Problem: 1

Calculate the minimum period between one transmitted

pulse and the next one for a radar with a fixed directed
antenna which detect the target without confusion
within the range of 100 nautical miles, and what is the
pulses repetition frequency (FR=p.r.f)
Solution:

τmin

Tr

The radar rang is given by 2R=C.T

Rmax  CT2min  Tmin  2CR  2100 1853

3108

Tmin  1.2 103 sec

fb  Prf  Tmin1  1.21103  833 pulse / sec
Problem: 2
What is the maximum pulse width if we wanted to
detect a target on a half nautical mile?
Solution:

C  MAX
Rmin  2   max  2 Rmin
C

 max  20.51853
3108
 6.1 sec

Problem: 3
A radar with a pulse width T = 2.4μsec, maximum
range Rmax = 20 miles and average power Pave = 10W,
Calculate the maximum power for one pulse.
Solution:
C Tmin
Rmax  2
 Tr  2CR  2320101853
8

Tr  0.247m sec
Pave T 10 24.7105
Pp    Pave  T  Pp  
 2.4106

Pp  1029W
Problem: 4
A radar antenna illuminate the target for 0.1 sec, and it
requires 100 pulses to detect the target on the radar
screen, knowing that the maximum range for detecting
the target without confusion Rmax = 20 miles, what is
the maximum and minimum value for pulses repetition
frequency (p.r.f).
Solution:

T 2 Rmax
C

Pr f max  C
2 RMAX  3108
2201853  4047 p. p.s
Tmax  100
T
 100
0.1
 0.001S
Prf .min  Tmax
1
 0.001
1
 1000 p. p.s

To illuminate the target for 0.1 sec we need 100 pulse repetition

T  Tr 100  Tr  100
T
 100
0.1
 0.001

T: target illuminating time.

Problem: 5
A radar antenna with an effective cross section 1000,
find the frequency which generate a gain 7.9𝒇𝒕𝟐 .
1 ft = 0.3049 m
1 𝒇𝒕𝟐 = 0.093 𝒎𝟐
Solution:

G 4
2
Aeff  GdB  10 L ogG
G  3dB  Aeff  7.9  0.093  0.735m 2
2  4
G Aeff  1000
4
 0.735  0.009236m 2
  0.096m  fT  C
  3108
0.096  3.12GHz
Problem: 6
A cross section for a corner reflector (triangular
trihedral) expression is giving by   4
3  a4
 2 ; (a)
represent one of the sides’ length, if the radar frequency
is doubled how much the range will increase, and what
is the range increase value for this reflector compared
to a reflector with a constant cross section.

Solution:
 1

Rmax1   4P
T  Ae  
2 4

 1 S min 
2

Rmin 2   4P
T  Ae  
2 4

 2 S min 
2

f 2  2 f1
1 1
R2
R1  2  1 / 2  2

So by doubling the frequency the range will doubled

PT  Ae 2 2
4
  4 2 2 S min


R2
R1   PT  Ae 21
4 1 2 S min

4 2 12
 R2
 
 R1  22 1

2   1 , f 2  2 f1
4
 R2
  f 22
 4
 R1  f12

R2  2 R1
Problem: 7
At radar system show that the following expression is
not related to the signal shape.

Pave  G 2  2T1
SNR  (4 )3 R 4 N 0
Solution:

Assuming that a continues signal has been transmitted then all the signal can
be considered one pulse so
M 1
Tr   b
M  T1  FR  1  T1  T1R 
1  T1 1b 
T1   b

M 1
Tr   b
M  T1  FR  1  T1  T1R 
1  T1 1b 
T1   b
And from 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 expression we calculate 𝑃𝑇

Pave  PT .M
FB .T1  PT .1
1 .T  PT 
B 1

Pave  PT

At SNR expression

PT .G 2 . . 2
SNR  SNRP .M  1. (4 )3 .R4 . N .F 
0 B

Pave .G 2 . . 2
SNR  1. (4 )3 .R4 . N . 1
0 B

Pave .G 2 . . 2
SNR  (4 )3 .R4 . N . 1 
0 T1

Pave .T1 .G 2 . . 2
SNR  (4 )3 . R 4 . N0
And it is the same expression for sending a multi pulse signal.
Problem: 8
A radar station transmitting a signal with frequency (f)
and power (𝑷𝑻 ) through an antenna with gain (𝑮𝟏 ),
another radar antenna with gain (𝑮𝟐 ) located on a
missile was able to receive part from the reflected signal
of a Warship so Find the range which the missile start
to receive the signal if you know that the length between
the warship and the station (𝑹𝟏 ), and the effective cross
section of the warship (σ) and the sensitivities of the
receiver is (𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏 ).

