UNIT 16 WORKING ENVIRONMENT AND

HUMAN PRODUCTIVITY
Structure
16.1 Introduction
Objectives
16.2 Work Loads
16.2.1 Heavy Work
16.2.2 Light Work
16.2.3 Repetitive Work
16.2.4 Non-Repetitive Work
16.3 Fatigue
16.4 Adverse Effects of Fatigue
16.5 General Principles for Carrying Out the Physical Activities
16.6 Ergonomics during Training for Skill
16.6.1. Short Training Period
16.6.2 Division of Work into Small Operations
16.6.3 Straight Control and Good Examples
16.6.4 Adjustment of Body Organs
16.6.5 Psychological Factors in Training
16.6.6 Organisation of Tools and Material
16.7 Rules and Regulations to Encounter Fatigue
16.8 Human Needs Considerations for Work Organisation
16.9 Effects of Environment
, 16.9.1 Noise
16.9.2 Thermal Comfort
16.9.3 Lighting
16.10 Summary
16.1 1 Key Words
16.12 Answers to SAQs

16.1 INTRODUCTION
After the World War-I, the industries have started demanding more human efficiency
and the situation became worse with the outbreak of World War I1 due to the rapid
growth and developments in technology. The time study and motion studies have shown
a way to the industrialists to eliminate the waste elements. Then for further improvement
in the human efficiency and in the mode of movements made by the workers while
working became the primary concern to the industrialists to improve their productivity.
The studies have seen light how the improper working conditions were hampering the
human efficiency. As a part of this study, many questions have borne in minds of
industrialists such as :
(a) Does environment affect the productivity?
(b) Does working conditions lower the human capabilities and performance?
(c) To what extent, if so, the environmental conditions affect the human
efficiency?
(d) Can we increase the productivity by improving working conditions?
Ergonomics (e) Do the actions of human body and the gestures or postures have any affect
on working efficiency?
Well, all such questions have resulted in positive answers. This attracted many research
groups to know to what extent and how the human performance and capabilities could be
enhanced by improving working conditions.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

explain the role of ergonomics in performing a job,

describe the factors affecting the productivity,
understand the environmental effects on human productivity,
understand and implement the work science,

observe the natural laws of work.

build-up a work culture that respects bioengineering, and
understand fatigue and can take the measure to reduce fatigue.

16.2 WORK LOADS

In respect o f energy expenditure on performing a job, the workload can be classified into
four categories. These are :
(a) Heavy work,
(b) Light work,
(c) Repetitive work, and
(d) Non-repetitive work.

16.2.1 Heavy Work

Heavy work is defined as the work, which requires strenuous physical effort during the
work period this is measured in terms o f kilo calories of energy required to consume. But
the ~neasurernentof huinan energy is very difficult. Therefore it is measured indirectly 4

by means of measuring oxygen consumption by human body as it is directly related to

work out put. Pulse rate measurement is another ~netliodoften used. This again depends
on many other factors such as age, sex, weight, height, physique, environmental 4
conditions and mental conditions.
Scholz conducted some experiments on the energy expenditure in terms of pulse rate
while Spitzer formulated in terms of calorific values by oxygen consumption for
calculating the rest pauses.

16.2.2 Light Work

Light work is that job in which hardly any muscular fatigue occurs. If the work is
continuous then there is a possibility of development o f boredom or monotony. Murrel
proposed some rest pause for this, as he observed finite length of active period in work
afier which the performance started deteriorating.

16.2.3 Repetitive Work

This is the continuous work which is cyclic (Repetitive) in nature. It is observed that the
out put started to fall down after every 2% hours. Hence a rest pause about 5 to 10
minutes is advised.
16.2.4 Nan-Repetitive Work Working Enviro
and Human Producr~v~ry
These are again divided into three groups :
(a) Continuous task with physical content nil, e.g. Radar watch keeping.
(b) Continuous task with physical content with light muscular activity (that
requires alertness) e.g. driving a taxi.
(c) Discontinuous task with variable physical content, e.g. working in store.
Alertness and sharpness are required in above works which will cause mental strain also.
Hence rest pauses are required depending on the type and nature of work.
SAQ 1
(a) What are the different types of work loads? Give suitable examples.
(b) Distinguish between the following with reference to energy expenditures.
(i) Heavy work and light work.
(ii) Repetitive and non-repetitive work.

Activity 1
List out all the works and work loads in your organisation or the one you are
familiar with. Classify them into various categories. Check whether the pay terms
are in accordance with the work loads.

