Gaseous Fuels

Introduction
• Coal powered industrial revolution of the 19th century, followed by oil
dominating the 20th century.
• Gas is expected to be the primary source of fuel in the 21st century.
• Natural gas consumption is on the rise.
• Gaseous fuels→ no mineral impurities, consistence in quality,
convenience and efficiency in use.
• Gas handling is inexpensive, storage is easy (except LPG).
 Types of gaseous fuels
• Fuel gases occurring in nature
• Natural gas
• Methane from coal mines
• Fuel gases from solid fuels
• Producer gas
• Water gas
• Coal gas
• SNG
• Blast furnace gas
• Wood gas
• Fuel gases from petroleum
• Refinery gases
• LPG
• Gases from oil gasification processes
• Fuel gases from fermentation of organic wastes
 Types of gaseous fuels
• Rich/Lean gases (CV > 4000 kcal/Nm3 / CV<1500kcal/Nm3) [Old
definition]
• New definition:
• LPG → ~30000 kcal/Nm3
• Natural gas/SNG → 8400-9100 kcal/Nm3
• Town gas → 4500-5300 kcal/Nm3
• Industrial fuel gas (IFG) →2200-3100 kcal/Nm3
• LCV gases → 700-1700 kcal/Nm3
• Apart from CV, gravity is also a parameter, and Wobbe index/number
(CV*(sp. Gravity)-0.5) is used to characterize gases. What is the unit of this
index?
Types of gaseous fuels
 Types of gaseous fuels
• Another parameter → flame speed (speed of combustion). Rich gases
above 4000 kcal/Nm3 maybe subcategorized into 3 groups on the basis of
flame speed.
• Weaver flame speed is used as the factor. The scale is arbitrary. Hydrogen
is assumed to have a factor of 100.
• High flame speed gases → CV 4000-5000, WFS factor = 32-45
• Low flame speed gases → CV 7500-10000, WFS factor = 13-25
• Intermediate type gases → CV 5000-7500, WFS factor = 25-32
 Natural gas
• Natural gas → mixture of paraffinic hydrocarbons, in which methane is the
principal component.
• Occurs in gas fields and also in association with crude petroleum in fields Natural
gas also contains ethane, propane, butane and pentane in varying proportions. In
addition, small quantities of iso-paraffins and naphthenes may also be present.
• The vapour of the hydrocarbons, other than methane and ethane, can be separated
out as a condensate. When the natural gas contains very small quantities of
recoverable condensate, say, less than 15 g/m3, it is known as dry natural gas. If the
content of condensate is appreciable, say, above 50 g/m3, the gas is known as wet
natural gas. The latter is commercially treated for the recovery of the condensate
which is a valuable product known as natural gasoline and finds wide use as a
blending agent for motor fuels.
• The recovery of natural gasoline is accomplished by compressing and cooling, or
absorption in an oil, or adsorption on porous solid. During the process of recovery,
pentane is completely recovered from the gas while small quantities of butane and
propane are left behind in it. The residual gas is in effect a dry natural gas and
known as stripped natural gas to distinguish it from the naturally occurring dry
gas.
Natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas
 Natural gas
• Natural gas in certain localities contains large amounts of nitrogen and carbon
dioxide.
• In some places small but recoverable amounts of helium are found. Similarly,
appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide are also present in some gases
which may be treated for the production of elemental sulphur. Since hydrogen
sulphide is corrosive and has a bad odour, gas containing this compound is
known as a foul natural gas. The hydrogen sulphide-free gas is called a sweet
gas. After delivery from wells, natural gas is processed to remove fine solids. It
is then treated for the recovery of gasoline and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Finally, hydrogen sulphide is removed to obtain gas for distribution. In cold
climates it may be necessary to dehydrate the gas to avoid choking of lines
owing to the formation of crystalline hydrates of methane, ethane, propane and
iso-butane. These hydrates are stable solids below 19°C.
• Natural gas is delivered to the consumers by a network of pipelines of diameter
51-56 cm from the production centre, at pressures usually varying between 14
and 28 kg/cm2.
• Ocean transportation of LNG is gaining momentum. Sahara gas → UK
 Natural gas
• Bulk users → thermal power stations, fertilizer production plants,
domestic sector.
 Natural gas
• CNG → 200-250 bars. High octane number of CNG.
• Natural gas → non-corrosive, non-toxic, high ignition temperature, lighter
than air, narrow flammability range, therefore safe fuel, doesn’t pollute if
there’s leakage, contains mercaptan that is useful for detection via smell
(above 0.5% conc.) well below levels that can cause drowsiness, and well
below level that supports combustion.
• CO emission is 70-90% less, CO2 emission 10% less, hydrocarbon emission
40-60% less for CNG vehicles than petrol powered ones,
Natural gas
 Hydrogen
• Most abundant element in the universe.
• Methods of hydrogen production:
• Electrolysis of water (Renewable hydrogen if electricity by renewable means)
• Reforming gaseous and hydrocarbon fuels
• Gasification of organic and plastic materials into synthetic hydrogen rich gases
• Anerobic conversion of hydrocarbons by bacteria
• Fermentation
• Algae waste product
• Challenges:
• Cost and durability of fuel cells
• Storage
• Production and delivery
• Widespread Commercialization
 Methane from coal mines
• Coal adsorbs methane during coalification,

• Desorption of coal can be a method of production of methane,

• Explosive and needs proper safety protcols.

• Natural gas making it’s usage obsolete.

 Producer gas
• Combustible gaseous mixture obtained by blowing air, or a mixture of air
and steam, through an incandescent bed of solid carbonaceous fuel is
known as producer gas.

• CO and N2 are the main components. H2 can also be there if air and steam
are used in place of air.

• Lean fuel. Advantages → low price, ease of production, result of

gasification (How is this an advantage?)

• Bituminous and anthracite coals are used a raw materials

 Producer gas → reactions
C + O2 + 3.76 N2 → CO2 + 3.76 N2, ΔH = -97000 kcal
CO2 + C ⇌ 2CO, ΔH = +38270 kcal ----- Boudouard reaction

Overall reaction:
2C+O2+3.76 N2 ⇌ 2CO + 3.76 N2, ΔH = ? Kcal

Boudouard reaction → equilibrium constant increases with temp. CO in

equilibrium mixture of CO and CO2 at 1 atm sharply increases beyond 500
deg C
Temp: 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
CO%: 0.9 6.5 26.4 63 89.5 97.5 99.6
The kinetics are such that equilibrium is reached at 1300 deg in few seconds
and at 1100 deg in 1 min.
 Producer gas → reactions
Increased pressure inhibits formation of CO however the effect is not
significant and normally pressure is kept just above 1 atm.