R1
G1
Pt
Warship

Radar R2 σ
G2

Missile

Solution:

The power density that reach the warship is

PT .G1
4  R12
The warship reflect part of the previse power and its value relate to the value
of (σ):
 PT G1
4 R12
.
G2 . 2
AR  4

PT G1 P G G  2
A  P  T 1 2
(4 R12 )(4 R22 ) R
(4 )3 ( R1 R2 ) 2
R

The range which the missile start to receive the signal is (𝑅2𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) at (𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

PT .G1 .G2 . . 2
S min  ( 4 )3 . R12 . R22max

1

R2 max   ( 4 )3 . R 2 . S  PT .G1 .G2 . . 2 2

 1 min 

Problem: 9
Police radar is designed to receive a return from a car,
with a radar cross section σ, up to a distance of 𝐑 𝐦 = 50
m. The car is equipped with a radar detector. The
effective area of the detector antenna is Kσ (k = 0.001).
The other radar parameters are G = 300 and λ = 0.02
m. Assuming that the car's radar detector has the same
sensitivity as the radar receiver, at what distance will
the radar detector provide a warning.

Kσ
R1

G.Pt car σ
radar

Solution:

The power which the car detector receive is

PT G ( K )
PR.T  4 R12

𝑅1𝑚𝑎𝑥 : is the distance which the car detector start to the radar signal

The signal that reach the radar (reflected from the car) is
PT .G .
PR.T  ( 4 R12 ) 2
Areff
Areff  G 2
4

PT .G 2 . . 2
PrT  ( 4 )3 . R14
So
𝑃𝑟𝑡 →𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛2 →𝑅1 →𝑅2𝑚𝑎𝑥
And since
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛2 = 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛1

PT .G . K . PT .G 2 . . 2 (4 )2 R24max
4 R1max
2  (4 )3 R4 R
2
1max   2 .G
2 max

4 R2 max
R1max  
K
G

R1max  0.02
4 K
G R2max
2
R1max 1.15R 2max
2
𝑅1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.15𝑅2𝑚𝑎𝑥
Problem: 10
A radar with antenna gain (𝑮𝟏 ), is illuminating a target
antenna whose gain (pointing toward the radar) is (𝑮𝟐 ).
A receiver is connected at the target antenna. Half the
power received by the target antenna is forwarded to
the receiver and the other half is reflected back to the
radar.
(a) Find an expression for the ratio between the power
received by the target receiver and the power received
by the radar.
b) What is the ratio, in decibels, when
R /   104 ; G1  G2  300
Solution:

PT G1
4 R2 The power that reach the target

Target

RADAR

PT .G1 .
(4 R 2 )2 The power that reach the radar
The received power by radar
PT .G1 . . AR
PRradar  (4 R2 )2

The received power by the target

PPT arg et  PT .G1 AT

4 R2

Ratio of the two power

PR .TARGET
PR . RADAR  4 R 2

AT
AR

And from the previse assumption the power which reach the radar antenna
equal half the power which reach the receiver antenna:

PR.TARGET  2 PR.RADAR 
PT G1
4 R 2
 2 (4PT GR12)2
AT   
PR .TARGET
PR . RADAR  2 R 2 AT
AT AR  2 R 2
AR
 G1 2
AR  4

 
PR .t arg et 2 R 2 8 2 R 2
PR . radar G1 2 G1 2
4

8 2 (104 )2
  26.32  106
PR .t arg et
PR . radar 300

 10 Log (26.32 10 )

PR .t arg et 6
PR . radar
dB

 74.20dB
PR .t arg et
PR . radar
dB

Problem: 11
A radar station transmitting signals with frequency
(𝒇𝒄 ), power (𝑷𝑻𝟏 ) and gain (𝑮𝟏 ), another radar station’s
antenna with gain (𝑮𝟐 ) directed toward the first station
was able to receive the signal then send another signal
toward the first station with power (𝑷𝑻𝟐 ).find:
1. The maximum rang for each station so it would be
able to detect the signal incoming from the other
station?
2. From your opinion what is the effective range for
transmitting between the two stations knowing that
the sensitivity for the first station (𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟏 ) and for
the second (𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟐 ).
 Radar1
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛2 →𝑅1𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑇1

