce, meaning it does not derive
from a potential, it is a dissipative force.
𝐍
The rolling friction force of a cylinder: 𝐅𝐟𝐫 = 𝛍𝐫 .
𝐫
• r the rolling friction coefficient (attention! has units)
• N the force normal to the contact surface
• r the radius of the cylinder.
Useful –Useless ?????
Friction at molecular level https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/friction
Static+sliding friction https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/Pull/Pull.html
 CIRCULAR MOTION
Rotation is described in terms of angular displacement θ , time t, angular
velocity ω , and angular acceleration .
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement :
dθ (rad/s)
ω=
dt
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity :
d ω d2 θ
= = 2 (rad/s2 )
dt dt

ω -angular velocity vector

The direction of ω is ⊥ to the

plane of rotation, in a direction
which is usually specified by the
right-hand rule or corkscrew rule. sense of rotation of
the wheel
 CIRCULAR MOTION
Consider a mass point moving on a circle with the radius r (constant);
y
rറ t = r cos θ t റi + r sin θ t റj = 𝑟 ∙ 𝑢
θ
dറr dθ 𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝
𝑢
v= = −r sinθറi + r cos θ റj
dt dt
= r ω − sinθറi + cos θ റj
𝑟റ A
= rωuperp θ

v = ω·r and it is directed perpendicular to 𝑟Ԧ (C) x

O

OR from arc(AB)=r · for small Δθ

uperp = − sinθ i + cos θ റj
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃, 𝒅𝒓 ⊥ 𝒓
unit vector orthogonal to 𝐫Ԧ;
dv u = = cosθ റi + sin θ റj
a= =
dt unit vector parallel to 𝐫Ԧ
d dω
=rω − sinθറi + cos θ റj + r − sinθറi + cos θ റj
dt dt
dω
= −rω2 u + r uperp
dt
= anormal + atangential normal and tangential to the
trajectory (circle)
 CENTRIPETAL FORCE
𝑑𝜔
𝑎റ = −𝑟𝜔2 𝑢 + 𝑟 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝
= 𝑎Ԧ𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
The tangential acceleration is different from zero only if the magnitude
of velocity gets changed in time.

The normal acceleration is directed to the circle’s center along the

radius vector.
If we multiply the normal acceleration with the mass of the body, we get
the centripetal force:

𝐅Ԧ𝐜𝐩 = −𝐦 ⋅ 𝛚𝟐 ⋅ 𝐫Ԧ

𝟐
𝐦𝐯
𝐅𝐜𝐩 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐫 = v = ω·r
𝐫
OBS. The force directed toward an immobilized point acting upon the body
can be any real force and will play the role of centripetal force.
 THE INERTIAL FORCE
In any concrete problem, the inertial force (apparent force ) arise from the
acceleration of the non-inertial reference frame and, according to Newton’s
words, it also has the form given in the second (Newton’s) law.

The centrifugal force is a force of inertia - the force with which the body
opposes the movement on a curve, and is directed in the opposite direction
from the centripetal force.

Pictures from http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/corf.html#ccx2

EXPERIMENTARIUM-The centrifugal force

!!!Numerical application in seminar 2 !!!!!

 APPS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Ex.: in the curves, vehicles have the tendency to skid to the exterior of the
curve if the vehicle’s velocity is great enough.
On the horizontal, on an r radius curve
if 𝐅𝐜𝐟 ≥ 𝐅𝐟 skid Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ𝑐𝑓
𝐹 𝑓
v2
m   μ mg N
r
v  μrg
𝐹Ԧ𝑐𝑓
O r
if 𝐅𝐜𝐟 ≤ 𝐅𝐟 not skid
𝐯≤ 𝛍𝐫𝐠 θ
OBS In order to prevent skidding for a certain velocity v and a curve
radius r ON the HORIZONTAL the sliding friction coef. should be
𝐺Ԧ θ
𝑣2
𝜇≥
𝑟𝑔

If there is NO FRICTION, in order to prevent 𝐦 ⋅ 𝐯𝟐 𝐯𝟐

skidding for a certain velocity v and a curve 𝐭𝐠 𝛉 = =
𝐫𝐦𝐠 𝐫⋅𝐠
radius r the angle  of curve’s plane should be:
OBS Without friction, the angle  must have
an exact value in order to prevent skidding
Homework:
In a REAL case, for a real radius curve (value) and a real
sliding friction coefficient (value), find the inclination angle
(expression and value) of a road for a maximum speed (value).
(Ex. two-lane road, highway, racing circuit, railroad; tire-
asphalt, metal-metal friction)

physics

θ math
 THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
𝐌 ⋅ 𝐦 𝐫Ԧ
y 𝐅Ԧ = − 𝐊 𝟐
⋅
m 𝐫 𝐫

r - The law of universal attraction,
φ in Newton’s formulation.
M x

K=6,67259 · 10-11 Nm2/kg2 the universal gravitational constant

The potential energy of a mass point m in the gravitational field of the point
mass M: đL= - dE
∞ p
L= - ΔEp 𝐌𝐦
𝟐 ⟹ 𝐄𝐩∞ − 𝐄𝐩 =න 𝐊 𝐝𝐫
𝐫 𝟐
𝐋 = න 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝Ԧ𝐫 𝐫
Ep∞=0
𝟏
𝐫 ∙ 𝐝Ԧ𝐫 ≡ 𝐫 ∙ 𝐝𝐫
Mm
⇒ 𝐄𝐩 = − 𝐊
𝐫
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gravity-force-lab/latest/gravity-force-lab_en.html
Gravitational interaction between 2 bodies
 THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE -
GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

𝐌 ⋅ 𝐦 𝐫Ԧ
𝐅Ԧ = − 𝐊 𝟐
⋅
𝐫 𝐫

𝐆=𝐦⋅𝐠

𝐌 𝐫Ԧ
𝐠= − 𝐊 𝟐⋅
𝐫 𝐫

gravitational acceleration
or gravitational field strength
(gravitational field intensity)

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/ for image

Gravitational acceleration at the surface of the various planets
𝐌 𝐫Ԧ
𝐠= − 𝐊 𝟐⋅
𝐫 𝐫

Planet Radius (m) Mass (kg) g (m/s2)

Mercury 2.43 x 106 3.2 x 1023 3.61

Venus 6.073 x 106 4.88 x1024 8.83
Mars 3.38 x 106 6.42 x 1023 3.75
Jupiter 6.98 x 107 1.901 x 1027 26.0
Saturn 5.82 x 107 5.68 x 1026 11.2
Uranus 2.35 x 107 8.68 x 1025 10.5
Neptune 2.27 x 107 1.03 x 1026 13.3
Pluto 1.15 x 106 1.2 x 1022 0.61

Energy Skate Park dependence on g https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/energy-skate-park

 THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

The existence of a mass M leads to the existence of the gravitational field.

Its actual manifesting takes place when another mass m is put in the picture;
(M creates that certain something (the gravitational field) which m “feels”)

Therefore, the interaction takes place through the field (not from M to m for the
gravitational case)

The physical quantities characterizing a field depend continuously upon

coordinates and, possibly, upon time.
Ex. Gravitational potential and gravitational field strength

𝐌 𝐌 𝐫Ԧ
𝐕𝐠 = − 𝐊 , 𝐠= −𝐊 𝟐⋅
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫

The field the intermediary of the interaction

 LAUNCHING SATELLITES
The stability condition of the satellite on a Newton's cannonball

close trajectory = the gravitational pulling v
force is equal to the centrifugal force
Mm mv 2
K =
r0 + h 2 r0 + h
𝐫𝟎 r0
M 𝐯 = 𝐠𝟎
g 0 = −K 2 𝐡 r0+h
r0 𝟏+
𝐫𝟎
Launching the satellite from the Earth’s
surface, (h=0), the velocity must be:

v0 = g 0 r0 “Newton’s Mountain”

With r0=6.36744·106 m (Earth radius) and

g0=9.81 m/s2 (gravitational acceleration
at the Earth surface)
v0=7.903 km/s.
https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics https://play.google.com/store/apps/details
?id=com.ionicframework.gravity08app87
/Satellite/Satellite.html 1221&hl=en
 Launching satellites

v0=0 v0=6000m/s v0=7300m/s

v0=8000m/s v0=11200m/s
 The movement of a planet in a gravitational field
-Can be reduced to THE CLASSICAL CENTRAL-FORCE PROBLEM = to find the
position r of a body moving under the influence of a central force F, either as a function
of time t either as a function of the angle φ relative to the center of force and an
arbitrary axis.
The total energy E of the system (Planet-Sun) is conserved
𝐄 = 𝐄𝐊 + 𝐄𝐩 y
m

mv 𝟐 𝐌𝐦 r
𝐄𝐊 = 𝐄𝐩 = −𝐊 φ
𝟐 𝐫
M x
The angular momentum 𝓛 is also conserved (next lecture the explanation )
𝓛=𝐈𝛚 𝓛 = 𝐦𝐫 𝟐 𝛚
Only if the total energy of the mass m is negative E < 0 the
trajectory is closed = ellipse or
if the total energy of the m-mass body is minimum the trajectory
is a circular one.
Simulations for solar systems https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/gravity-and-orbits
E < 0 (ε < 1)
Kepler’s laws:
•Kepler’s first law (1609): The trajectory of a planet around the Sun is an
ellipse with the Sun in one of the two foci (focal points).
•Kepler’s second law (1609): In equal time intervals, the vector radius of
the mobile point crosses equal areas (conservation of the angular
𝑑𝐴 ℒ 1
momentum = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡). dA = 2 r 2 dφ
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
•Kepler’s third law (1619): The squares of the revolution period of a planet
is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit (true only
when a very small body orbits a very large body).
4𝜋 2
𝑇2 = 𝑎3
𝐾𝑀

Kepler’s laws https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/Kepler01/Kepler01.html

The movement of a planet in a gravitational field

For E =0 the trajectory of m is parabolic
When the sum of m's kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy is equal
to zero the speed of m is the escape velocity
2
mM mve 𝟐 𝐊𝐌
−K + =0 𝐯𝐞 = = 𝟐 𝐯𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲
r 2 𝐫

On the surface of the Earth, the escape velocity is about 11.2 km/s
(approximately 33 × the speed of sound and
several times the velocity of a rifle bullet - up to 1.7 km/s).
At 9 000 km altitude in "space", the ecape velocity is slightly less than 7.1 km/s.