Type of carbon → no effect on eqb content of CO but it influences the

kinetics. Charcoal ranks very high. Lower reactivity of coke and anthracite
is a problem. However contact time can be increased and reaction carried
out over 1300 deg.

Producer gas process favoured by

1. High temp of fuel bed
2. Adequate time of contact, thickness of bed
3. Reactive fuel
 Disadvantages of air-blown process
1. Clinkering → If ash of fuel is of low fusion point, say 1100 deg, it melts
in high temp zone and then resolidifies into clinker in the cooler parts.
This disturbs air distribution, engulfs unburnt carbon and lowers the
efficiency of the process.

2. Low cold gas efficiency = (potential heat of gas/ total heat of gasified
fuel)*100
 Use of steam in air blast
1. Demerits are removed by using a wet blast. Reactions are:
C + H20 ⇌ CO+ H2, ΔH=+28,440 kcal
C + 2H20 ⇌ CO2+ 2H2, ΔH=+18,6000 kcal
2. First reaction → water gas reaction is active at and above 1000 deg C
while the second reaction predominates between 500-600 deg C. CO2 is
undesirable and is suppressed by high temp.
3. Water gas reaction produces CO and H2 in equal proportions.
Equilibrium composition, at diff temp at 1 atm pressure:
Temp: 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
CO%: 2.99 12.67 30.61 44.14 48.52 49.58 49.85
4. Side reactions: methanation and water gas shift reaction
 Advantages
1. Contents of combustibles (CO+H2+CH4) is raised and inerts lowered (N2
and CO2). CV increased upto 1250 kcal/Nm3
2. A part of sensible heat liberated by the combustion of carbon is
converted into the potential heat of H2 and CO. Cold gas efficiency of
the mixed blast producer is much higher.
3. Endothermic reactions between steam and C, prevent sharp increase in
fuel bed temp in localised spots, so ash doesn’t form clinkers.
1. Amount of steam blown through the bed → important factor affecting the
performance of a producer. Initially the increase in the amount of steam raises the
total combustibles content and calorific value of the gas and also the thermal
efficiency of the producer. However, too much absorption of the heat of the fuel bed
by the endothermic reactions of steam reduces the bed temperatures to below
1,100°C and hence, lowers the degrees of carbon dioxide reduction and steam
decomposition.
2. Practice has shown that beyond an optimum supply, any increase in the amount of
steam reduces the thermal efficiency of producer, the total combustibles content and
the calorific value of the gas. However, if the ash of the fuel has a tendency to clinker,
the steam supply should be increased beyond the optimum value. This step ensures
the smooth continuous running of the producer at the cost its efficiency and gas
quality.
3. The wet blast may be made either by injecting steam to the air flow or by blowing air
through water in the base of the producer. The first method is more convenient and
is the normal practice. A controlled quantity of steam is blown into the air blast,
raising its temperature to a predetermined level. This is technically called the blast
saturation temperature (BST), on the assumption that the air is saturated with water
vapour at this temperature. This assumption is valid for all practical purposes.
4. The amount of steam supply is best controlled by the BST. The optimum steam
supply depends on the nature of the fuel but is usually at 55–62°C BST which
corresponds to15-22 kg of steam per 100 Nm3 of dry air, respectively. In terms of the
quantity of the solid fuel, the optimum steam supply is at 0.4-0.5 kg per kilogram of
carbon gasified.
 Reaction zones in a gas producer
Fuel bed in a normal producer rests on a metallic grate. The former may be
divided into a number of reaction zones: ash zone, oxidation zone, primary
reduction zone, secondary reduction zone, and drying-cum-carbonization zone,
depending upon the sequences of reactions that take place in the counter-current
movement of the solid fuel and the blast.
The air-steam blast is preheated by the ash zone which also serves to make the
blast distribution uniform and protect the great from intense heat. The oxygen is
consumed within 75-100 mm of the bed, which constitutes the oxidation zone.
Once the reactions start, the compositions of the gaseous stream go on changing
from point to point along the bed depth. CO2 forms at the expense of oxygen. Its
concentration reaches a maximum at the top of the oxidation zone when carbon
monoxide begins to appear. The monoxide continues to form, and approaches an
equilibrium with the dioxide at the top of the bed. Soon after the appearance of
CO, steam decomposition begins and continues for about 25mm of bed depth →
primary reduction zone.

40 mm above the zone → secondary reduction zone and uppermost layer of the
bed is the drying and carbonization zone.
Reaction zones in a gas producer
 Impurities in the raw gas
Usual impurities are undecomposed steam, tar dust, H2S, and NH3.
Steam and tar condense on cooling. NH3 may be removed as ammonium
sulphate.

Recovery is not economical.

H2S and other impurities are kept low by using low sulphur coals.