Pr2  PT1 .G1

4 R12
Ar 2
PT1 .G1 G2  2
Pr2  4 R12 4

PT1 .G1 G2  2
S min 2  4 R1max
2 4 
PT1 .G1 G2  2
R 2
1max  4 Smin 2 4
1
PT1 .G1 G2  2
R1max  [ 4 Smin 2 4 ] 2

The maximum range for the second station is the distance 𝑅2 which the
incoming signal power 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛1

Radar2

𝑅2 →𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛2 𝑃𝑇2
 Pt2 .G2 Pt2 .G2 G1 2
Pr1  Ar1 
4 R2 2
4 R22 4
Pt2 .G2 G1 2
S1min  
4 R2 max 4
2

1
 Pt2 .G2 G1 2  2
R2 max  
 4 S 1min 4 
The effective range for transmitting between two stations practically is the
distance between these two stations so both of them will be able to receive
the incoming signal from the other one at the same time and it is related to
the value of 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 so we calculate 𝑅1 the effective range at 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
S1min  S2 min  R2 max
S 2 min  S1min  R1max
We chose the minimum value of R.

Problem: 12
Explain the relation between the radar cross section for
a large perpendicular surfaces with the illuminating
vector on a radar station frequency?
Solution:

Because surface like this one If its space A so the effective cross section
become equal the space of this surfaces A.
This perpendicular surface reflects high percent of the power so there is gain
relate to the surface space so when the space increases the gain also increase:
 4 A
G 
2
Where A is the space surface so the effective cross section is:
4 A2
  AG 
2
And since in the radar system we always care about the reflected power
percent toward the radar from the target so we increase this power by
increasing the gain by increasing the space surface:

A  G  GPT  PR
So we must use the reflector to increase the power signal from friends’
target.

Problem: 13
Explain why we use probabilities theorem for studying
the cross section of targets?
Solution:

In radar systems we do not know what kind of targets we may have so it

could be a group of reflector each one has its size so the incidence angles
varies. Plus multi reflection of these reflector so the reflected signal from the
target consist of multi reflection. So it’s unknown random signal so the cross
section for the target is a random variable. And since the cross section relate
to the reflected power and that is why we study it by using the probabilities
theorem:

1 
P( )  e 
:  0

Problem: 14
Explain why we use spherical volume as a good
standard project in radar measurements process?
Solution:
Because the sphere give us a constant cross section from all directions and
with an accurate value. And the cross section does not depends on the
wavelength λ at the visual field (λ >> a) a: the radius of the sphere.
The cross section in the visual field for any project with volume V is:

4K 4V 2
 

Problem: 15
Explain why we use the corner reflectors?
Solution:
The reflector increases the reflector surface area so it give a big radar cross
section with large incidence angle so the received power is bigger.

Problem: 16
Explain why in MIE field (A=λ) the cross section
varying is a vibrative function, and draw this function?
Solution:
The signals with a wavelength A=λ spreading on the sphere surface so it
form the moving waves behind that sphere with the one in front (cumulative)
or decreasing for the signal amplitude and that relate to the sphere radius (a)
→vibrative function.
3.6

σ/пa2

0.5

2пa/λ

1 Vitiations in the sphere cross section

Problem: 17
A radar system parameters is:
Pave  1Kw, T1  0.05sec, F  5
  0.2m, G  100, t  17 0
Find:
At what range it can detect a target with a cross section
σ = 10𝒎𝟐 so that the SNR = 20dB?
Solution:

We receive at smaller range than 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 and it does not relate with 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 or
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 . We have the following radar equation:

PaveT1G 2  2
SNR 
(4 )3 R 4 N 0
N 0  F  K  T : T  290 K 0
N 0  5  1.38  10 23  290
N 0  2001 1023
10 Lg ( SNR )  20dB  SNR  100
1
 PaveT1G    2 2 4
R 
 (4 ) 3
R 4
N 0 SNR 
1
 1 10 0.05(100) (0.2)  10 
3 2 2 4
R 23 
 (4 ) 3
 100  2001  10 
R  84.24 Km
18. Using an antenna with horizontal polarity to receive a
signal that has a polarity with a beam that has 𝟑𝟎° with the
vertical direction. What is the percentage of the received
power for this antenna?