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/CloseEarthProjection/CloseEarth.html

For E>0 (eccentricity ε >1) the trajectory of m is hyperbolic.

The movement of a planet in a gravitational field

 TRAJECTORIES FOR THE BODY m

ε >1
E<0 eccentricity , ε < 1,
ε=1 the trajectory is elliptical

ε =∞

ε<1
E>0 eccentricity ε >1,
ε =0
the trajectory is hyperbolic.

E=0 eccentricity ε =1,

the trajectory is parabolic.

The movement of a planet in a gravitational field

A visual example of a 24 satellite GPS constellation in motion with
the Earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view
from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N,
changes with time.

The movement of a planet in a gravitational field

“Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as "orbiting" its nucleus,
following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term
"orbital"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any
meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful
understanding of the electron's real behaviour.”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-body_problem
Homework:
Classification of Earth's artificial satellites orbits; the
launching and the escaping velocity (present the calculus
with g0= gravitational acceleration at the Earth surface) for
at least one real satellite on each type of orbits.
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

10. Friction force; Examples;

11. Circular motion and centripetal force;
12. The gravitational force; gravitational acceleration; potential energy for
gravitational forces between two bodies;
13. Gravitational field : Gravitational potential and gravitational field
strength;
14. The stability condition of the satellite on a circular trajectory; The escape
condition.
15. Kepler’s laws
 Lecture 4

CENTER OF MASS
OTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITIES (introduced after Newton’s
laws) and CONSERVATION LAWS

•TORQUE (MOMENT OF FORCE)

• ANGULAR MOMENTUM
➢Law of conservation of angular momentum

•MOMENT OF INERTIA- Comparison of linear motion with rotational

motion
 CENTER OF MASS
.
Represent that point where the mass of the entire body would be concentrated.
Let’s consider a physical system made up by n bodies:
mi - the mass of the body i and 𝐫Ԧ𝐢 its position vector toward a certain referential.

Let us now apply an external force 𝐅Ԧ to the system.

The entire system (of mass 𝐌 = σ𝐧𝐢=𝟏 𝐦𝐢 ) will get the acceleration 𝐚.
n

F = ෍ Fi
i=1

𝐅Ԧ𝐢 the net force acting upon the body of mass mi and impressing an acceleration 𝐚𝐢

According to Newton’s second law 𝐅Ԧ = 𝐌 ∙ 𝐚

𝐅Ԧ𝐢 = 𝐦𝐢 ∙ 𝐚𝐢
d2 rԦi
σni=1 mi ⋅ ai σni=1 mi ⋅ 𝑑 2 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ⋅ 𝑟Ԧ𝑖
a= = dt 2 =
σni=1 mi σni=1 mi 𝑑𝑡 2 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
 CENTER OF MASS

d2 σni=1 mi ⋅ rԦi
a= 2
dt σni=1 mi

the position vector of a

point: the center of mass.

σni=1 mi rԦi σni=1 mi vi

R CM = n vCM = n
σi=1 mi σi=1 mi

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖

𝑋= 𝑛 , 𝑌= 𝑛 , 𝑍= 𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 σ𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 σ𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖

Internal forces, the ones between the bodies inside the system 0 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝐹Ԧ𝑖 ,
cannot change the state (of rest or of uniform motion) of the CENTER
MASS as long as the external force is null.
https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/CM/CM.html
 TORQUE (MOMENT OF FORCE)
𝛕
𝛕 = 𝐫Ԧ 𝐱 𝐅Ԧ (N·m) 𝐫Ԧ
𝐹∥
𝑟-position
Ԧ vector of force's 𝐹⊥
application point with respect to 
(relative to) the reference. 𝐅Ԧ

Ԧi Ԧj k
𝛕 = 𝐫Ԧ 𝐱 𝐅Ԧ = x y z = yFz − zFy Ԧi + zFx − xFz Ԧj + xFy − yFx k
Fx Fy Fz

A body is in equilibrium if the resulting force of all the forces acting upon
the body is zero, and, also, the resulting torque is zero.
 TORQUE (OR MOMENT OF FORCE )
𝝉
In rotation we expect that the work L is equal to O
something multiplied by 
L= ?·Δθ റ
? = 𝐫 ∙ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∢(റ𝐫, 𝐅) N 𝑟Ԧ
𝐅Ԧ
L = F ∙ ∆Ԧr = Δ𝑥 ⋅ 𝐹𝑥 + Δ𝑦 ⋅ 𝐹𝑦 = 
റ Δθ
. . . . = 𝑟 ⋅ 𝐹 ⋅ sin ∢(റ𝐫, 𝐅)
We shall name the quantity evaluated, torque and it is a vector, and its
modulus is റ
𝝉 = 𝐫 ∙ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∢(റ𝐫, 𝐅) (N·m)

But 𝐫 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∢ 𝐫റ, 𝐅റ = 𝐎𝐍

ON = the moment arm or lever arm

𝝉 = 𝐎𝐍 ∙ 𝐅 = the perpendicular distance between the center of moments
and the line of action of the force
 EXPERIMENTARIUM

How I pull and how it rolls!

𝐅Ԧ

𝐹⊥
𝐹∥

=0
𝛕 𝐹∥

𝐅Ԧ

𝐅Ԧ
𝐹⊥
𝛕=0 𝛕
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

՜ dp 𝐝 𝐫Ԧ × 𝐩 dԦr
Ԧ
𝝉 = 𝐫Ԧ 𝐱 𝐅 = 𝐫Ԧ 𝐱 = Because ×p=0 namely
dt 𝐝𝐭 dt
v× m⋅v =0
The angular momentum 𝓛 = 𝒓 × 𝒑 (J·s)
𝒅𝓛
𝝉=
𝒅𝒕
Torque is equal to the rate of change of angular momentum of a
system.
𝒅𝓛
If the net torque 𝝉 = 𝟎 then = 𝟎 ⇒ ℒԦ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝒅𝒕
LAW OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION: Whenever in an
isolated system, the torque is null, the angular momentum is constant,
meaning it is conserved.

Ex. Earth around the Sun ↔ the force of interaction is directed along the line between the two
→ the torque is zero → the angular momentum is constant.

Angular momentum https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/AMUV/AMUV.html

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/AngMom/AngMom.html
 MOMENT OF INERTIA
In the rotating motion of a rigid body, the moment of inertia I plays a similar
role as mass m in translation.
In rigid body rotation around a vertical axis (for example), each part (each
molecule) of mass mi describes a horizontal circle with its center placed on the
rotation axis and the radius ri.
The angular momentum of every particle of mass mi pi
ri
ℒi = ri ⋅ pi = mi vi ri
mi
The total
n
angular momentum:
n n

ℒ = ෍ mi vi ri = ෍ mi ri 2 ⋅ ω = ω ⋅ ෍ mi ri 2 = I⋅ω
i=1 i=1 i=1

The rotational kinetic energy: ℒ = 𝐼𝜔

n n
mi v i 2
𝐼𝜔2 ℒ 2
2
ω 2
Iω2
EK = ෍ = ෍ mi ri =
2
i=1
2
i=1
2 EK = =
2 2𝐼
Obs. The kinetic energy has two components, one corresponding to the linear
movement of the mass center and the second is the rotational kinetic energy of a
rigid body, rotating with respect to the axis through the center of mass.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Ex 1: EXPERIMENTARIUM rotational kinetic energy transfer

The increasing of gravitational potential energy is due to the decrease of

rotational kinetic energy.