Dust can be removed with condensates, cyclones or other dust catchers

 Gasification rate in a producer
• Specific gasification rate = kg of fuel gasified per hour per sq meter of the bed cs
area. Limitations of good gasification:
1. Form in which ash is discharged
2. Use of air with 79% N2
3. Height of the fuel bed
4. Rate of reduction of CO2 and steam.
• In normal producers, ash is removed in the solid form. Ash fusion point can
seriously limit bed temp and hence the gasification rate.
• Also presence of N2 →wastage of heat. So O2 enriched air can be used. However
absence of N2 increases partial pressure of CO2 which favours production of
CO2.
• Minimum bed height of 0.6-3m is needed. However too deep a bed, and
gasification rate goes down because of air blast resistance.
• Coal, coke or anthracite → slow rate, improved by adding catalysts like Ni, or
carbonates.
• Size, size distribution and hardness → other factors, uniform size preferred, too
fine a size leads to losses, soft fuel is undesirable.
 Gasification rate in a producer
• Typical rates:
• Slagging ash producer: 2.5 t/m2h
• Atmospheric and pressure producer 0.2-0.4 t/m2h
• Suction producer 0.6-0.9 t/m2h
 Types of producers
• Design varies wrt: 1. direction of blast and fuel 2. effective pressure in
producer 3. method of ash removal 4. method of blast introduction 5. fuel
feeding system 6. bed stirring devices 7. shell construction.
• Direction of blast and fuel
• Up draft: blast travels upwards and fuel downwards. Ash removed from bottom,
gas from top. Conventional design.
• Down draft: Both fuel and air travel downwards. VM decomposes during travel.
Rarely used
• Double draft: Blast both from both top and bottom.
• Cross draft: Fuel downwards, blast from side.
• Effective pressure: atmospheric (most common), suction (limited capacity,
used in power gas manufacture) or pressure producers (methane rich gas
is supplied at higher pressure).
• Ash removal: Removed in solid state (common) using mechanical means,
slagging producers where molten ash is removed, also sometimes
removed with gas as dust.
 Types of producers
• Blast introduction: updraft→below the grate, slagging producers receive
from the sides.
• Producers receive intermittent fuel feeds through hoppers, or other means.
• Producers are built of cylindrical steel shells, may be lined with firebrick
and have water jacket for intense heat.
• Updraft producer → 2-3m in height, and 1-3.75m in diameter, while fuel
bed is of 1.75-2.75 m in depth. Brick lining is about 0.25-0.5m thick.
 Efficiency of a producer
• Cold gas efficiency= (potential heat of gas)/(total heat of
gasified fuel)*100 = QgVg/(Qf+Cpf Δtf)*100
• Hot gas efficiency = (total heat of gas)/(total heat of
gasified fuel)*100 = (Qg-Cpg Δtg)Vg/(Qf+Cpg Δtg)*100
• Comprehensive efficiency=(total heat of gas+heat in Cold gas efficiency
surplus steam)/(total heat of fuel+total heat of make up takes into account only
steam+ thermal equivalent of energy consumed)*100 produced gas calorific
• Gasification efficiency if often given as carbon value, but hot gas
efficiency=carbon in gas/carbon in fuel *100 = CgVg/Cf efficiency is produced
gas calorific value and
*100 sensible heat in relation
• Here: to input energy amount
• Qg= CV of gas gross or net kcal/Nm3, Qf=CV fuel gasified in the gasifier
gross or net, kcal/kg, Vg=gas yield Nm3/kg fuel, Cpg=avg sp
heat of gas kcal/Nm3 Δtg= gas temp above ambient deg C,
Cpf=avg sp heat of fuel kcal/kg, Δtf= fuel temp above ambient
temp, Cg= carbon content of gas, kg/Nm3, Cf= carbon content
of fuel, kg/kg
 Water gas
• Gaseous fuel of medium calorific value: 2800 kcal/Nm3 generated by
gasifying a solid incandescent source of carbon in superheated steam.
• C + H20 ⇌ CO+ H2, ΔH=+28,440 kcal
C + 2H20 ⇌ CO2+ 2H2, ΔH=+18,6000 kcal
• Other reactions: Methanation, water gas shift reaction, Boudouard
reaction.
• It burns with a blue flame due to CO and hence is known as blue gas.
• Uses: town gas, and in fertilizers and chemicals. For town gas, it can be
enriched with hydrocarbons to increase CV. This is known as carburetted
water gas. In production of fertilisers it is essentially used as a source of
hydrogen for ammonia synthesis. Also used as furnace fuels.
• Reaction is endothermic. Therefore economics has to be considered.
 Water gas
• Two main stages:
• The blow or blasting period during which the fuel bed is heated up by blowing air, through it.
• The run or gas-making period in which the blue gas is produced by passing steam through
incandescent fuel.
• Dry blast producer gas reactions take place during the blow, and wet blast producer
gas reactions take place during the run. The objective, however, is to accomplish only
Co2 production during the blow so that the maximum possible heat can be evolved by
burning a given quantity of carbon into carbon dioxide. This requires a thin bed. On
the other hand, the objectives during the run are to gasify the greatest possible quantity
of carbon into carbon monoxide and also to decompose the greatest possible quantity
of steam. These require a moderately thick fuel bed ensuring sufficient time of contact
for the reaction CO+H2 production. These requirements of the blow and the run are to
some extent incompatible.
• In modern generators, a deep fuel bed is used to achieve a good quality of blue gas and
high productivity of the plant. The formation of carbon monoxide during the blow is
minimised by increasing the air blowing rate. Moreover, the sensible and potential heat
content of the blow gas is recovered in waste heat boilers. The blow gas of a modern
generator may contain as high as 10% CO, the dioxide constituting about 14%. It rises
during the blow and falls during the run. The highest temperature during the blow is
limited by the clinkering tendency of the ash, and the lowest temperature during the
run is limited by the requirement of above 1.100°C of the reaction CO+H2 production.
In order to obtain a gas of uniform composition, the duration of individual stages in
the cycle should not be very large.
 Water gas
• The fuel bed temperature undergoes fluctuations during the process cycle. It rises
during working cycle of a six-stage process is shown below:
• Blow 1.00 min
• Steam purging 2s
• Up run (steaming upwards) 1.25 min
• Downrun (steaming downwards) 1.25 min
• Up run 0.5 min
• Air purging 2s
• The change of direction of steaming helps to maintain a uniform bed temperature.

• Steam purging prevents the mixing of the blue gas with the blow gas and air purging
ensures complete recovery of the blue gas remaining in the bed.