Solution:

The received power of horizontal polarity

in antennas is:
E cosө
30

The received power of vertical polarity in

antennas is:

E sinө

For the two polarities, the total power would be 𝑃 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝑉 .

In this problem we have a horizontal polarity so we use

1 2 E2
PH  E ( )  2

2 4
The ratio for the received power of the antenna is

PH E 2 / 4 1
 2   0.25
P E 4
PH  0.25P
19. At a radar system works on 𝟏𝟎𝑮𝑯𝒛 transmitting frequency
and the speed of target is 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕.

1. Calculate the frequency of Doppler shift.

2. Calculate the frequency when the target is approaching.
3. Calculate the frequency when the target is moving
away.

Solution:

1. The Doppler shift expression using the velocity:

2  0.3049  44
2v
fd  
 3  108
10  109
f d  894 Hz

2. If the target is approaching:

f '  fT  f d  (10 109  894) Hz

3. If the target is moving away:

f '  fT  f d  (10  109  894) Hz

 Note: the target velocity can be calculated by:

fd C
v
2 fT
 20. A police radar is designed to receive a reflected signal from
a car with an area of 𝝈(𝒎𝟐 ) and a distance of 𝑹𝒛 = 𝟓𝟎(𝒎).
This car is equipped with a police-radar-signal detector that
has an antenna with an area of 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝝈. The gain of the radar
is 𝑮 = 𝟐𝟎 ⅆ𝑩 and its frequency is 𝒇𝑻 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑮𝑯𝒛 . Assuming
that the sensitivity of the detector is the same as the receiver
of the police radar. At what distance will the radar detector
provide a warning?

Solution:

The sensitivity of the car detector = the sensitivity of the police radar

S min  S min
'

PT ( Aeff ) 2  PT G
 '
Aeff
4 2 Rz4max 4 R 2

( Aeff ) 2  G
*   0.001 
 2 Rz4max R2
G  20dB  G  100
4 4
G  Aeff  fT2 Aeff 
 2
C 2

GC 2 100  (3  108 ) 2
Aeff   
4 fT2 4  3.14  (15  109 ) 2
Aeff  3.18  10 3
C 3  10
    0.02 m
fT 15  109
For* 
(3.18  10 3 ) 2 100
2 4
  0.001
(0.02) (50) R2
R 5 Km
21. If we have a conductor sphere that radiates with a
frequency where its cross section is in Rayleigh zone…

Solution:

In Rayleigh zone: the Dimensions of target < the wave length

 1
4
 1
f 4

4
1 f 4

If the frequency is doubled:

 2 (2 f ) 4 16 f 4
2
16   2  16 1
1
 𝑨
𝑨 (− )
𝟐𝑨𝟐
22. If Rayleigh function is (𝑷(𝑨) =
𝑨𝟐𝟎
ⅇ 𝟎 ) where (𝑨𝟎 ) is
the maximum possible value because the amplitude is (𝑨𝟎 ).
Prove that:
𝟏
𝝅 𝟐
1. The average value is: 𝑨̅ = 𝑨𝟎 ( )
𝟐
2. The square average value of the amplitude is: ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨𝟐𝟎
𝟏
3. The average center of A is: 𝑨𝒎 = 𝑨𝟎 𝐥𝐧𝟐 (𝟒)
Solution:

1.