Ex 2: https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Dynamics/RodDisc/RodDisc.html
 COMMON MOMENTS OF INERTIA

2 1 2
1> > >
3 2 5
 MOMENT OF INERTIA

spherical shell,
solid sphere,
cylindrical ring
solid cylinder.
The time for each object to
reach the finishing line
depends on their moment of
inertia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia#/media
/File:Rolling_Racers_-_Moment_of_inertia.gif

EXPERIMENTARIUM moment of inertia

The race discs

In the rotating motion of a rigid body, the

moment of inertia plays a similar role as mass
in translation.
I = න r 2 ρdV
V
 Linear motion (on Ox) Rotational motion about a fixed axis
1. Linear position: x Angular position: θ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
2. Linear velocity 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡
Angular velocity 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃
3. Acceleration a=
𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡 2
Angular acceleration α =
𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡 2

4. Mass m (translational inertia) Moment of inertia I (rotational inertia)

5. Linear momentum 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ Angular momentum ℒԦ = 𝐼𝜔 (ℒԦ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝)

Ԧ

6. Net force σ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ Net torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 Ԧ

(𝜏Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹)
𝑑 𝑝Ԧ 𝑑 ℒԦ
7. Newton second law 𝐹Ԧ = Angular momentum law 𝜏Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html

8. Law of linear momentum conservation Law of angular momentum conservation

If 𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑥𝑡(𝑡𝑜𝑡) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. If 𝜏Ԧ𝑒𝑥𝑡(𝑡𝑜𝑡) = 0 ⇒ ℒԦ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑝2 𝐼𝜔2 ℒ2
9. Kinetic energy 𝐾 =
2
=
2𝑚
Rotational kinetic energy 𝐾𝑟𝑜𝑡 =
2
=
2𝐼
𝑥 𝜃
10. Work 𝑊 = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝐹 𝑓 𝑥׬‬ Rotational work W=‫𝜃𝑑 ∙ 𝜏 𝑓 𝜃׬‬
𝑖 𝑖

11. Power P = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑣Ԧ Power P = 𝜏 𝜔

EXPERIMENTARIUM angular momentum
Whenever in an isolated system, the torque
is null, the angular momentum is constant,
meaning it is conserved.

𝐋 = 𝐈𝛚 I = න r 2 ρdV
V

≈ torque-free precession; the angular

momentum remains fixed, but the angular
velocity vector changes because we have a
time-varying moment of inertia,
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

16. Center of mass;

17. Torque (moment of force); Equilibrium conditions;
18. Angular momentum (moment of momentum);
19. Law of angular momentum conservation; Example;
20. Moment of inertia; Angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy with
moment of inertia;
• Simple harmonic motion
➢ the model for a simple harmonic oscillator
➢ differential equation
➢ the motion law
➢ energy
➢Superposition of two parallel simple harmonic oscillations with the
same frequency
➢ Superposition of two parallel simple harmonic oscillations with close
frequencies
➢Superposition of parallel simple harmonic oscillations -Fourier
Analysis of Periodic Motion
➢Superposition of two perpendicular simple harmonic oscillations with
the same frequency
➢ Superposition of two perpendicular simple harmonic oscillations with
different frequencies
p.64-70
• The damped harmonic oscillator

• The driven oscillator

 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - SHM
ke – the elastic coefficient,
x - elongation =the distance from
equilibrium position
For most springs
Fel the restoring (conservative ) force is:
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/hook
𝐅el = −𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝐱 es-law/latest/hookes-law_en.html

the echilibrium position

𝐅Ԧ = 𝐦 ⋅ 𝐚 (steady state)

𝐝𝟐 𝐱(𝐭)
Ox: m = −𝐤 𝐞 ∙ 𝐱 𝐭
𝐝𝐭 𝟐

𝐤𝐞
We note = 𝛚𝟐𝟎 where 0 is the (natural) angular frequency
𝐦 for the oscillator

Masses on springs https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/masses-and-springs/latest/masses-and-springs_en.html

projection https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Oscillations/Phase/Phase.html
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

For any simple harmonic oscillator: when the system is displaced from its
equilibrium position, a restoring force which resembles Hooke's law tends to
restore the system to equilibrium.

Any spring will deviate significantly from this law if it is stretched enough.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION of motion for the simple harmonic
oscillator (SHO):
𝐝𝟐 𝐱(𝐭) 𝟐
+ 𝛚𝟎 ∙𝐱 𝐭 =𝟎
𝐝𝐭 𝟐

The general solution for this kind of equations is of exponential form:

𝐱(𝒕) = 𝒆𝛂𝒕 with 𝛂 = ±𝐢 ⋅ 𝝎𝟎
THE GENERAL SOLUTION is a linear combination:
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐜𝟏 ⋅ 𝐞𝐢𝝎𝟎 𝐭 + 𝐜𝟐 ⋅ 𝐞−𝐢𝝎𝟎 𝐭

With x0= x(t=0) and v0 =v(t=0) the position and the velocity of the oscillator at the
initial momentum
𝑥0 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 1 v0
c1 = x0 − i
2 𝜔0
𝑣0 = 𝑖𝜔0 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 1 v0
c2 = x0 + i
2 𝜔0
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐜𝟏 ⋅ 𝐞𝐢𝝎𝟎 𝐭 + 𝐜𝟐 ⋅ 𝐞−𝐢𝝎𝟎𝐭
Using Euler's formula 𝐞±𝐢𝛚𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 ± 𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝛚𝟎 𝐭) + 𝐢 𝐜𝟏 − 𝐜𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝛚𝟎 𝐭)

With 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛗 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗
𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗 = 𝐢(𝐜𝟏 − 𝐜𝟐 )
x - elongation =the distance from equilibrium position; 𝐤𝐞
= 𝛚𝟐𝟎
A –the amplitude (the maximum elongation); 𝐦
𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝝋 - phase; φ - initial phase;
!!!! LAB: Elastic constant for
ν0 –oscillations frequency; T0 –oscillations period; a spring. Dynamic method.
𝛚𝟎 = 𝟐𝛑𝛎𝟎 !!!!!FIND the mass of a body
𝟏 𝟐𝛑 𝐦 using a spring, a stopwatch and a
𝟏 𝐓𝟎 = = = 𝟐𝛑 body with a known mass
𝛎𝟎 = 𝛎𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐤𝐞 (WITHOUT RULER)
𝐓𝟎
These kinds of period and frequency that only depended
on the properties of the oscillating system are called
natural period and natural frequency
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
(
x(t ) = A sin 0 t +  )
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗 𝐤𝐞
= 𝝎𝟐𝟎
𝐦
𝐝𝐱
𝐯(𝐭) = = 𝛚𝟎 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝐯 𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐤𝐞
𝐚(𝐭) = = 𝟐 = −𝛚𝟐𝟎 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗 = −𝛚𝟐𝟎 𝐱 = − 𝐱
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐅el = −𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝐱

x, v, a
ω A2
a

ωA
A v
 A cos  x
A sin  O
O
−A t
−  2 A sin 
T

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Oscillations/SpringMass/SpringMass.html

https://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/SHM.htm#projection
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Object oscillating back and forth along the x-axis

Position x(t) and velocity v(t) as The phase-diagram v(x), shows the
functions of time on the same graph. phase relationship between v and
The plots illustrate the difference in x. As the system oscillates, the
phase between position and velocity:
phase diagram carves out a
When the position is maximum the
clockwise ellipse.
velocity is passing through zero, and
vice versa.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - ENERGY
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝟎 𝐀𝟐 𝟐 𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐
𝐄𝑲 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐 𝐱𝟐 F = −∇Ep
𝐄𝑲 = 𝟏− 𝟐
𝟐 𝐀
dEp
𝐤𝐞𝐱𝟐 𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐 F=−
𝐄𝐩 = = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 + 𝛗 dx
𝟐 𝟐
𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐
𝐄𝐭 = 𝐄𝐊 + 𝐄𝐩 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭.
𝟐

K or EK
U or Ep

The decomposition of uniform circular motion https://ophysics.com/w1.html

 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION -EXAMPLES
• The simple pendulum 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑
for small oscillations sinθ≈θ mg
F = mg sinθ ≅ mgθ = x = kx
L
!!!! LAB: The simple pendulum
oscilations. Det. of gravitational k 𝐠
ω0 = 𝛚𝟎 =
acceleration m 𝐋

• The physical pendulum

for small oscillations sinθ≈θ

𝐦𝐠𝐋 Homework the

𝛚𝟎 =
𝐈 demonstration !!!!

I = the moment of inertia of the rigid body

about the pivot point.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION -EXAMPLES
• The torsional oscillator Ԧ𝐤
The torque about the centre of mass is a
restoring torque (b=torsional elastic constant)
τCM = −bθk

𝐛
𝛚𝟎 = θ t = θmax sin ω0 t + φ
𝐈𝐂𝐌

• The LC circuit

Homework the
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 = demonstration (with
𝐋𝐂 diff eq for current i ) !!!