16.3 FATIGUE
It is physical orland mental status of a human being developed due to continuous work or
environmental conditions, which result in lowering the efficiency or increasing rate of
rejection or stoppage of work. In terms of physiology fatigue occurs in two types viz.
muscular fatigue and general fatigue. Muscular fatigue is the phenomenon of occurrence
of pains and strains in muscles due to over stress while the general fatigue is sensation or
mental status that reduces readiness to work or to use energy.
Based on the causes of occurrence the fatigue is classified into five types. These are :
Visual Fatigue
Fatigue is caused through eyestrain.
General Physical Fatigue
This is caused due to physical stress on the whole organism of human body.
Mental Fatigue
It is caused by continuous mental work or monotony.
Nervous Fatigue
The fatigue caused by psychomotor functions.
Chronic Fatigue
It is caused in a high volume by number of persistent factors.
Industrialists and industrial Engineers observed many diverse stresses as root causes that
result in straining the humanbeings either physically or mentally. These stresses are
caused by :
(a) Monotony
(b) Boredom
(c) Intensity of work (physical or mental or both)
(d) Duration of work (continuous)
(e) Environmental conditions (climatic, light, noise, thermal, etc.)
(f) Psychology (responsibility, worries, conflicts, etc.)
(g) Health conditions (illness, pains, nutritional status).

16.4 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

If proper measures are not taken to reduce fatigue, the following effects may be
resulted :
(a) Poor efficiency and thus reduced productivity.
(b) Increased rejection rate.
(c) Reworking or repairing, which consumes extra money and productive tiine
and lost efforts.
(d) Frequent occurrence of accidents.
(e) Loss of interest to the operator on doing the job.
(f) Disturbed production line.
(g) Tiredness and giddiness in the worker due to which his health will be
affected.
(h) Slowdown of work.
(i) Increased number of absentees.
(j) Unsatisfied worker.
16.4.1 Working Efficiency - Muscular Fatigue
Fatigue is a common phenomenon when a man is working. As the fatigue increases, the
performance of muscle gradually decreases until there is no response to stimulation. This
phenomenon of decreasing performance of a muscle after stress is called muscular fatigue
and this leads to both the decrease of force and greater tiine needed for the muscular
movement.
There are two basic theories to explain the existence of muscular fatigue :
The Chemical Theory
It proposes that the decrease in energy reserves and increase in waste products in
the muscle fibre are the causes of loss of efficiency of the muscle subjected to fatigue.
The Central Nervous System 'Theory
This looks upon the chemical changes in fatigued muscle as being merely the
trigger to the process. The chemical changes cause nervous impulses to pass along
sensory paths to the brain where they are perceived by the cortex as muscular
fatigue. These iinpulses inhibit the centres in the brain responsible for control of
movement, and there is a consequent decrease in frequency of action potentials in
the motor neurons. This leads to a decrease in force and rate of muscular
contraction and the slowing of voluntary movement.
 The most important aspect of 'Fatigue' developed under different conditions was Working Environ~nent
studied and made two major recommendations in order to reduce fatigue of any and 11~111lrn
Protlueti\it)

body member. These are :

(a) Study of general principle for carrying out the physical activities.
(b) Study of working conditions.
SAQ 2
(a) What is fatigue? Brief out different types of fatigues.
(b) What are the adverse effects of fatigue?
(c) How does the fatigue occur in human beings? Explain the theory of
mechanism of causing fatigue.
(d) Explain the ~nuscularfatigue mechanism. How does fatigue affect work
efficiency?

Activity 2
Conduct an experiment on at least 10 people of doing same/similar work and
record the time that each gets a fatigue. Conduct the same experiment several
times the same people on different timings and different environmcnts if possible.
For each person, record the time of reaching fatigue. Try to assess the reason and
give your justification.

16.5 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR CARRYING OUT

THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
In case if a physical activity needs considerable energy consumption, then the necessary
movements of the body members are to be structured to allow the respective muscles to be
used with the greatest possible force. Thence, the muscle can perform its function with
the highest efficiency and skill. Thus, for deriving the highest efficiency, we need to
have a sound knowledge of muscular force (in expansion and contraction), lever systems of
the bone and joints. The following are the guidelines noteworthy in this regard.

16.5.1 Guidelines for Body Postures

Certain body postures can develop the greatest power. Some of them are given below :
(a) Extension of the elbow is most powerful when it starts in a hlly flexed
position.
(b) When sitting and pushing with the hands, the greatest force can be exerted
with the elbow at 150'-160'.
(c) The highest hand grip will be at a distance of about 70 cm from the back
rest.