   A2   A2   A2

A   AP( A)dA   A e dA   e dA  2
A 2 A02 A2 2 A02 A2 2 A02

A02 A02 2 A02

e dA
0 0 0 0

X 2  2AA2  X  A A 2
2

0 0

 
dX  A 2 dA  A  2 X e ( A0 2)dX  2 A0 2  X e dX
2 X 2 X2
2
1
0
0 0


 X e dX 
2 X2 
4
0

 12
A  A0 2 
2  A0 2  A0 ( )
2
2. A 2  2 A02

A  
2
A 2 P ( A)dA
0
  A2

A2  
2
A2 A 2 A0

A02
e dA
0
  A2

A2  
3 2
2 A0
A
A02
e dA
0
A02
X  A2
A02
 dX  2A
A02
dA  dA  2A
dX
  A2


A02
A2 
2
A3 2 A0

A02
e 2A
dX
0
  A2


A02
A 
2 2
2 A 2 A0

A02
e dX 2
0

x

 Xe
A02
A 
2
2
2
dX
0

A02 n!
A 
2
2 n 1
: a  1 / 2, n  1
a

A02 1 A02
A 2
 2  2 ( 4)
1 2
( )
2
A 2  2 A02
3.
1
Am  A0 ( Ln4) 2

 A2

A  Am  e  1/ 2
2 A2
0

 A2  Am 2

 1/ 2  e  1/ 2
2 A2 2 A2
e 0 0

A Am
By applying logarithm on the equation:
 Am2
2 A02
 Ln(1/ 2)  Am2  2 A02 Ln(1/ 2)
Am2  2 A02 Ln(2)  A02 Ln(2) 2
Am2  A02 Ln(4)  Am  A0 ( Ln 4)1/ 2
23. Find the average value, the square average value and the
average center for the function of the third condition of swirling
categorization.

Solution:
3 A2
9 A2 2 A02
P ( A)  e
2 A04
  3 A2
9 A3 2 A02
A   AP ( A)dA   4
e dA
0 0
2 A0

A 3 dA 3
X   dX 
A0 2 A0 2

2
A   2A0 X 4 e  X
2
dX
0
3

2
3 0
4 X2
A  2 A0 X e dX


I  X e  X dX
2
4

X    2 XdX  d  
2

3
 
d  2
I    2e     e d 
0 2  0
2

 ( Z )   t Z 1e  t dt
0

1 3 3
 (5 / 2)  (2  ) 2   
2 2 4
2 13
A2 A0 
3 24
1
 3  2
A  A0  
 8 

the square average value:

   3 A 2
9 A5 2 A02
A   A P ( A)dA
2 2
4
e dA
0 0
2 A0

A 3
X  
A0 2

2 2
A  2 A  X 5e  X dX  2 A02
2
2 2
0
30 3

(4)   X 5e  X dX  1
2

4 2
A2  A0
3

the average center 𝐴𝑚 :

3 A2
9 A2 2 A02
P ( A)  e
2 A04
3 Am2
3 A2
1
 1/ 2  
2 A02
e Ln
A  Am
2 A02 2
1
2
Am  A0 ( Ln 2) 2
3
1
1
Am  A0 ( Ln 4) 2
3
24. Give your opinion in the following equation:
𝟏 𝑽
𝑷𝑫 = 𝑷(𝒓) = [𝟏 − ⅇ𝒓𝒇 ( 𝑻 − √𝑺𝑵𝑹)].
𝟐 𝜷√𝟐

Solution:

 This expression shows the probability of target detection using

A02
one-pulse detection when: 1 SNR  2
2
 This expression relate between 𝑃𝐷 , 𝑆𝑁𝑅 and 𝑃𝐹𝐴 :


PFA   P0 (r )dr  e 2VT2 
2

VT
1
VT 2 VT 1 2
LnPFA    (2 Ln )
2 2
 PFA
25. At the detector of linear cover for one pulse the (𝑽𝑻 ) and
the (𝑷𝑭𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ) find the value of (𝑷𝑭𝑨 ) (false alarm
probability) when (𝑽𝑻 ) is reducing by 30%. Then give your
comment about this result (resolve the problem with square
detector).

Solution:

The new 𝑉𝑇′ is :

30 30
VT'  VT  VT  (1  )VT  0.7VT
100 100
  r2 VT' 2
 
r
 P (r )dr   
2 2 2 2
P '
FA  0 2
e dr e
VT' VT'

VT' 2 VT2
 
2 2 2 2
P '
FA e  [e ]0.49
VT 2

2 2
PFA  e  PFA
'
 ( PFA )0.49
P ' FA  (106 )0.49  1148 106
We notice that the probability of detection is increased by 1148 ×
10−6 , as shown in this figure:

Note: considering that 𝑷𝑫 has

A2
SNR  1
2 2

26. For detection probability of (𝑃𝐷 > 0.3), is the required (𝑅𝑃 )
for fluctuating target bigger than (𝑅𝑃 ) for nonfluctuating target?