• The control of the cycle by valves is fully automatic. The normal fluctuation of the fuel
bed temperature is 1,400°C at the end of the blow, to 1,150°C at the end of the run. As
much as 45% of the carbon is consumed during it blow and only 55% during the run.
Hence the importance of heat recovery systems Modern blue gas generators may
produce as much as 3,00,000 Nm3/day of gas. The shell is water jacketed as in the case
of modern producers.
 Water gas
• The plant is operated in conjunction with a waste-heat boiler.
• The steam generated in the jacket and waste-heat boiler meets the plant
requirement and also provides some surplus.
• The gas yield is about 1,800 Nm3/t of daf coke. The steam consumption is
about 0.55 kg/Nm3 gas or about 1.0 kg/kg daf coke.
• The cold gas efficiency of a blue gas generator is about 63%. The overall
efficiency, including air requirement is about 1.8 Nm3/Nm3 gas or 3.2
Nm3/kg daf coke.the recovery of the potential heat of the blow gas, and
the sensible heats of both blow gas and blue gas is about 78%. The
gasification efficiency of a blue gas generator is the lowest of all fixed bed
gasification processes and is below the carbonization process used in coal
gas production.
 Water gas
• The blow gas is burnt on the outlet of the generator and the waste gases
are passed through a waste heat boiler to the atmosphere.
• During the run the waste heat boiler receives the sensible heat of the blue
gas. The dust in the blue gas is removed by passing it through a washer.
• Depending upon the use of the gas, further purification is resorted to for
removing tar, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and other impurities.
• The blue gas generation can be made continuous by blowing a mixture of
steam and oxygen through the hot fuel bed. A separate blow period is thus
eliminated. The resulting gas also passes through the hot fuel bed. A
separate blow period is thus eliminated. The resulting gas has a higher
proportion of carbon dioxide than normal blue gas.
• When water gas is produced for ammonia synthesis, a proportion of air is
added to the steam so as to get a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This is known as semi-water gas. With
suitable treatment, a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen in a desired
proportion is ultimately made from this gas.
• Most common fuel for water gas generator is hard coke with
uniform lumps and without fines. The ash should be refractory
in nature and its amount should be as small as possible.
Anthracite is also a good source.
• Disadvantages of bituminous: 1. Lower capacity of plant owing
to difficulty in keeping bed in good condition 2. Formation of
fines preventing use of high blast pressure. 3. Formation of
smoke from volatiles.
 Carburetted Water gas
• CV of blue gas is too low for it to be an effective gaseous fuel. Thus we have CWG by enriching blue gas
with HCs.
• Many petroleum oils undergo cracking at 700-750 C and produce methane, ethylene, propene and other
unsaturated hydrocarbons, all of which have high calorific value.
• Carburetted water gas is made by passing blue gas through a hot chamber, or carburettor into which an
oil is sprayed.
• The composition of the resultant mixture is obviously dependent upon many variable.
• The carburetted water gas is used as a substance for coal gas to me the seasonal and peak loads of gas
supply. Although the calorific value is similar, its higher specific gravity gives a poorer Wobbe index
compared to coal gas.
• A carburetted water gas plant consists of two additional units, namely, a carburettor and a superheater,
besides the blue gas generator and other accessories. These two units are filled with chequered bricks.
• The blow gas is burnt in the carburettor while the combustion is completed in the superheater. The
combustion gases then enter the waste-heat boiler and finally escape through the chimney. During the
run period oil is sprayed into the brickwork of the carburettor and the blue gas is passed through the
chamber. Cracking is completed in the superheater.
• Since cracking is an endothermic process the brickwork temperature falls and this is again heated up in
the blow period. The cyclic process of carburetion blue gas is well synchronised with the parent gas
generation process. The resultant gas is passed out. Some of the heat generated by the combustion of
blow gas in a carburettor and superheater is fed hack to the fuel bed for carrying out a back run. Steam is
blown through superheater and carburettor into the up of the fuel bed. Oil is sprayed into the steam. It
undergoes severe cracking on passage through the fuel bed. The back run increases the thermal
efficiency of the plant
 Complete gasification
• Lurgi process
• Winkler process
• Kopper-Totzek process
• Texaco process
 Coal gas
• Produced by high temp carbonisation of coal in gas retorts and ovens.
• Calorific value 5000 kcal/Nm3, sp gravity 0.4 → useful in home and
industries.
• Useful for production of synthesis gas. Coke oven gas → cheapest raw mat
for ammonia production.
• Steam reforming or low temp separation both gives H2.
 Blast furnace gas
• Combustion zone of blast furnace is at the bottom of the structure. The
combustion gases rise.
• C reduces CO2 to CO and decomposes steam into hydrogen and CO.
• These gases are known as blast furnace gas.
 Gases from biomass
• Biomass can be coverted to fuel gas as well as synthesis gas for chemicals, fertilisers
and liquid fuels.
• The present emphasis is on the production of gaseous fuels from biomass. There are
two routes to get gas from biomass: a thermochemical process and a biochemical
process.
• The term biogas is reserved for the product obtained by the biochemical conversion of
biomass Biomass can be partially gasified by carbonisation, which is essentially
pyrolysis. This process can be controlled in such a way that either only charcoal, or
charcoal and gas are produced as major products. In the former variant the medium
calorific gas is used up in the charcoal plant itself. In the other variant, auxiliary fuel is
used in firing the charcoal retort and the gas is released for other consumption.
• Wood is the main feedstock used in the carbonisation and total gasification of biomass.
If agriwastes are used in carbonisation, the charcoal emerges in the form of dust and
requires briquetting before it can be put to use.In order to achieve total gasification it is
necessary to use a gasifying medium like O2 and H2. Air is the most common of the
three and wood logs and chips are the main feedstock for the process which is widely
practised in many countries for producing a cheap fuel gas.
• The principle of wood gasification is similar to the principle of obtaining producer gas
from coal. However, the wood producers have longer zones for drying and
carbonisation than the coal producers. The wood producers are also suitable to easily
peat. A typicalgas composition, in per cent, is: CO, 6.0. CO 29.0. CH 2.5. CH 0.7. H, 14.5,
0, 0.3 and N, 47.0. Its calorific value is 1660 kcal/Nm dry and specific gravity 0.85.
 Biogas
• Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste by suitable bacteria → methane rich