L -the inductance
i 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑
C -the capacitance
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PARALLEL SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS WITH THE SAME FREQUENCY
x1 (t) = A1 sin (ω t + φ1)
x2 (t) = A2 sin (ω t + φ2)
The result is
x (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) x (t) = A sin (ω t + φ) a simple harmonic
oscillation
Trigonometric method sin(α ± β ) = sinα cosβ ± sinβ cosα

A1 sin (ω t + φ1) + A2 sin (ω t + φ2) =A sin (ω t + φ)

A1 sin(ωt) cos φ1 +A1 cos(ωt) sin φ1
+A2 sin(ωt) cos φ2 +A2 cos(ωt) sin φ2
= A sin(ωt) cos φ +A cos(ωt) sin φ
|2
A1 sin φ1 +A2 sin φ2 = A sin φ +
A1 cos φ1 +A2 cos φ2 = A cos φ
/ |2
A1 sin 1 + A 2 sin  2
A= A12 + A 22 + 2A1 A 2 cos( 2 − 1 ) tg  =
A1 cos 1 + A 2 cos  2
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PARALLEL SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS WITH THE SAME FREQUENCY
x (t) = A sin (ω t + φ)
𝐀𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛗𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛗𝟐
𝐭𝐠𝛗 =
𝐀= 𝐀𝟐𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝟏 𝐀𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 𝐀𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗𝟐

𝐀𝟏 − 𝐀𝟐 ≤ 𝐀 ≤ 𝐀𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐
If the two oscillations are in phase
𝐀 = 𝐀𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐 for 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟐𝐧 𝛑 with 𝐧 ∈ ℤ

If the two oscillations are in opposite phase

𝐀 = 𝐀𝟏 − 𝐀𝟐 for 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 with 𝐧 ∈ ℤ

https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Oscillations/PhaseDifference/PhaseDifference.html
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PARALLEL SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS WITH CLOSE FREQUENCIES
The result is no more a harmonic oscillation
x1 (t) = A1 sin (ω1 t + φ1)
a−b a+b
x2 (t) = A2 sin (ω2 t + φ2) sin a + sinb = 2cos
2
sin
2
x (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) ;
If the frequencies are sufficiently close to each other ω1 ≈ ω2 (|𝜔1 − 𝜔2| ≪ min(𝜔1, 𝜔2))
and with the same amplitude A1= A2= A the vibratory process is called beating,
being almost sinusoidal:
x(t) = A sin (ω1 t + φ1) + A sin (ω2 t + φ2)
𝛚𝟐 − 𝛚𝟏 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 𝛚𝟐 + 𝛚𝟏 𝛗𝟐 + 𝛗𝟏
𝐱 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐭+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐭+
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐𝛑
ωb/2 ω 𝐓𝐛 =
𝛚𝟐 − 𝛚𝟏
In the case of acoustic frequencies, in a point, the oscillation
𝛚 +𝛚
(the sound) with the angular frequency 𝟐 𝟏 is heard in time
𝟐
stronger respectively lower with the beat frequency 𝛚𝟐 − 𝛚𝟏 t
𝟐𝛑
or the beat period 𝐓𝐛 =
𝛚𝟐 −𝛚𝟏 𝟒𝛑
𝐓=
https://www.walter-fendt.de/html5/phen/beats_en.htm 𝛚𝟐 + 𝛚𝟏
 SUPERPOSITION OF PARALLEL SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Fourier Analysis of Periodic Motion
A superposition of parallel oscillations can
be periodic but not simple harmonic.
For a superposition with the fundamental
frequency ω, the period of x is the same as
the period of the fundamental harmonic
oscillation
By adding SHMs whose frequencies are multiples of a fundamental frequency
and whose amplitudes are properly selected, we may obtain almost any
arbitrary periodic function.
The reverse is also known and constitutes Fourier’s theorem proved in
mathematics. Fourier’s theorem asserts that a periodic function f(t) can be
expressed as a sum:
f(t) = A0 + A1 cos ωt + A2 cos 2ωt +... + An cos nωt +... + B1 sin ωt +
B2 sin 2ωt+... + Bn sin nωt +...
This formula is known as Fourier series.
One more cause why simple harmonic motion is important.
Four partial sums animation
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Fourier_series_square_wave_circles_animation.svg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Fourier_series_sawtooth_wave_circles_animation.svg
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS WITH THE SAME FREQUENCY
y
y’ x’
x (t) = A1 sin (ω t + φ1) A2
y (t) = A2 sin (ω t + φ2)

𝐱
= sin 𝛚𝐭 cos𝛗𝟏 + cos 𝛚𝐭 sin𝛗𝟏 (𝟏) -A1 A1 x
𝐀𝟏 O
𝐲 -A2
= sin 𝛚𝐭 cos𝛗𝟐 + cos 𝛚𝐭 sin𝛗𝟐 (𝟐)
𝐀𝟐
(1) | cos  2 (1) | sin  2
− ^2 − ^2 +
(2) | cos 1 (2) | sin 1
Homework the demonstration !!!!
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝟐 𝛗 −𝛗 the trajectory
+ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝟏 equation for the
𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝐀𝟐𝟐 𝐀 𝟏 𝐀 𝟐
resulting motion
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS WITH THE SAME FREQUENCY
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝟐 𝛗 −𝛗
+ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗 𝟐 − 𝛗 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝟏
𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝐀𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝟏 𝐀𝟐
y
For 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟐𝐧 𝛑 , 𝐧 ∈ ℤ A2
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝒙 𝒚 𝟐
+ − =𝟎⇒ − =𝟎
𝐀𝟐𝟏 𝐀𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝟏 𝐀𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
x
A2 -A1 A1
y= x O y
A1 the trajectory is linear -A2 A2
For 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑, 𝐧 ∈ ℤ
-A1 O A1 x
A2
y=− x the trajectory is linear
A1 y -A2
𝛑
A2
For 𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 , 𝐧∈ℤ
𝟐

x2 y2 -A1 O A1 x
+ =1 the trajectory is elliptic
A21 A22
-A2
 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS WITH DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES

A mass point under two mutually perpendicular harmonic oscillations

having different frequencies has a complicate trajectory.

x (t) = A1 sin (ω1 t + φ1),

y (t) = A2 sin (ω2 t + φ2)

If the ratio of the two different frequencies ω2 / ω1 is a rational number

then the path is one of Lissajous figures, the form of figures depending
also on φ2- φ1 .

Lissajous paths https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/SuperpositionOfTransverseSimpleHarmonicWaves/

https://academo.org/demos/lissajous-curves/
https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Oscillations/Lissajous/Lissajous.html
SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS WITH DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES
The animation below shows the curve adaptation with continuously increasing ω2 / ω1
=a/b fraction from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.01 (φ2- φ1 =0)

x
 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Fel = −k e  x , 𝐅𝐫 = −𝛂𝐯 α –resistance coefficient
𝐝𝟐 𝐱 dx
𝐅=𝐦⋅𝐚 𝐦 ⋅ 𝟐 = −𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝐱 − 𝜶
dt dt
the damped
𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝜶 𝒅𝒙 𝐤 𝐞
𝟐
+ + 𝒙=𝟎 harmonic oscillator
dt 𝒎 𝒅𝒕 𝐦 differential equation.

𝐤𝐞 𝛂 𝟏 the relaxation
= 𝝎𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝛃 𝛕=
𝐦 𝐦 .
𝛃 time

ω0 –the (natural) angular frequency

β –the damping coefficient

We have three cases to consider, depending on the sign of 𝛃𝟐 − 𝛚𝟐𝟎 . These

cases are called underdamping, overdamping, and critical damping.
Homework the demonstration !!!!
https://www.surendranath.org/GPA/Oscillations/FDHM/FDHM.html
 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
UNDERDAMPING
(pseudo)periodic oscillation, of fixed angular frequency only if 𝛃𝟐 < 𝛚𝟎 𝟐
𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝟎 𝐞−𝛃𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗)

𝛚= 𝛚𝟐𝟎 − 𝛃𝟐 ω –the (under)damped angular frequency

𝐀(𝐭) logarithmic decrement

𝛅 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐀(𝐭 + 𝐓) x
A0 e - β t
𝛅 = 𝛃𝐓 𝟏 𝟐𝛑 A0sinφ
𝐓= =
𝛎 𝛚
 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Underdamping 𝛃𝟐 < 𝛚𝟎 𝟐

𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝟎 𝐞−𝛃𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗)

𝐀𝟎 𝛚𝐞−𝛃𝐭 𝛃
𝐯 𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟 + 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐠
𝛃 𝛚
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐠
𝛚

𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐 𝐤 𝐞 𝐀𝟐𝟎 𝒆−𝟐𝜷𝒕
𝐄𝐭 (𝒕) ≅ =
𝟐 𝟐
 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Overdamping 𝛃𝟐 > 𝛚𝟎 𝟐
The system returns to steady state without oscillating. Larger values of the
damping coefficient return to equilibrium slower.
Critical damping 𝛃𝟐 = 𝛚𝟎 𝟐
The system returns to steady
state as quickly as possible
without oscillating.
https://www.compadre.org/osp
/EJSS/4026/134.htm

The critically damped motion

has the property that the system
returns to steady state quicker
than in the overdamped or
underdamped motions.
 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

When the oscillator has damping, the oscillator loses

energy during each cycle, and both the position and
velocity decrease in amplitude as time proceeds.

Graphs of position versus The phase-space diagram for a damped oscillator

time and velocity versus shows that the oscillator is losing energy.
time display an amplitude As the amplitudes of the velocity and position
envelope which decreases decrease, the phase diagram spirals inwards.
exponentially. In classical mechanics, this is described as an
"attractor" and shows that the system is trapped in
a potential well from which it cannot escape.

Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Grad. Prog. Acoustics, Penn State
 THE DRIVEN HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
𝐅el = −𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝐱 𝐅𝐫 = −𝛂𝐯 F =F0 sin (ω1 t); ω1=angular frequency
𝐅=𝐦⋅𝐚 of driving force
𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝛂 dx 𝐤 𝐞 𝐅𝟎 the driven damped harmonic
𝟐
+ + ⋅ 𝐱 = sin 𝛚𝟏 𝐭 (*)
dt 𝐦 dt 𝐦 𝐦 oscillator differential equation
𝐤𝐞 𝛂 ω0 –the (natural) angular frequency
= 𝛚𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝛃 β –the damping coefficient
𝐦 𝐦

The general solution has also transient part. The form of the transient solution is
that of the undriven damped oscillator.
The steady-state solution:
.
x(t) = A1 sin (ω1 t - φ1 ) , Homework the demonstration !!!! :
replace in (*) and obtain
𝐅𝟎 Τ𝐦 𝟐𝛃𝛚𝟏
𝐀𝟏 = 𝐭𝐠𝛗𝟏 =
𝛚𝟐𝟎 − 𝛚𝟐𝟏
𝟐
+ 𝟐𝛃𝛚𝟏 𝟐 𝛚𝟐𝟎 − 𝛚𝟐𝟏

fisier calc osc

amort şi întreţ
 THE DRIVEN HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

𝐅𝟎 Τ𝐦 ω1= angular
𝐀𝟏 = A1
frequency of driving
𝟐 force
𝛚𝟐𝟎 − 𝛚𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝛃𝛚𝟏 𝟐
(*)

Resonance A1 (ω1) = maximal A1 rez

𝐝𝐀𝟏
=𝟎
𝐝𝛚𝟏
ω1= ωrez = 𝛚𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐𝛃𝟐
Homework!!!!

ω1
To characterize numerically the width of the resonance curve is
defined the bandwidth
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑧
𝐴>
2

fisier calc osc

amort şi întreţ
 THE DRIVEN HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
F =F0 sin (ω1 t)
x(t) = A1 sin (ω1 t - φ1 )
dx
The instantaneous power absorption: Pabs = F = F0 A11 sin(1t ) cos(1t − 1 )
dt
The average power absorption during an oscillation cycle
2 2
β F 0 ω1
<Pabs> = <Pdis> = P = mβω12 A21 =
m ω20 − ω12 2 + 2βω1 2
𝐝𝑷
=𝟎
𝐝𝛚𝟏
P = P(ω1) ω1= ω𝟎
Homework!!!!

F02
Pmax = P( 0 ) =
4m 
0 quality factor = the fraction of energy
Q=
2 lost per radian of oscillation ω1

-the peak power absorption is proportional Full width at half maximum=

the bandwidth over which the power of
to the quality factor oscillation is greater than half the
power at the resonant frequency,
 Desirable resonance
RLC circuits ---radios or …
Musical instruments ---tuning forks
The ear

Undesirable resonance
Vehicle vibrations
Tall buildings
Bridges
Space station

http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/absorber/DynamicAbsorber.html

http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~djmorin/waves/oscillations.pdf
HOMEWORK
-THE NATURAL ANGULAR FREQUENCY for the physical
pendulum and LC circuit

-SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR SIMPLE

HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS : find the trajectory equation for a mass
point simoultaneously subjected at 2 SHO with the same frequency
-DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION : find the motion law for
all cases;
-DRIVEN HARMONIC MOTION : find the amplitude and the initial
phase for the steady solution, the amplitude resonance frequency and
maximum amplitude, and the power resonance frequency and the
maximum power
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

23. Simple harmonic motion (the restoring force, the differential equation of
motion, motion law, velocity law, kinetic energy, potential energy, total
energy);
24. Examples for simple harmonic motion-from real systems;
25. Superposition of parallel simple harmonic oscillations (two with the same
frequency; two with close frequencies; Fourier Analysis of Periodic
Motion ) ;
26. Superposition of two perpendicular simple harmonic oscillations (with
the same frequency; with different frequencies);
27. The damped harmonic oscillator;
28. The driven harmonic oscillator, resonance;
 ELASTIC WAVES
The elastic continuous media (gases, liquids, solids) are made up of
particles that interacts one each other and if one of these particles oscillates, the
oscillation will be propagated from particle to particle appearing as elastic wave.

A wave is a disturbance or variation which travels through a medium or just

through space. The wave transfers energy progressively from point to point.
https://ophysics.com/waves1.html
Elastic (mechanical) waves always involve an environment (a medium) to be
propagated in.

http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos.html
 ELASTIC WAVES
The wave front is the locus of points having the same phase at a moment t.
The wave front can be a line or curve in 2dim, or a surface for a wave
propagating in 3dim.
The geometrical shape of the wave front give the name of the wave
– plane wave, spherical wave, etc.
The plane wave front is a good model for a surface-section of a very large
spherical wave front.
The velocity of wave surfaces displacement is called the phase
velocity of the wave.
 ELASTIC WAVES
The wave front can be constructed using Huygens’ principle:
Every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary
wavelets that spread out with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of
the waves.
The new wave-front is the tangential surface to all of these secondary
wavelets.

https://www.walter-
fendt.de/html5/phen/refrac
tionhuygens_en.htm
 ELASTIC WAVES
•longitudinal waves - the particles displacement is parallel to the direction of
wave propagation.
•transverse waves - the particles displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.

When the oscillations are harmonic in every point, having the same frequency,
the wave is a monochromatic wave.
 ELASTIC WAVES

ψ(x,y,z,t) –wave function=the distance from equilibrium position

for elastic waves (=elongation)
u –wave velocity or phase velocity
𝛌 λ=wavelength
𝐮= =𝝀∙𝝂
𝐓 ν=frequency

𝝏𝟐 𝛙 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝛙 The differential equation for plane

𝟐
− 𝟐⋅ 𝟐 =𝟎 waves that propagate in the x direction.
𝝏𝐱 𝐮 𝝏𝐭

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝛙 The differential equation for monochromatic

Δψ − 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟐 = 𝟎
𝐮 𝝏𝐭 waves propagating in an arbitrary direction.

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 Laplacian in a cartesian
Δ = ∇ ⋅ ∇= 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z coordinates system
 ELASTIC WAVES
The sinusoidal wave function (distance from equilibrium position in the case of
elastic waves) for the plane monochromatic wave propagating in space
(without attenuation) 𝛌 𝛚
•along x direction 𝐮= =
𝐱 𝐱
𝐓 𝐤
𝛙 x,t = 𝐀𝟎 sin 𝛚 𝐭 − = 𝐀𝟎 sin 𝛚𝐭 − 𝛚 = 𝐀𝟎 sin 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱
𝐮 𝐮
 𝟐𝛑
•along k (wave vector) direction; 𝐤= wave number
𝛌
𝛙(Ԧ𝐫,t) = 𝐀𝟎 sin 𝛚𝐭 − Ԧ𝐤 ⋅ 𝐫Ԧ

The sinusoidal wave function for spherical monochromatic waves


ψ (r, t) =
A0
r
(  
sin ω t − k  r )
 ELASTIC WAVES
A plane wave is a wave that propagates in only one direction, with wavefronts that are
planes perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling. Along those planar
wavefronts, the pressure (or displacement from equilibrium) has the same value.
Planar monochromatic wave propagating along x direction

𝛙(x,t) = 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐞−i⋅(𝛚⋅𝐭−𝐤⋅𝐱)
𝟐𝛑
𝐤= wave number
𝛌
𝟐𝛑 𝛌=𝐮⋅𝐓
𝛚= = 𝟐𝛑𝛎
𝐓 wavelength
Planar monochromatic wave propagating along 𝑘 (wave vector) direction

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑦Ԧ𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑘𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑘𝑧 𝑘

𝑘 ∙ 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 y

https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/phase-p-u/phase-p-u.html
 WAVE MOTION IN TIME AND SPACE

Acoustics and Vibration Animations - Dan Russell, Grad. Prog. Acoustics, Penn State
 ELASTIC WAVES
Any superposition of solutions is also a solution, then one can construct a wave
packet solution as a sum of traveling waves:

𝛙 𝐱, 𝐭 = ෍ 𝐀𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐢 𝐭 − 𝐤 𝐢 𝐱 𝛙 𝐱, 𝐭 = න 𝐀(𝐤)𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝒅𝒌
𝐢
A wave packet solution contain a range of frequencies.
The shorter the pulse in time (Δt), the greater the range of frequency (Δω)
components required for the fast transient behaviour.
This requirement can be stated as a kind of uncertainty principle for classical
waves: Δt · Δω ≈ 1

http://www.physics.smu
.edu/fattarus/wave_pac
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/wpack.html ket.html
 ELASTIC WAVES IN SOLIDS
Elastic longitudinal and transverse waves propagation in solids is a
consequence of the tendency of solid materials to return to their original shape
and size after being deformed (in the limit of small deformations).
HOOKE'S LAW — first stated formally by Robert Hooke in The True Theory of
Elasticity or Springiness (1676): “ut tensio, sic vis” =As extension, so force.
Extension is directly proportional to force: F = k el l LAB 1 !!!!!!