Solution:

 The losses in swirling case (2) is increasing, while in swirling

case (1) it is constant.
 the probability of detection 𝑃𝐷 in swirling case 2 at 𝜌 = 0, is
bigger than the probability of detection in swirling case (1) at
𝜌 = 1, and at the same value of 𝑅𝑃 . Where 𝑃𝐷 > 0.3.
  when 𝜌 increases, 𝑅𝑃 increases. For the same 𝑃𝐷 (𝑃𝐷 > 0.3).
when 𝑃𝐷 < 0.3 ⇒ 𝜌 increases ⇒ 𝑅𝑃 decreases, as shown
below:

27. Show that the probability-density function for a value

measured by using square-cover detector for a signal that is
related to Rayleigh functions, is giving by: 𝑃(𝑧) =
−𝑧
( )
𝐴2
1 1+ 0 ∞
𝐴2
ⅇ 𝛽2 . If you know that: ∫0 ⅇ −𝑎𝑥 𝐼0 (𝑏√𝑥) ⅆ𝑥 =
(1+ 02 )
𝛽
𝑏2
1 (4𝑎)
ⅇ
𝑎
 Solution:

This problem depends on swirling case (2). Assuming that k=1

P ( Z )  P ( Z / A) P ( A)

P( Z K )   P( Z
0
K / AK ) P ( AK ) dAK


K  1  P( Z )   P( Z / A) P( A)dA
0
A2
A  2 A02
P ( A)  2 e
A0
A2
( Z 
2 2
)  2 ZA2 12 
P ( Z / A)  e I 0 ( ) 
  2

 A2 A2
A ( Z   )  2 ZA2 12 

2 2
P( Z )  e 2 A02
I 0 ( )  dA
0
A02   2

 A2 1 1
A Z   2 ZA2 12 
( 2 2)
P( Z )  
2  A0
e I 0 ( )  dA
0
A02   2


A  Z  A2 a  2 1

P( Z )   2 e I 0  (b A) 2  dA
0
A0  
1 1 1
a  ( 2  2)
2  A0
2Z 2Z
b2  b
2 2
  

eZ
P( Z )   2 Ae I 0 (b A ) dA
 aA2

0
A0

Assuming 𝑋 2 = 𝐴2 so we can get I0 b X 

dX  2 AdA

e Z
e I0  X 
 aX
P( Z )  b  dX
2 A02 0
2
e  Z 1 4b a
P( Z )  e
2 A02 a
2Z 1 1 1
b :a  ( 2  )
 2
2  A02

 
 
 Z/
2

 1 1 
1 1  2 2 

P( Z )  e Z e  
A 0
2
2 A0 1 ( 1  1 )
2 2 A02
Z
A02
1
1 1 2
P( Z )  2
e
A0 ( 1  1 )
2 A02
Z
A02
1 2
1
P( Z )  2
e 
A
(1  02 )

 −𝑧
( )
𝐴2
1 1+ 0
28. If you have (𝑃(𝑧) = ⅇ 𝛽2 ). Prove that the relation
𝐴2
(1+ 02 )
𝛽

between (𝑆𝑁𝑅, 𝑃𝐷 , 𝑃𝐹𝐴 ) is

1
( )
𝐴2
1+ 0
(𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐹𝐴 𝛽2 ).

Solution:


PFA   P ( Z )dZ
VT
0

VT  Z 
P0 ( Z )  P ( Z / A0  0)

PD   P( Z )dZ
VT

VT  Z 
A2 2 A02
SNR   RP 
2 2 2
  Z
A02 1 

2
 0  PFA  
VT
P0 ( Z ) dZ  
VT
1 0
e 1 0 dZ



   e VT  PFA
Z Z
PFA  e dZ   e  VT
VT

The detection for one pulse

 VT2

2 2
PFA  e
Z
  A02
1
1
 P(Z )dZ  V
2
PD  2
e dZ
A
VT T
(1  02 )

1  aX
a
X
e dX   e


Z
 V
 T2
1
A02
2
 A
1 02
PD   e   PD  e 

 VT
29. Assume that the cumulative probability of detection is (𝑃𝐶𝐷 =
0.99)

1. Calculate the probability of detection (𝑃𝐷 ) for (𝐾 =

1, 2, 3, 4).
2. Calculate the probability of cumulative-false alarm for
(𝐾 = 4).