gas called biogas.
• What organic wastes?
• Fermentation →2 stages → complex org matter decomposed to simple org. acids
→ acids get converted to CO2 and methane.
• Solid content of fresh dung is 20%, it is diluted to 7-9% with water and fed to the
pit like chamber. Temperature → 30-40 degC. First stage pH→6 when much CO2
is given off. In 2-3 weeks volatile acids and nitrogen compounds are digested
and methane is formed, pH then → 8. Slight mixing is good, but excessive
stirring is bad.
• Continuous operation. Digester and gas holder (floats at the top of digester).
• Output → 55-60% methane, 40-45% CO2. Yield of gas is 0.092m3/kg in summer
and 0.036m3/kg in winter.
• Residual slurry is rich in N2 and is a good manure.
• Biogas → uses?
 LPG
• Out of the gaseous hydrocarbons, the C3 and C4 compounds can be liquefied at room
temperature by the application of moderate pressure and can therefore be conveniently
stored and transported as liquids in light pressure vessels. These are known as
liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG or bottled gas.
• Two grades of this product: C3-hydrocarbons-commercial propane-and the C4-
hydrocarbons commercial butane—as the chief components. C4 is safer to handle with
storage pressure upto 3 atm and is freely used for domestic purposes.
• The C3,-hydrocarbons are liquefied and stored at higher pressures upto 10 atm and
used in industrial heating.
• Where only one grade is sold, it is a mixture of the two types containing higher
proportion of C4 -hydrocarbons. The lighter grade of LPG contains about 90%
propane, below 10% butane-iso-butenes and below 2% ethane-ethylene. The heavier
grade contains 80% to 90% butane-iso-butenes, below 20%propane-propene and below
2% ethane-ethylene.
• LPG is prepared from wet natural gas, associated gas and refinery gases. The
combustion characteristics of LPG differ greatly from the usual gaseous fuels. They
have high calorific value, high specific gravity, high air requirement and low flame
speeds. Suitable burners are available for using LPG in home and industry. Since LPG is
odourless it is necessary to add odorants, such as mercaptans or sulphides, to detect leakage.
 LPG
• When portable fuels are not easily available, LPG is quite popular in
industrial heating also.
• LPG also used as →a fuel for internal combustion engines of stationary
type and also those attached to vehicles, tractors and locomotives.
• Propane and butane gases may be used to enrich the low calorific value
gases in a town gas supply system upto the limits of permissible specific
gravity. Butane may also be diluted with air to get a suitable fuel. A
mixture of 20% butane and 80% air has a CV of 6,136 kcal/Nm dry and is
well outside the limits of inflammability of butane in air.
• Finally propane and butane may be reformed to get a gaseous fuel or
synthesis gas. Propane, butane and their olefinic counterparts are widely
used in refinery processes and in the production of petrochemicals.
LPG
LPG
 Oil gasification
• Two basic processes (achieved by cracking, addition of H, and removal of
carbon in form of coke, tar and oxides of carbon):
• Reduction in size of molecules
• Reduction in C/H ratio
• Overall reaction:
• CxHy + x/2 O2 ⇌ xCO+ y/2 H2 (partial oxidation)
• CxHy + xH2O ⇌ xCO + (x+y/2)H2 (steam reforming)
• Cracking and steam reforming reactions are highly endothermic while
oxidation is exothermic.
• Heat required by endothermic reaction →cyclic method of dividing the
process into blow and run periods, continuous method of burning a part
of feed in gasifier, using O2 and steam, external heating
• Oil gasification types: non-catalytic cyclic processes, catalytic cyclic
processes, continuous catalytic reforming, partial combustion processes,
hydrogenation processes
 Cleaning and purification of gaseous fuel
• Remove steam and tar vapours by condensing and electrostatic
precipitator
• Remove dust by dust chambers, cyclones, bag filters, electrostatic
precipitators, packed towers, spray towers, and centrifugal washers
• Remove sulphides by passing over ferric hydroxide
 Lurgi process
• Single stage, fixed bed process.
• 3 main parts → charging box (top), shaft (middle) and ash receiver
(bottom). Shaft is water jacketed.
• Solid ash → removed by a rotating grate.
• Solid fuels above 2 mm size are suitable.
• Superheated steam (450-500 C) and oxygen are used as gasifying medium.
• Continuous and autothermic.
• High pressure favours methanation reaction. Clinkering avoided by
maintaining high steam-oxygen ratio (10:1)
• Steam-oxygen ratio →controls H2 CO ratio.
• High pressure gas produced, and is useful for purification, and
subsequent distribution to produce NH3, CH3OH and liquid fuel.
• CV of purified gas is 3900 kcal/Nm3 and sp gr=0.48
 Lurgi process
• Cold gas efficiency of a commercial Lurgi plant maybe about 75-80% of the
heat in fuel.
• Rate of gasification → 0.2-1.1 tonnes/m2 per hour.
• Consumption of raw materials per Nm3 → fuel (22% ash, 2.5% moisture)
0.85kg, steam 1.4 kg and oxygen 0.21 Nm3 or 0.3kg
• Can be further treated to give SNG
 Winkler process
• Fluidized bed type, generator is brick lined cylindrical shaft, solid fuel is
below 8mm.
• Gasification medium O2+steam →charged from both bottom and top.
• Bed temp → 800-950 C
• Gasification efficiency → 80% (Carbon conversion), cold gas efficiency →
58%
• Consumption per Nm3 gas: lignite 1.1 kg, steam 0.31 kg, and O2 0.36 Nm3
or 0.51 kg.
• Disadvantage of the process: high dust carryover even with reactive fuels.
• CV → 2600 kcal/Nm3 dry, Sp gravity →0.7
 Koppers-Totzek process
• Gasification of pulverized fuel in suspension in O2 at 1 atm pressure in
presence of steam.
• Fuel size below 0.1 mm, temperature 1600 C.
• Heat is recovered from product gas (1000-1300 C).
• Advantages: Total gasification in single stage, Very low CH4 content and
absence of tar, versatility of fuel used, pressure is 1 atm, heavy oils
gasification
• Gas yield →1530 Nm3/t
• Consumption per Nm3 gas → coal 0.65 kg, steam 0.35 kg, oxygen 0.5 kg
 Texaco Process
• Entrainment system, finely ground coal < 0.074 mm is slurried with water
and pumped into gasifier.
• Temp of air/oxygen 1500 C, pressure 150 bar. Jet is downwards.
• CV= 2700kcal/Nm3, gasification efficiency is 75-80%.
• Calculate GCV and Wobbe index of a fuel gas having the following
composition, % by volume: CH4 89, C2H6 8, C3H8 2 and C4H10 1 .
• In a trial on a producer, following results are obtained: Gas yield=
3000Nm3/te of coke, CV of coke is 5800kcal/kg and CV of gas is 1600
kcal/Nm3. Find cold gas efficiency
 Biofuels
• The use of biofuels produced from renewable and biogenic materials has the tendency to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions, supplement the growing energy needs, improve the overall energy efficiency of
existing fuel systems, and invigorate employment in bio-based sectors. The large focus on biofuel
production could replace the use of gasoline and other fossil fuels in the near future. Several developed
and developing nations are emphasizing on developing their bioenergy market and established
intergovernmental strategies for the use of biofuels.