(d) With levers, maximum force in the sitting position is developed when the
hand grip is at a height between shoulder and elbow.
Ergonomics (e) With levers, for maximum force in the standing position, the grip should be
at shoulder height.
(f) In the standing position, more force can be developed when puffing
backward than when pushing forward.
(g) Movements across the front of the bodies are more powerful when pushing
than when pulling.
(h) A seated operator can develop the strongest thrust on a pedal with knee
flexion of 160" and an ankle flexion 120".
(i) The greatest ease at rest is gained w i t h a k n e e flexion of 105°-1350,
(j) Static work should either be avoided or at least reduced to a minimum.
16.5.2 Guidelines to Organise the Work
To develop efficient way of carrying out an activity, the following guidelines may be
helpful :
(a) Avoidance of all stooping or unnatural body positions.
(b) Lateral flexion of the trunk or of the head is more strenuous than bending
forward.
(c) A slight forward inclination of the body demands the least static work and is
therefore the most comfortable.
(d) A constantly extended position of the arms, either forward or sideways
should be avoided - such positional not only quickly lead to fatigue, but also
considerably diminish the precision and general skill of any arm or hand
activity.
(e) Always aim for a sitting position at work - work places allowing changes
from sitting to standing can also be recommended.
(f) The arms should move either together or in opposite direction - persistent
movement of one arm only results in fatiguing static contraction of other
body musculature.
(g) Opposite or symmetrical movements also permit a more precise nervous
control of manual activity.
16.5.3 Guidelines for Layout of Work Place
4

Ln carrying out number of activities, static work and unnatural body positions are to be
resulted because of badly designed work benches or machines. It is, therefore. necessary
to follow certain rules for the layout of work places : J

(a) Supports should be upholstered with felt or other soft material to prevent
static strain.
(b) The supports should be adjustable, so that they can be fitted to
individual requirements.
(c) The foot grid, shaped to fit the normal movements of the legs also gives
necessary support.
(d) For work and the bars of the foot rest should be much closer together to
prevent their shoe heels becoming trapped.
(e) The height of the working area (height of the work table) must be such that I

the work can be clearly seen (optimal visual distance) with a comfortable
body posture.
(f) The smaller the object, the shorter must be the optimal visual distance and
the greater the height of the working area. This layout would allow the I
I
arm to take up a natural position so that static stress is avoided.
 (g) Hand grips, levers, tools and other itnplements should be so arranged on kvnrklng Environment
and Human Productivity
the work - bench that the most frequent lnove~nentsare performed with
the hands close to the body and with the elbows flexed.
(h) The Static work can be eliminated or considerably reduced by the
provision of supports for the elbows, forearms and hands.
(i) The greatest power and skill for the bends occur when they are 25-30cms
away from the eyes, the elbows being bent to a right angle and close-to
the trunk.
16.5.4 Guidelines for Lifting and Carrying Loads
When loads are lifted or carried, the prevention of damage to the spine should be
carefi~llylooked into. The health hazard, particularly disc slip is very common. It
~nostlyoccurs to the physically active workers. Therefore, while lifting the heavy loads
keeping back in bent round and legs straight position, high pressure can be developed
on the periphery of the disc and thus increases the risk of rupture. Straight back, the
pressure is equally distributed and the danger of accidents is reduced. Hence. it is
necessary to follow certain rules to prevent back stress.
(a) Carrying heavy loads are physiologically wasteful and very dangerous.
(b) All the obstacles around should be removed before lifting.
(c) Whenever, the Load is to be lifted from the ground mechanical aids
(pulley, hooks) are advisable.
(d) The load should be held as near as possible to the body.
(e) The back should be kept straight, back may cause slip disc. However. luxes
can be bent.
(f) The m a x i ~ n u ~height
n for gripping the load should be 40 cm above the
floor.
(g) The ~naxirnu~n load to be lifted by men should be 50 kg, and for women, it
should be 20 kg.
(h) When carrying, it is advisable to hold the loads as near as possible a vertical
line through the centre of gravity of the body. This reduces the effort of
balancing and avoids unnecessary static muscular activity. Therefore,
carrying a load with the help of yoke is best from a physiological point of view.
(i) Carrying two small loads with the hands hanging down on either side of the
body is more advisable than carrying one load in one hand only.
16.5.5 Guidelines for Considerations of Seats, Tables and Work Place
and Suitable Body Postures
When work place (tables, seats etc) are in consideration, one has to ensure that the most
*
natural body postures and body movements are used. However, 20% deviation in body
measurements is allowed to consider in the work place layout (Figures 16.1 and 16.2). In
order to have the maximum efficiency, certain guidelines should be followed :

Work~ngarea area

Figure 16.1 : \Vorkplace for Sitting Posture for Office or Clerical Work
Ergonolnics
Normal working are
finaer wrist and elbow movement