Solution:

1.
1
PD  1  (1  PCD ) K

K  1  PD  1  (1  0.99)1  0.99
K  2  0.9
K  3  PD  1  (1  0.99)3  0.78
K  4  PD  1  (1  0.99) 4  0.68
2.

PC ( FA)  1  (1  PFA ) K : PFA 1 

PC ( FA)  KPFA : PD K 4  0.68
PFA K 4  0.32

This value is not far less than 1

PC ( FA)  1  (1  PFA ) K  1  (0.68)4

 𝑨𝟐
30. Show that for small values of signal-to-noise ratio (
𝟐𝜷𝟐
<
𝟏), the detection probability of nonfluctuating target for one
−𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝟏 ( ) (𝟏− )
𝟐𝜷𝟐 𝟐𝜷𝟐
pulse is giving by: 𝑷𝑫 = 𝑨𝟐
ⅇ 𝑷𝑭𝑨 . Use the
𝟏+
𝟐𝜷𝟐
𝒙𝟒
(𝟒)
following equation to solve the problem (𝑰𝟎 (𝒙) ≅ ⅇ ∶ 𝒙<
𝟏)

Solution:

r 2  A2

r 2 2 rA
P(r )  e I0 ( )
 2
 2


P( D)   P(r )dr
VT

PFA   P (r )dr
VT
0

  r2

r
 P (r )dr   
2 2
PFA  0 2
e I 0 (0) dr
VT VT

VT2

2 2
I 0 (0)  0 : VT  r   PFA  e
 r 2  A2

r 2 2 rA
P(r )  e I0 ( )
 2
 2


P( D)   P(r )dr
VT

PFA   P (r )dr
VT
0

  r2

r
 P (r )dr   
2 2
PFA  0 2
e I 0 (0) dr
VT VT

VT2

2 2
I 0 (0)  0 : VT  r   PFA  e
  r 2  A2 r 2  A2

r rA rA

2 2 4 2
PD  e I0 ( )dr :I 0 ( )e
VT
2
 2
 2

 r 2  A2 r 2  A2
 e
r

2 2 4 2
PD  2
e e dr
VT

A2  r2 r 2  A2
 
r

2 2 2 2 4 2
PD  e 2
e e dr
VT

 r2 r 2  A2 A2 VT2
  (1 )
r 1

2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2
e e dr  2
e
A
VT
1
2 2
A2 A2
  (1 )
1 2 2 2 2
PD  2
e PFA
A
1
2 2
31. Find the radar equation using coherent integrations for the
radar signals through lighting time (with ignoring the losses
produced by the integrations) for M pulses, with considering
signal-to-noise ratio.

Solution:

The radar signal is train of pulses, with coherent radio frequency

𝑓𝑐 , as shown below:
 1
fB  ; N  F  K  T  f B  N0 . f B
P
PT .G 2 . 2
SNRP 
(4 )3 .R 4 .N 0 . f B

If we have M pulses:

M  T1. f R
SNR  M .SNRP

The average transmitted power

M
Pave  PT . P . f R  PT .
f B .T1
Pave .T1.G 2 . 2
SNR 
(4 )3 .R 4 .N 0
Pave .T1 : the power transmitted from the radar through target detection
period, and it’s the power that used to calculate the signal to noise ratio.

32. Calculate the minimum transmitted power of a pulse radar

system, to detect a target with an area of (𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 ), and a
range of (𝑹 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑲𝒎). Considering that the system
parameters are:
 Effective frequency: 𝟏. 𝟑𝑮𝑯𝒁
 Antenna gain: 𝟑𝟒ⅆ𝑩
 Receiver sensitivity: −𝟏𝟎ⅆ𝑩
ⅆ𝑩
 Atmosphere attenuation (losses): 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝑲𝒎

Solution:

We have

PT ( Aeff ) 2
R4
 *
4 2 S min .L
max

C 3  108
  0.2m
f 1.3  109
S min  105dB  135dB
dBw  30  dBm
S min  1013.5  3.16  1014
4 4
G  34dB   103.4  2.51 103  Aeff
2 2
2
3.4  3  102 
10  
Aeff 
G 2
   1.3  1.34   7.99m 2
4 4  1.34