Stress is proportional to strain. 𝐒

𝐅 𝚫𝐥 𝐅=𝐄 𝚫𝐥
𝐥𝟎
=𝐄
𝐒 𝐥𝟎
𝐅 𝐒
𝝈= - stress (tensile or compressive); 𝐤 𝐞𝐥 = 𝐄
𝐒
𝐥𝟎
𝛔 = 𝐄𝛆 E – (elastic modulus) Young's modulus;
Δl - strain = change in length = relative elongation
𝜺=
𝐥𝟎 (tensile or compressive);
 ELASTIC WAVES
There are three basic types of stress and three associated moduli:

modulus stress strain configuration

(symbols) (symbol) (symbol) change
normal to
young's length longer and thinner
opposite faces
(E or Y) ε = Δℓ/ℓ0 or shorter and fatter
(σ)
shear tangential to tangent rectangles become
(G or S) opposite faces (τ) γ = Δx/y parallelograms
bulk normal to all faces, volume volume changes
(K or B) pressure (P) θ = ΔV/V0 but shape does not

The international standard symbols for the moduli comes from

— E for élasticité (French for elasticity),
— G for glissement (French for slipping),
— K for kompression (German for compression).
Some American textbooks have decided to break with tradition and use the first
letter of each modulus in English — Y for Young's, S for shear, and B for bulk.
 SPEED OF ELASTIC WAVES

•For longitudinal waves u = E ; E - elastic modulus or Young's modulus;

in solids 

G
•For transverse waves u= ; G -shear modulus or rigidity modulus;

in solids
K
•For longitudinal waves u = ; K -bulk modulus or compression modulus;
 ρ -mass density
in fluids

Transverse waves cannot propagate in a fluid because there is no

mechanism for driving motion perpendicular to the propagation of the
wave.

S and P waves Seismograph recording P andi S

waves
 SEISMIC WAVES
Ex. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as BODY and SURFACE waves.
BODY waves
For common solids G≈0.4 E, i.e., vtr≈0.62·ulong
Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are longitudinal - the
fastest;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wave#
media/File:Ondes_P_et_S_1d_30_petit.gif

Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse - slower
than P-waves (can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid
medium);

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html

Seismograph recording P andi S waves

 SEISMIC WAVES
SURFACE waves are of a lower frequency than body waves. They arrive after
body waves and are almost entirely responsible for the damage and destruction.
Love waves are Lateral shear waves

Rayleigh waves are elliptical, plate waves, ground Roll, something like
water waves, but elliptical instead of circular
 SURFACE WAVES
The particles in a solid, through which a Rayleigh surface wave passes, move in
elliptical paths, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface of the
solid.
In a water wave all particles travel in clockwise circles.
However, in a Rayleigh surface wave, particles at the surface trace out a counter-
clockwise ellipse, while particles at a depth of more than 1/5th of a wavelength
trace out clockwise ellipses.

Water waves - a combination of Rayleigh surface waves (in solids)

longitudinal and transverse motions
 ELASTIC WAVE ENERGY
ψ(x,y,z,t) –wave function=elongation for elastic waves
𝛙 x,t = A sin 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱
The energy for the oscillating particles with the mass dm from the volum
dV=dx·S is the sum of kinetic and potential energy (elastic energy)
The energy density is the total energy in unit volume:
𝐝𝐄𝒌 + 𝐝𝐄𝐩
𝐰=
𝐝𝐕
The mean over a period of energy density is
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕. 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 × 𝑨𝟐
𝟐 𝐝𝐦 ∙ 𝛚𝟐 ∙ 𝐀𝟐 𝟏
𝐰𝐦 = = = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐
𝐝𝐕 𝟐𝐝𝐕 𝟐
Wave intensity I is the amount of energy transmitted by a wave per unit time
through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
For plane and spherical sine waves intensity is
𝟏
related to the mass density of the medium, wave 𝐈 = 𝐰𝐦 𝐮 = 𝛒 u A𝟐 𝛚𝟐
speed, frequency, and amplitude of the wave: 𝟐
ρ -mass density of elastic media u –wave velocity or phase velocity
ω –angular frequency of elastic wave’s source A- amplitude
 WAVE PHENOMENA
•ELASTIC WAVES INTERFERENCE
• DIFFRACTION
•REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
• TOTAL REFLECTION
• STANDING WAVES
•WAVES ATTENUATION
•DISPERSION
•POLARISATION
•DOPPLER EFFECT
ACOUSTICS

• SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL

• AUDIBILITY CURVE
• EQUAL LOUDNESS CURVES
 ELASTIC WAVES INTERFERENCE
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose and is based on
superposition principle of waves.
Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference and fixed frequency.
Coherency enables stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant pattern) interference.
ψ = ψ1 + ψ 2 -two coherent plane waves
= A1 sin(ω t − k  r1 ) + A 2 sin(ω t − k  r2 ) superposition with the same frequency

r1

r2
 ELASTIC WAVES INTERFERENCE

For 𝑑 ≪ 𝐿 ⟷ 𝑟1 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 ∥ 𝑟2 P
r1
S1
x r2 − r1 x
sinθ = = S r2
d M θ
L d θ
O

S2
L
𝐀= 𝐀𝟐𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝟏 𝐀𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤 𝐫𝟐 − 𝐫𝟏

Constructive interference (A=A1+A2) occurs where the waves are in phase

𝛌𝐋
k(r2 − r1 )=2 nπ ⇔ r2− r1=n λ; 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐧
𝐝

Destructive interference (A=|A1- A2| ) occurs where the waves are in

opposite-phase
𝟏
k(r2 − r1 )=(2 n+1)π ⇔ 𝐫𝟐 − 𝐫𝟏 = 𝐧 + 𝛌
𝟐

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk6s2OlKzKQ Sound interference

 ELASTIC WAVES INTERFERENCE

The interfringe distance i represents the distance on the screen between two
consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive dark fringes.
𝜆𝐿
𝑖 = 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑑

If the distance d between the slits increases, the interfringe distance i

diminishes; the interfringe distance also diminishes with the wavelength.

r2- r1= λ
r2- r1=(0+1/2) λ

r2- r1=0 λ

L
 ELASTIC WAVES INTERFERENCE
If the waves from two point sources (with the same frequency) overlaps, the
interference pattern maps out the way in which the phase difference between the
two waves varies in space.
This depends on the wavelength and on the separation of the point sources.

When the plane of observation is far enough away, the fringe pattern will be
a series of almost straight lines, since the waves will then be almost planar.
 ELASTIC WAVES DIFFRACTION

Wave diffraction occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit

comparable in size (a) to its wavelength (λ).
If the opening is sufficiently narrow the wave appears to bend around the
corners of the opening intensity maxima and minima

a single slit diffraction pattern which may be

detected on a “screen”
According to the Huygens-Fresnel principle, when the wave encounters the slit,
the pattern of the resulting wave can be calculated by treating each point in the
aperture as a point source from which new waves spread out.
 ELASTIC WAVES DIFFRACTION
Single-slit diffraction: the condition for destructive interference for the entire
slit of width a is the same as the condition for destructive interference
between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit.
a λ
So the first minimum intensity occurs at an angle θ1min given by: sin θ1min =
2 2
The minimum intensity for the single-slit diffraction occurs at angles
θm given by 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒎 = 𝒎𝝀 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CmbItRjM-Y
m is an integer other than zero. 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, …
Example: Earthquakes The stress drop will release elastic waves that will overtake
the moving crack edge and diffract off of it.

Diffraction grating (mainly at electromagnetic waves)

The diffraction pattern depends on the structure of the elements and on the number
of elements but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles θ which are given by
the grating equation: d sinθ = mλ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, …
 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
(FOR ELASTIC WAVES)

I1 I2
R= Reflectance T= Transmittance
I incid I incid
AT NORMAL INCIDENCE I1 + I 2 = I incid
The propagation directions, the relations between amplitudes and
phases for incident, reflected and refracted waves depend on boundary
conditions at the interface of media.
The Fresnel equations describe what fraction of the wave intensity is
reflected and what fraction is refracted (i.e. transmitted). They also describe
THE PHASE SHIFT of the reflected wave.
These equations assume the interface is flat, planar, and homogeneous, and
that the wave is a plane wave.
 REFLECTION (FOR ELASTIC WAVES )
--wave pulse on a string moving from left to right towards the end which is
rigidly clamped.
As the wave pulse approaches the fixed end, the internal restoring forces
(which allow the wave to propagate) exert an upward force on the end of the
string. Since the end is clamped, it cannot move. According to Newton's third
law, the wall must be exerting an equal downward force on the end of the
string. This new force creates a wave pulse that propagates from right to left,
with the same speed and amplitude as the incident wave, but with opposite
polarity (upside down).

At a fixed (hard) boundary, the reflected wave amplitude remains the same and it
appears a change of phase (undergoes a 180o phase change).

-- wave pulse on a string moving from left to right towards the end which is
free to move vertically.
The net vertical force at the free end must be zero. This boundary condition
is mathematically equivalent to requiring that the slope of the string
displacement be zero at the free end. The reflected wave pulse propagates
from right to left, with the same speed and amplitude as the incident wave,
and with the same polarity (right-side up).

At a free (soft) boundary, the reflected wave has the same amplitude and the same
phase (no phase change) as the incident wave.
Hidden (additional) slide !!!!!!
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION (FOR ELASTIC WAVES)
For a boundary with an impedance between hard and soft only part of the
incident wave is reflected; the rest is either absorbed by or transmitted into
the second medium with the different impedance (Z=ρu).
The reflected wave depends on whether the second material has a larger or
smaller impedance.

𝐮𝟏 > 𝐮𝟐
The incident wave is travelling from a
high wave speed (low density) region
towards a low wave speed (high density )
region.