• Biofuels can be produced from a variety of feedstocks including agricultural crop residues, forestry
biomass, energy crops, livestock manure, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, industrial effluents, and
other organic waste streams. These waste materials are rich in organic matter that could be recovered for
conversion to biofuels through a variety of thermochemical and biochemical technologies.

• In a biorefinery perspective, biomass refers to a generic term for all organic material that could be
potentially converted to fuels and chemicals. Biomass is a renewable and non-fossil composite biogenic
organic material formed by natural or anthropogenic processes. It is obtained as a result of photosynthesis
in plants, algae, and some bacteria via the conversion of solar energy to carbohydrates and lipids. In
chlorophyll-containing living organisms, CO 2 reacts with water in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrates as the building blocks of biomass. Biomass broadly includes agricultural residues, forest
residues, wood processing wastes, dedicated energy crops, animal manure, poultry litter, municipal solid
wastes, industrial effluents, sewage sludge, and any other biogenic waste. It is indispensable to categorize
the diversity of biomass sources to better understand the type of biofuels they produce.
Biofuels
 1st, 2nd and 3rd gen biofuels
• The first-generation biomass mostly includes food crops; hence, they appear unjustifiable for
commercial use because of the food-versus-fuel controversies. The first-generation biomass
includes edible plant materials and crops such as corn, wheat, sugarcane, and food grains
(distillers grains).
• The second-generation biomass includes nonedible plant residues such as straw, wood,
grasses, etc. Unlike first-generation biomass (starch-based feedstocks) that can be directly
used in biorefineries for fuel production, the second-generation biomass requires a series of
pretreatment to recover the fermentable sugars. Therefore, the utilization of second-generation
biomass requires additional processing steps and operational cost for biofuel production.
• Tremendous amounts of agricultural crop residues are obtained throughout the world as a
result of agricultural and farming practices. Some commonly available agricultural biomasses
include wheat straw, barley straw, flax straw, paddy straw, corncob, corn stover, cotton stalk,
mustard stalk, canola meal, canola hull, flax fiber, jute bast, coconut coir, coconut shell, palm
seeds, rice husk, walnut shell, almond shell, cashew nut shell, hazelnut shell, peanut shell,
peach pits, plum pits, olive pits, apricot pits, sugarcane bagasse, etc. The forest residues from
softwood and hardwood species include stems, barks, twigs, cones, and needles. On the other
hand, wood processing facilities generate biomass in the form of sawdust, wood chips, lumps,
bales, pellets, and briquettes.
 1st, 2nd and 3rd gen biofuels
• Energy crops are considered as a second-generation feedstock due to their lignocellulosic
composition and as third-generation feedstock owing to their fast-growing properties and less
maintenance/nutrient requirement.

• Energy crops or dedicated energy crops are specifically cultivated for the purpose of
converting them into fuel and energy. The energy crops can be both herbaceous (temperate
grasses) and woody in nature. A few examples of energy crops are switchgrass, timothy grass,
elephant grass, reed canary grass, ryegrass, Miscanthus, alfalfa, bamboo, hybrid poplar, and
short rotation coppice.

• Perennial grasses are ideal energy crops because of high yield of biomass, round-the-year
availability, fast growth, less farming needs, low nutrient requirements, low cost of
production, tendency to regenerate in less fertile soil, and resistance to extreme weather
conditions.
 1st, 2nd and 3rd gen biofuels
• The third-generation biomass includes microalgae and macroalgae. Marine biomasses such as
seaweed, hyacinth, caltrop diatoms, duckweed, kelp, and Salvinia have candidacy for the
production of biofuels, especially biodiesel.
• Aquatic biomass is considered third-generation biomass and advanced biofuel feedstock due
to their perennial and inherent growth, high growth rate, as well as no competency with arable
land and crops for space, sunlight, and nutrients. While soybean and canola produce 200–450 l
of biodiesel, algae are capable of producing 61,000 l/ha of biodiesel. Algae can produce
different types of biofuels including bioethanol, biodiesel, syngas, and biohydrogen. Another
category of biomass includes animal manure (e.g., poultry litter, dairy manure, and swine
manure), municipal solid waste, industrial effluent (textile effluents, paper and pulp industry
wastes, tannery effluents, pharmaceutical wastes, etc.), and sewage sludge.
• Among all the categories of biomass, the major interest of biorefineries is on second-
generation and third-generation biomass. The 2nd-generation biomasses are mostly
lignocellulosic materials comprised of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. These components
have the candidacy for being transformed into energy-dense hydrocarbons and fine chemicals.
The conversion routes involve thermochemical and biochemical pathways and technologies
such as biomass-to-liquid (e.g. pyrolysis, liquefaction, and fermentation), biomass-to-gas
(gasification and methanation), and gas-to-liquid (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and syngas
fermentation)
 Demerits of 1st gen
• Social unacceptance and ethical concerns due to diversion of food crops as feedstocks,

• Lack of diversity in feedstock selection, and

• Competition for arable lands for cultivation of biofuel crops rather than harvesting food crops

Merits of 2nd gen

• In contrast, second-generation biofuels such as bioethanol (cellulosic ethanol) and biobutanol
do not pose any threat to the food supply or competition to arable lands. This is because
second-generation biofuels are derived from nonedible plant biomass, especially
lignocellulosic feedstocks.

• The use of second-generation biofuels can reduce the demand for first-generation biofuels and
avoid the direct competition with agricultural crop harvests.