The total attenuation = the atmospherical attenuation × 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥

 dB
L  0.08  2  120Km  19.2dB  83.17
Km
4 R max
4
 2S min L
L  101.92
 (for *)  PT 
( Aeff ) 2 
4 (120  103 ) 4  (0.2) 2  10 13.5  101.92
PT 
(7.99) 2  10  10 4
PT  4294  106W  96dB

33. Find the radar equation (power received at the radar) for
a low height target, above a smooth flat surface, with a
multipath propagation.

b. Assume that we have a radar at (𝟑𝟎𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕) height, and

watching an airplane at (10 Sea Mile= 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕), and
a height of (𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕). Assume that there is no change in
phase for the reflecting wave from the surface of earth.
Determine the value of N that makes the arriving wave to
the airplane maximum or minimum, in two cases:

I. Wave length of: 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕

II. Wave length of: 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒕

Solution:
a)

1
 ( hT  hs ) 2 
R1   R  (hT  hs ) 
2 2 2 R 1  2 
 2 R 
1
 ( hT  hs ) 2 
R2   R  (hT  hs ) 
2 2 2
R 1  
 2R2 
hT  hs R  R  R2  R1
2hT  hs 2R
R  1 
R 
4  hT  hs
1 
R
hT  hs R     ;   1;   1
4  hT  hs
  1    
R
We assume a factor F represents the ratio of the resultant-field
at the target when there is a reflector surface to the resultant-
field of the direct signal
F  1   e  j 
 (1   2  2  cos  ) 2
4
F
 1 F  (2  2  cos  ) 2
4

 16 cos 4 (  / 2)
4
F
2  hT  hs
 16 sin 4 (
4
F )
R
1
4  2  hT  hs  4
F 16  
 R 
The received power at the radar is giving by:
PT   2  G 2   4
PR  F
(4 ) R3 4

4  PT   2  G 2    (hT hs )4
PR 
 2  R8
R hT  hs
b)
R  60000 foot ; hT  2500 foot
hs  30 foot
The signal will be maximum when:
  2 N

And minimum when:

   (2 N  1)
4  hT  hs
   2 N 
R
4  hT  hs 4  30  2500
  50
R 0.1 60000
When the value is even the signal is maximum (N=25).
4  hT  hs 4  30  2500
  25
R 0.2  60000
When the value is odd the signal is minimum (N=12).
34. Find the average value, the square average value and the
average center for (𝑷(𝑨)) in the third condition in swirling
𝟑𝑨𝟐
𝟗𝑨𝟐 (− )
𝟐𝑨𝟐
categorization. Knowing that (𝑷(𝑨) = ⅇ 𝟎 ∶ 𝑨 ≥ 𝟎)
𝟐𝑨𝟒𝟎

Solution:

The average value

  A2
3 3
9 A
 
2
A  AP ( A) dA 
2
A0
e dA
0 0
2 A04
2
A
x  2
 A2  xA02  A  A0 x
A0
A0
dA  dx
2 x
 A2
2 3
9 A A

2 2
A  2
 2
e A0
dA
2 0
A0 A0

9 A0 x A0

3
A  
x
2
e 2
dx
4 0
A0 x

9

3
A 
x
xe 2
dx
4 0

1 m 1
 x m e  ax dx  (
n
)
0
n( a ) n
 3
m  1, n  1, a 
2
 3
 x 1 4
 xe 2
dx 
3
 (2) 
9
0 ( )2
2
4 9
A   A 1
9 4

The square average value

  A2
4  32
9A
A2   A2 P ( A)dA   4
e A02
dA
0 0
2 A0
A2
x  2  A2  xA02  A  A0 x
A0
A0
dA  dx
2 x

9 1 2  32 x
A  A0 
2
x e dx
4 0 x
1  3
9  x
A  A0  x 2  x e 2 dx
2 2

4 0
 3 3 5
9  x
A2  A0  x 2 e 2 dx  22
5 ( 52 )
4 0 33
5
9
A2  A0  252 ( 52 )
4 33

3 1
A2  A0 ( ) 2
8
The average center

2 3 A2
9 A
P ( A) 
2 A02

4
e
2 A0
3 Am2
3 A2
1
 1/ 2  
2 A02
e Ln
A Am
2 A02 2
1
2
Am  A0 ( Ln 2) 2
3
1
1
Am  A0 ( Ln 4) 2
3