𝐮𝟏 < 𝐮𝟐
The incident wave is travelling from a low
wave speed (high density) region towards
a high wave speed (low density) region.

https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/reflect/reflect.html
 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION (FOR ELASTIC WAVES)
The most common aspect when a wave encounters an impedance discontinuity is
the change in direction of the wave passing from one medium to another caused
by its change in speed.
N
S S’
NO normal direction to the
θi separation surface between the 2
θr media;
Fast
medium 1
SO direction of propagation for
the incident wave (incident ray);
O OS’ direction of propagation for
Slow
medium 2 the reflected wave (reflected ray);
OS” direction of propagation for
the refracted wave (refracted ray);
θt θi = angle of incidence;
S” θr = angle of reflection;
u1>u2 θt = angle of refraction;
u2

https://www.walter-fendt.de/html5/phen/refractionhuygens_en.htm
 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Reflection and refraction laws:

1. The INCIDENT ray, REFLECTED ray, REFRACTED ray and the NORMAL at
the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. The plane is referred as plane of
incidence.
2. Angle of incident ray with normal (θi) = Angle of reflected ray with normal (θr)
(θi = θr )
3. The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence (θi) and refraction (θt) is
equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the
reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction: sin𝛉𝐢 𝐮𝟏 𝐧𝟐
= = 𝐧21 =
sin𝛉𝐭 𝐮𝟐 𝐧𝟏

u1 wave speed in the medium 1

u2 wave speed in the medium 2
n21 index of refraction for media 2 with respect to media 1

This law (3.) named Snell’s law was first accurately described by the scientist
Ibn Sahl, of Baghdad, in the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, in 984.
HIDDEN (ADDITIONAL)
SLIDE !!!!!! REFLECTION AND REFRACTION (THE
MOST COMMON ASPECT)

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

Reflection and refraction

HIDDEN (ADDITIONAL)
SLIDE !!!!!!

The speed of sound in the air depends on temperature

of the environment where it is traveling. The sound
will travel faster in warm temperatures, but will
slow down in cold temperatures At 15 °C the speed of
sound in air is about 1 220 km/h but at -56°Cis about
1 056 km/h

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength#/media/File:Cochlea_wave_
animated.gif
 TOTAL REFLECTION
Total reflection is the phenomenon that involves the reflection of all the incident
wave off the boundary.
Total reflection takes place when:
•the wave is in a medium (1) with a small wave speed (the more dense medium)
and approaching greater wave speed medium (2) (the less dense medium) AND
•the angle of incidence is greater than the so-called critical angle.
The critical angle (ic) is the incident angle at which angle of refraction
becomes 90 degree.
𝝅
sin θt =1, 𝜽𝒕 =
𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐜 𝐮𝟏
= (= 𝐧𝟐𝟏 )(< 𝟏) θi
𝟏 𝐮𝟐
Slow
𝒖𝟏 medium
1
𝜽𝒊 > 𝒊𝒄 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 (= 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝟐𝟏 )
𝒖𝟐
Fast 2
medium
θt
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

31. Longitudinal and transverse elastic waves; Examples;

32. Huygens’ principle;
33. Elastic waves- diferential equation for monochromatic waves, wave
function for plane and spherical monochromatic waves;
34. Hooke's law;
35. Speed of elastic waves;
36. Seismic waves;
37. Elastic wave energy, energy density, intensity;

38. Elastic waves interference;

39. Reflection and refraction of elastic waves;
40. Total reflection;
 WAVE PHENOMENA
•Elastic waves interference
• Diffraction
•Reflection and refraction https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/bending-light/latest/bending-light_en.html
• Total reflection
• Standing waves https://ophysics.com/w10.html
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Sound/frequencypitch.htm

•Waves attenuation
•Dispersion
•Polarisation
•Doppler effect

ACOUSTICS
• Sound intensity level
• Audibility curve
• Equal Loudness Curves
 STANDING WAVES

• The standing waves can arise because the medium is moving in the
opposite direction to the wave.
Ex. under certain meteorological conditions standing waves form
in the atmosphere in the lee of mountain ranges.
Such waves are often exploited by glider pilots.

Ex. Standing waves also form on fast flowing river rapids.

Standing river waves are popular river surfing breaks.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Falls_National_Park
_-_kayak_surfing_-_4.webm

• The superposition of two waves of the same frequency propagating in

opposite directions create a standing wave.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength#/
media/File:Standing_wave_2.gif
 STANDING WAVES
The superposition of two oppositely directed traveling waves (with equal
frequencies) create a standing wave.
Such a standing wave may be formed when a wave is transmitted into one end
of a transmission line and is reflected from the other end by an impedance
discontinuity. In M i =A1 sin (  t – k(L- x) )
M S2
S
r =A1 sin( t – k(L+x) - )
In M the phases for the incident and
x
reflected wave are:
i=  t – k (L-x)
L r=  t – k (L+ x) - 
In M the phase difference is: Δ = r - i = -2kx - 
from boundary conditions
Considering a hard boundary we have node in S2 ( x=0 and Δ = - π )   = π
A = A12 + A12 + 2A12cos (2kx + π) u 1 + cos u
cos 2 =
π
2 2
A = |2A1 cos kx + | = |2A1 sin(kx)| a−b a+b
2
sin a + sinb = 2cos sin
2 2
𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝛹𝑖 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝛹𝑟 𝑥, 𝑡 = π
cos a + = − sin a
𝐴1 sin (t – kL+kx) + 𝐴1 sin (t – kL− kx − π)=... 2
sin a + π = − sin a
𝝅
𝚿 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐀𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐋 + )
𝟐
HIDDEN (ADDITIONAL) STANDING WAVES
SLIDE !!!!!!
M i =A1 sin (  t – k(L- x) )
S S2 r =A1 sin( t – k(L+x) - )
In M the phases for the incident and
x reflected wave are:
i=  t – k (L-x)
r=  t – k (L+ x) - 
L
In M the phase difference is: Δ = r - i = -2kx - 
from boundary conditions
u 1 + cos u
cos 2 =
2 2
sin(α ± β ) = sinα cosβ ±
sinβ cosα
cos(α ± β ) = cosα cosβ ∓
sinβ sinα

Considering a soft boundary we have antinode in S2 ( x=0 and Δ =0)   = 0

A = A12 + A12 + 2A12cos (2kx) A = 2A1cos(kx)
𝚿 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐀𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐋)
 S M
STANDING WAVES
x 𝚿 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐀 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + ⋯
x’ 2𝜋
𝑘= =wavenumber
𝜆
𝝅
𝑨(𝒙) = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 ⇔ 𝒌𝒙𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) , 𝐧∈ℕ
𝟐
𝛌 𝛌
𝐱𝐧 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 from the reflexion point 𝐱′𝐧 = 𝐋 − 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 from the source
𝟒 𝟒

The distance between 2 successive antinodes (locations with maximum 𝛌

∆𝐱 =
displacement) is 𝟐

soft boundary hard boundary

nodes antinodes x
https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0K8zs-KSitc acoustic levitation StandingWaves/StandingWaves.html
 STANDING WAVES – 1D HARMONICS
The lowest possible frequency at which a string could vibrate to form a standing
wave pattern is known as the fundamental frequency or the first harmonic. The
second lowest frequency at which a string could vibrate is known as the second
harmonic; and so on.
The fundamental vibrational mode of a stretched string (fixed at x=0 and x=L
-antinodes) is such that the wavelength is twice the length of the string.

The wavelength of the harmonic is 𝛌

∆𝐱 =
dependent upon the length of the string 𝟐
and the harmonic number.
The distance between 2
The best part of a standing wave is not that it appears to successive
antinodes or nodes
stand still, but that the amplitude of a standing wave is much
larger that the amplitude of the disturbance driving it.
http://physics.info/waves-standing/
 Standing waves

Soft boundary

Hard boundary

The ratio of the maximum

amplitude divided by the
minimum amplitude is called the
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
SWR may be used to measure the
value of the mechanical
impedance and/or the absorption
coefficient of an unknown
material.

https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/SWR/SWR.html
 STANDING WAVES http://physics.info/waves-standing/
In the one-dimensional case the nodes were points (zero-dimensional).
In the two-dimensional case the nodes were curves (one-dimensional).
In a three-dimensional system the nodes would be two-dimensional surfaces.

Obs. The dimension of the nodes is always one less than the dimension of the system.
THE MOST IMPORTANT EXAMPLE OF STANDING WAVES IN THREE
DIMENSIONS ARE THE ORBITALS OF AN ELECTRON IN AN ATOM.

The square of an electron's wave function gives the probability function for
locating the electron in any particular region.
The orbitals used by chemists describe the shape of the region where
there is a high probability of finding a particular electron.
An electron can only “vibrate” with specific frequencies. In the case of an electron, these frequencies
are called eigenfrequencies and the states associated with these frequencies are called eigenstates or
eigenfunctions. The set of all eigenfunctions for an electron form a mathematical set called the
spherical harmonics. There are an infinite number of these spherical harmonics, but they are specific
and discrete. That is, there are no in-between states. Thus an atomic electron can only absorb and emit
energy in specific in small packets called quanta. It does this by making a quantum leap from one
eigenstate to another.
 STANDING WAVES

In this standing wave on a circular The orbitals used by chemists describe the
string, the circle is broken into shape of the region where there is a high
exactly 8 wavelengths. probability of finding a particular electron

“Orbiting” electron as standing wave around

the nucleus, (a) two cycles per orbit, (b) three
cycles per orbit.
HOMEWORK :
STANDING WAVES AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OR
THE PHYSICS OF MUSIC
 WAVES ATTENUATION
Attenuation is the term used to account for loss of wave amplitude due to all
mechanisms, including absorption, scattering, and mode conversion.