• Additionally, second-generation biofuels have considerably lower greenhouse gas emissions

during their life cycle.
 Biodiesel
• Rudolf Diesel became the first person to use vegetable oil for his diesel fuel engine. During
1930–1940, initial use of biodiesel (vegetable oils) as fuel for diesel engines was witnessed.
• Biodiesel is an unconventional fuel source for the internal combustion engines and can be
chemically categorized as a combination of monoalkyl esters with long-chain fatty acids
extracted from biomass. The typical alkyl fatty acid chain in biodiesel ranges from C14 to C22
esters of ethanol or methanol. This chemical nature makes biodiesel a suitable substitute for
the conventional diesel fuel.
• There are various sources of vegetable oils that contain glycerides as a potential fuel source
replacing the conventional diesel fuel. The high heating power and sulphur-free exhaust gases
from vegetable oil-derived fuel combustion make it suitable for biodiesel production. Since
plants are the essential source of vegetable oils, their consumption as the fuel produces CO2
that is biologically recyclable. It is only due to the high viscosity of the biodiesel from
vegetable oils that a modification in the commercial diesel engine is required, as the rest of the
properties remain compatible.
• The kinematic viscosity of vegetable oil ranges from 30 to 40 cSt at 38 C. This viscosity is
almost 20 times higher than the viscosity of diesel fuel. The cetane number for vegetable oil
varies from 32 to 40, which makes it a better fuel.
• Another option to enhance the performance of biodiesel as a direct engine fuel is to blend it
with the conventional diesel as they are both miscible.
 Biodiesel
• The reaction for biodiesel production occurs in the presence of a suitable catalyst (usually a
strong base, e.g., NaOH or KOH) that leads to the production of methyl esters. These methyl
esters are termed as biodiesel.
• The major challenges for swapping diesel fuel with biodiesel are due to the high viscosity,
polyunsaturated nature, and low volatility of the biodiesel. Thus, the vegetable oils undergo
processing to produce a suitable biodiesel that has comparable properties to that of the
commercial diesel.
• The three main processes observed to achieve the target properties of biodiesel are pyrolysis,
transesterification, and microemulsions.
• Many feedstock materials have been tested for the production of biodiesel, which includes
palm oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, and tung oil. Animal fat has also
been explored as an alternative source of biodiesel, but it lacks detailed study as the vegetable
oil.
• Enzymatic transesterification has a great contribution toward biodiesel production. The
technologies related to biodiesel upgrading were reviewed focusing on transesterification
using a catalyst (acid or alkali), supercritical fluid, and lipase enzyme with an industrial
viewpoint. Transesterification is dominated by factors like reaction conditions, alcohol-to-oil
molar ratio, water contents of oils or fats, purity of reactants, and amount/type of catalyst.
 Biodiesel
• Although it is possible to use vegetable oil as fuel in the diesel engine in the form of biodiesel,
there are certain challenges that cannot be overlooked. A few of these problems are:
• The inefficient mixing of air with biodiesel that leads to high smoke emissions.
• The high flash point also attributes to lower volatility of biodiesel.
• High carbon deposition and failure of the injection nozzle in the diesel engine are other
common drawbacks.

• These problems bring a scope for chemical modification of biodiesel to make it compatible and
efficient for use in a diesel engine.

For additional information:

https://www.shell.com/energy-and-innovation/new-energies/biofuels.html#iframe=L3dlYmFwcHMvMjAxOV9CaW9mdWVsc19pbnRlcmFjdGl2ZV9tYXAv
 Biogas
• 55-65% methane, 30-40$ CO2 and rest impurities (H2, H2S, and N2)

• After biogas production by anaerobic digestion, the slurry remaining can be used as manure.

• General equation of anaerobic digestion: CxHyOz +(x-y/4-z/2) H2O → (x/2-y/8+z/4) CO2 + (x/2-
y/8+z/4)CH4 ,For cellulose this becomes: (C6H10O5)n + nH2O → 3n CO2 + 3n CH4
• 3 ranges of temperature favour particular types of bacteria: 20 C (psicrophilic), 35 C (mesophilic),
and 55 C (thermophilic).

• The biochemical process occur in 3 stages:

• Insoluble biodegradable materials, cellulose, polysaccharides and fats are broken down to
soluble carbohydrates and fatty acids. This occurs in about a day at 25 C in an active digester.
• Acid forming bacteria produce mainly acetic acid and propionic acid. This stage takes about
a day at 25 C.
• Methane forming bacteria slowly in 14 days at 25 C complete the digestion to 70% CH4, 30%
CO2 with some H2 and H2S. Keeping temperature constant is extremely important (Why?)

• Methane forming bacteria are sensitive to pH and conditions should be mildly acidic (pH 6.6-7)
 Advantages
• Decent CV
• Low running cost
• Slurry used as manure
• Stability
• Passage of effluents through digester reduces number of pathogens making disposal easy and
safe.
• Pollution.
 Factors affecting Biogas production
• pH →pH of the slurry changes at various stages. In the initial acid forming stage pH is around 6
or less. In the latter stages the pH increases as acids are digested. Sudden upset in the pH by
addition of any material is going to cause imbalance in bacterial population.
• Temperature → Methane bacteria work best between 35-38 C. Fall in gas production happens at
20 C and stops at 10 C. 3 zones (2 significant) in the anaerobic digestion process. Time required
for 90% digestion for two zones are showed. Even though thermophilic bacteria work at 55 C,
preferred zone is mesophilic (why?). Gross deviation in temp will severely affect rate of reaction
 Factors affecting Biogas production
• Total solid content: Cow dung is generally mixed in 1:1 proportion with water to bring the total
solid content to 8-10%. Adjusting this helps biodigestion at a faster rate.

• Loading rate: Amount of raw material fed to digester per day per unit volume. Too much raw
material at a time, acids will accumulate and fermentation will stop. However increasing loading
rate saves cost.

• Seeding: Methane forming bacteria reproduce and multiply slowly. Therefore artificial seeding is
done with a digested sludge that is rich in methane formers.

• Uniform feeding: Consistency (including time of the day).

• Carbon nitrogen ratio of the input material: Carbon is used for energy and nitrogen to build cell
structure. Bacteria use carbon 30 times faster than nitrogen. Therefore their ratio has to be
proportional. Other conditions being favourable a carbon nitrogen ratio of 30:1 will make sure
digestion happens at an optimum rate. Too much carbon, nitrogen will be used up first. Slowing
of digester happens. On the other hand too much nitrogen and fermentation stops. Nitrogen left
over with combine with hydrogen to form ammonia. This will kill the growth of bacteria.
Therefore optimum ratio = 30:1
 Factors affecting Biogas production
• Diameter to depth ratio: Research suggests that gas production per unit volume of digester
capacity was maximum when the diameter to depth ratio was in the range of 0.66 to 1. But
reports from field is not satisfactory. Digesters of 16 ft depth and 4-5 ft diameter were reported to
be working optimally. (What could be the reasons?)

• Nutrients: Major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur. Nitrogen and phosphorous are always in short supply.
Therefore balance has to be maintained.

• Mixing the content of the digester: Bacteria have limited reach. Therefore slight mixing improves
fermentation. However violent agitation retards the process. No mixing results in stratification of
the slurry into 3 stages: scum at the top, digested sludge at the bottom (actively digesting sludge
on top of well digested sludge) and thin liquid called supernatant between the two. Scum at the
top is rich in volatile acids and mixing brings the methane bacteria from the bottom of the
digester into contact with volatile acids to make sure the entire slurry is well digested.

• Retention time or rate of feeding: Depends on type of feed stocks and temperature. Normal value
of retention period is between 30 and 45 days and in some cases 60 days.
 Factors affecting Biogas production
• Periods of retention for different materials are: cow and buffalo dung → 50 days, pig dung →20
days, Poultry dropping →20 days, human excreta →30 days. Temperature plays an important
role. It is calculated by dividing the total capacity of the digester by the rate at which the organic
matter is fed into it. Retention time should not be less than 2-4 days.

• Type of feed stocks:

• Toxicity: Digested slurry if kept in the digester for too long becomes toxic for microorganisms
and causes their death and subsequent fall in fermentation rate. Biological systems need some
trace elements like calcium, magnesium, potassium etc. Production of biogas is reduced when
these trace elements are present in higher concentration.

• Pressure: Reaction better at lower pressure

• Acid accumulation : Intermediate products like acetic, propionic, butyric acids are produced,
during the process of biodigestion. This causes decrease in pH.
 Classification of biogas plant
• Mainly classified as
• Continuous and batch type
• Dome and drum types
• Different variation in drum types

• Continuous and batch type

• Continuous → Single digester, process happens without interruption except for repair and
cleaning. The process could be completed in single stage or separated into 2 stages:
• Single stage → Entire process of conversion of complex organic compounds into biogas is
completed in a single chamber. This chamber is regularly fed with raw materials while
spent residue is moved out. Agricultural residues can cause some problems.
• Double stage → Acidogenic stage and methanogenic stage are physically separated into 2
chambers. Only diluted acids are fed into the second chamber where methanation takes
place. Fermenting higher fibrous plant materials is difficult, therefore 2 stage process
may offer higher potential of success. However appropriate technology suiting to rural
India is needed to be developed based on double stage process.
Classification of biogas plant
 Classification of biogas plant
• Main features of continuous plants are:
• Produce gas continuously
• Requires small digestion chambers
• Lesser period for digestion
• Easier in operation

• Batch plant: Feeding is between intervals, the plant is emptied once the process of digestion is
complete. In this type, a battery of digesters are charged along with lime, urea etc. and allowed
to produce gas for 40-50 days. Charged and emptied in a synchronous manner, which maintains
a regular supply of the gas through a common gas holder. Sometimes a freshly charged digester
is aerated for a few days after which it is closed to atmosphere. Biogas supply maybe utilized
after 8-10 days. Expensive to install and unless operated on a large scale it would not be
economical. Installed in European countries. Installation and operation → capital and labour
intensive. Main features:
• Gas production intermittent
• Several digesters needed
• Good for fibrous plant materials
• Additional fermented slurry needed to start digestion
• Expensive and has larger operational cost
 Classification of biogas plant
• Dome and drum types: Two main types:
• Floating gas holder and
• Fixed dome digester
• Floating gas holder → used in India → known as KVIC plant and the fixed dome digester
is known as the Chinese plant. There are different shapes in both designs → cylindrical,
rectangular, spherical etc. Maybe vertical or horizontal. The digesters can be both above
or below the ground. Gas holder is separate in floating gas holder plant and the main
demerits are the rusting of the holder and the additional cost of the gas holder.
• In fixed dome digester, the gas holder and the digester are combined. The fied dome is
best suited for batch process especially when daily feeding is adopted in small quantities.
Fixed dome is usually built below the ground and is suitable for cooler regions. Local
materials can be used for its construction. Pressure inside the digester can vary as the gas
is collected.
• Different variations in the drum type : Two main variations in the floating drum type. One
with water seal and the other without.
• Water sealing makes the plant completely anaerobic and corrosion of the gas holder
drum is also reduced.
• Horizontal plants are suited for high ground water levels or rocky areas. These aren’t
recommended when retention time is less than 30 days.
 Classification of biogas plant
• Cylindrical shapes are preferred (Why?)
• Scum formation is also reduced in cylindrical shapes
Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating Drum plant
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating Drum plant
• Less scum troubles because solids are constantly submerged
• No separate pressure equalizing device needed when fresh waste is added to the tank or
digested slurry is withdrawn.
• Danger of oxygen mixing and therefore explosion is minimized
• Higher gas production per cubic meter of digester volume is achieved
• Rotation helps in mixing and further reduction in scum content.
• No gas leakage
• Constant gas pressure

• Higher cost
• Heat loss through metal gas holder
• Gas holder maintenance
• Pipe joining gas holder and main gas pipe has to flexible to adjust for rotation and therefore
maintenance cost shoots up.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fixed dome type plant
• Lower cost
• No corrosion
• Heat insulation better
• No maintenance
• Fibrous plants can be used

• Skilled masonry required, problematic in rural areas

• Gas production per cubic meter is also less
• Scum formation as no stirring
• Variable gas pressure
 Selection of site for a biogas plant
• Distance → For a plant capacity of 2 m3 the optimum distance is 10m
• Minimum gradient → For conveying the gas a minimum gradient of 1 % must be made
available for the line
• Open space → Exposure to sunlight
• Water table → for underground construction
• Seasonal runoff →
• Space → 10-12m2
• Availability of water
• Raw materials
 Digester sizing
Energy from biogas digester= η Hb Vb
η = combustion efficiency
Hb= heat of combustion per unit volume
Vb= Volume of biogas

E= η Hm FmVb
Hm = heat of combustion of methane
Fm = fraction of methane in the biogas

Volume of biogas Vb = m0* C

M0=mass of dry input
C=biogas yield volume per unit dry mass

Volume of fluid in digester Vf= m0/ρ

ρ=density of slurry (or just dung if water not added)

Volume of digester Vd = Vf * tr
Tr = retention time
 Digester sizing
5 cows, retention time = 20 days, temp = 30 C, dry matter consume per day = 2 kg, biogas yield
= 0.24 m3/kg. Efficiency = 60 % methane proportion = 0.8, Heat of combustion of methane = 28
MJ/m3, density dung = 50 kg/m3
Calculate 1. Volume of biogas digester
2. Power available