A = A 0e −  x - the amplitude attenuation factor

ρ -mass density of elastic media
𝐝𝟐 𝑾 𝟏 for plane and
u –wave velocity or phase velocity
𝐈= , 𝐈 = 𝐰𝐮 = 𝛒uA𝟐 𝛚𝟐 spherical sine ω –angular frequency of elastic wave’s
𝐝𝐒𝐝𝐭 𝟐 source
monochromatic A- amplitude
waves w - energy density

When a wave travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance:
−𝛂𝐱 [I]SI=W/m2 (Watt/ meter2)
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟎 𝐞 [α]SI=m- 1(meter)
[x]SI=m
I0 = the intensity of the incident wave (the unattenuated intensity of the
propagating wave at some location);
I = the intensity of the transmitted wave (the reduced intensity after the wave
has traveled a distance x from that initial location);
α =the linear attenuation coefficient (α=2);
The linear attenuation coefficient is dependent upon the type of material, type
of wave and the energy wave (wavelength).
 DISPERSION

red dot moves with the phase velocity,

green dots propagate with the group velocity.

Dispersion is the phenomenon that consists in change of phase

velocity of a wave with its frequency (or wavelength).
u=u(ν) or u=u(λ)
A wave packet without dispersion

A wave packet with dispersion

The "middles" of both wave pulses travel at the same speed.

This fact leads to the concept of a "group velocity" which is
the speed with which the energy carried by the wave travels
(the velocity with which the overall envelope shape of the
wave's amplitudes propagates through space).
The group velocity is the same for each wave pulse.
https://ophysics.com/l8.html
 DISPERSION

red dot moves with the phase velocity,

green dots propagate with the group velocity.

Dispersion is the phenomenon that consists in change of phase

velocity of a wave with its frequency (or wavelength).
𝛌 𝛚
u=u(ν) or u=u(λ) 𝐮= =
𝐓 𝐤
For isotropic media the group velocity (the velocity with which the overall 𝐝𝛚
envelope shape of the waves amplitudes propagates through space) is: 𝐯𝐠 =
𝐝𝐤
2π
ω = = 2πν angular frequency 2π wave number
T k =
λ
𝐝𝐮
𝐯𝐠 = 𝐮 − 𝛌
𝐝𝛌

d d(uk ) du du d u + k du 2( −k − 2 ) = u − 2 du
vg = = = u+k = u+k =
dk dk dk d dk d k d
 ELASTIC WAVES POLARIZATION
Transverse waves on a string can be produced by fixing one end and shaking the
other end in any direction perpendicular to the string.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler effect is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving
relative to its source.
1. For a moving observer and a stationary
 source relative to the medium:
v Ob Ex. The obs. approached the source

with v Ob
S O’ O
𝐒𝐎
The first maximum emitted by S at t0=0 arrives to the observer in O after 𝐭 𝟏 =
𝐮
The second maximum emitted by the source (at rest) S at t0+T arrives to the
𝐒𝐎′
observer in O’ after 𝐭 𝟐 = +𝐓
𝐮
For the observer the interval between 2 successive maxima is T’= t2- t1
𝐒𝐎′ − 𝐒𝐎 𝐎𝐎′ , but OO’= vOb·T’
𝐓′ = 𝐓 + =𝐓−
𝐮 𝐮
𝐯𝐎𝐛
𝐓′ 𝟏 + =𝐓
𝐮
 Doppler effect for a moving observer and a stationary source

T
T' = vObs< u
v
1 + Ob
u

 v 
'=  1 + Ob  ’ >  if the obs. approaches the source
 u 

 v 
 '=  1 − Ob  ’<  if the obs. recedes the source
 u 

The frequency of arrival of the disturbances is higher than the frequency at

which disturbances are produced when the observer is approaching the source.
The frequency of arrival of the disturbances is lower than the frequency at
which disturbances are produced when the observer is moving away from the
source.
HIDDEN (ADDITIONAL) SLIDE !!!!!!
DOPPLER EFFECT

3. Both source and observer moving:

Ex. The obs. approached the source
  with v Ob and the source
vs v Ob 
approached the obs. with v s
(relative to the medium)
S S’ O’ O
SO S' O'
t1 = t2 = +T
u u
For the observer the interval between 2 successive maxima is T’= t2- t1

T'= T −
SS' OO'
− , but OO’= vOb·T’
u u
SS’= vs·T

u − v Source u + v Obs
T' = T ν'= ν ν’>ν
u + v Obs u − v Source
 DOPPLER EFFECT

S S’ O’ O
\
u  v Obs
ν'= ν
u  v Source
−
reciprocal receding
+

+
reciprocal approaching
−
The observer detects waves with a decreased frequency when it is moving away
from the source (relative motion).
The observer detects waves with a increased frequency when it is approaching
the source (relative motion).
Doppler effect for sound https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/doppler/doppler.html
 ACOUSTICS
Sound is a wave that is created by oscillating (vibrating) objects and
propagated through a medium (pressure changes in the medium) from one
location to another.
A sound wave traveling through air is longitudinal.
The speed of sound in air is about 343 m/s at normal pressure and temperature,
in water 1500 m/s and in steel 6000 m/s!
At 45 °C the speed of sound in air is about 358m/s but at -1°C is about 330m/s

Pitch -the psychological experience of pitch related to the frequency of vibrations

of the air hitting the eardrum -sound, infrasound, ultrasound;

Loudness -a perceptual response to the physical intensity (pressure amplitude).

Timbre or quality: describes those characteristics of sound which allow the ear to
distinguish sounds which have the same pitch and loudness.
Timbre is mainly determined by the harmonic content of a sound and the dynamic
characteristics of the sound (such as vibrato and the attack-decay envelope of the sound).
http://courses.washington.edu/psy333/lecture_pdfs/Week8_Day3.pdf
 ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science (branch of physics) that deals with the study of
generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations,
taking into account the properties of environment.
The human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from about 20 Hz to a
maximum of around 20,000 Hz. Within this range, the human ear is most
sensitive between 2kHz and 5 kHz.
In air at standard temperature and pressure, the corresponding
wavelengths of sound waves range from 17 m to 17 mm and the speed of
sound is 343m/s.

𝐮=𝛌∙𝛎

OBS In medical diagnostics are used ultrasound frequencies between 3 and 15 MHz;
Ultrasonic welding uses frequencies of 20–40 kHz to produce low amplitude 1–25 μm
mechanical vibrations.
 ACOUSTICS

At ~1 kHz, the minimum heard sound intensity Is0=10-12 W/m2

the maximum sound intensity Im=102 W/m2,
Im/Is0=1014 , 14 orders of magnitude.

Considering that the eardrum surface is < 1 cm2, the incident energy per
second at lower auditory threshold is < 10-16J.

For the human ear the ability to appreciate the sounds is

𝚫𝑰
•In intensity = 𝟎, 𝟐𝟓
𝑰
𝚫𝝂
•In frequency = 𝟎, 𝟑 (between 1 and 6 kHz)
𝝂

The amplitude of sound waves and audio signals conventionally refers to

the amplitude of the pressure in the wave;
at lower auditory threshold, the amplitude of pressure is ps0=2·10- 5 N/m2
(compared with the normal atmospheric pressure that is 105 N/m2 ).
 ACOUSTICS
Sound intensity level or acoustic intensity level is a logarithmic
measure of the sound intensity Is (measured in W/m2 ), in comparison to a
reference level.
Is Is
NB = log 10 (Bel) NN = ln (Neper)
Is0 Is0

Is0 the standard reference sound intensity = the nominal standard threshold of
hearing at 1 kHz: Is0=10 - 12 W/m2 .

Based on the measurement practices, the sound intensity level is measured in

"dB". The decibel can be regarded like is a dimensionless quantity or a unit
of level or level difference.
𝐈𝐬 𝐩𝐬
𝐍𝐬 = 𝟏𝟎 ⋅ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 ⋅ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝐝𝐁)
𝐈𝐬𝟎 𝐩𝐬𝟎
A 1 dB change in level is just barely perceptible by most listeners.
 ACOUSTICS
The measured threshold of hearing curve shows that the sound intensity required to be
heard is quite different for different frequencies.
The maximum sensitivity at about 3500 to 4000 Hz is related to the resonance of the
auditory canal.dB W/m2 dyn/cm²

102

1
10-2
10-4
10-6
10-8
10-10

20 3500 20.000

1 dyn = 1 g·cm/s²
 ACOUSTICS
The loudness varies with frequency as well as intensity.

By definition, two sine waves of differing frequencies are said to have equal-
loudness level (measured in phons) if they are perceived as equally loud by
the average young person without significant hearing impairment.

The number of phon of a sound is the dB sound intensity level

of a sound at a frequency of 1 kHz that sounds just as loud.

This implies that 0 phon is the limit of perception, and inaudible sounds have
negative phon levels.
 ACOUSTICS
1 phon is the loudness of a 1 dB, 1000 Hz sound;
10 phon is the loudness of a 10 dB, 1000 Hz sound; and so on.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/eqloud.html
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

38. Standing waves;

39. Waves attenuation;
40. Dispersion of elastic waves;
41. Doppler effect
42. Sound intensity level; Audibility curve and equal loudness contours;