Figure 16.2 : Workplsce for Sitting Posture for Working using Fingers

When the worker needs to work with hand in standing position, the height
of the working area should be 5-1 0 cms below the height of the elbow.
When laying out a work-bench one must allow space for equipments, tools
and containers so that the movement is not impaired.
If the standing work requires a considerable effort by the muscles of the
upper body (lifting heavy parts, strong down-ward pressures during
assembly, etc.) the bench height must be much lower.
One needs higher benches when the work is done partly with supported elbows
(zero line -the height of the elbow) for carrying out precision work.
When using non-adjustable tables one should take for the taller. rather than
the smaller person into consideration.
When silting at work, a working area several centimeters below elbow
height is also to be preferred -this kind of work is usually of a precise
nature, the height of work has to be adjusted to the necessary visual
distance. The aim should be comfortable and relaxed posture.
It is important while working, the field of work requiring constant visual
control should be positioned to allow a comfortable head position for the
operator.
Most comfortable head position while sitting is one with the line of sight
32"-44" below horizontal.
Most co~ufortablehead position while standing work is 23"-37".
Medical and ergonomic sciences have always been advocating that the
workers should be seated whenever possible.
The reasons being that less stress are developed in the legs; unnatural
postures can be avoided; energy consumed is less while disadvantages being
that constant sitting leads to slackened abdominal ~nusclesand the
development of a rounded back.
Stooping with sitting is also disadvantageous for inner body organs.

16.6 ERGONOMICS DURING TRAINING

FOR SKILL
Highly skilled work needs rapid and fine adjustment of a delicate body member
movement. It is resulted owing to large quantity of nervous information (input) and
motor control in the brain. From the physiological point of view, the process of learning
generally consists of preparing the way for automatic controls. One learns gradually to
eliminate all unnecessary contractors of the muscle groups not required for the work i n
question. This explains why the master looks relaxed while the beginner appears tense
and labouring. It also explains the decrease in energy consumption during the training Working Envirnnmrnt
period, although the performance remains the same. Simply, more and more unnecessary and Productivity
niovernents and muscle contractions are eliminated; Training of the skilled workers has
two phases viz. lear~iingof movement and adjustment of the organs involved. The
process of training therefore, occurs mainly in the brain, where the establishment of
automatic controls ensures the fine adjustment and coordination required for swift and
accurate movements. Such training may include short training periods; division of work
into operations; strict and adjustment of body organs.
16.6.1 Short Training Period
The hunian automatic controls demand greater concentration. Long training periods in
the beginning cause fatigue and reduce concentration. One can conclude that the greater
the skill imparted, the shorter should be the training period while there may be four
sessions of duration ranging from 15-30 minutes per day. This period may gradually be
lengthened.
16.6.2 Division of Work into Small Operations
On the basis of co~nprehensivework-study, the complete process (activity) should be
broken clown into small operations or stages. This will indicate which are likely to limit
the performance due to their difficulty. Each single operation should be practiced
extensively and later individual s~nalloperations can be practised in series.
16.6.3 Straight Control and Good Examples
Wrong ~nove~nents must be avoided at every cost. The younger people can be trained
easily since limitation decreases with advancing age. Use as much as possible the visual
aids (drawings, films, etc).
16.6.4 Adjustment of Body Organs
This brings gradual changes in muscles. With exercise and very swift ~nove~nents lead not
only to an increase in strength but also to a reduction of non-~nusculartissue and internal
~nirsclefriction. This also allows an increase in the speed of movements.
16.6.5 Psychological Factors in Training
Stress of skilled work depends largely on the degree of conscious participation. The
higher the conscious demand (perception, vigilance) the greater is the stress. All the
movements should be executed under visual control. Levers, switches, hand wheels and
instrument displays should be so placed that they can easily be seen and operated without
changing the normal body position.
Suitable lighting, shade and colour should be used to enhance the visibility of all work
elements and to increase the speed of perception. Physiological requirements of light and
colour as well as problems of organisation of information in man-machine system will be
given later on
To increase the alertness, acoustic stimuli can be used. However, unexpected and
discontinued noise disturbs vigilance more than continuous noise. Therefore, a familiar
continuous noise can serve as a background noise. Visual distraction by third person and
strong noise should be avoided. Sequence of operations should be matched by a
sequential arrangement of the control so that movements follow each other in logical
order.
16.6.6 Organisation of Tools and Material
Tools. equipment and material should be so arranged on the work-space which can
enhance the efficiency of the workers. Activities may need more coordinates muscular
activity. Following rules are important and should be considered :
(a) Skilled operations should not follow a large physical effort. If skilled
operations entail great physical effort, then severely taxed muscles cannot
control and coordinate to carryout the work. So static stresses should also
be avoided within the body member, if skilled operation is be carried out.
Ergonomics (b) Horizontal movements are more precise than vertical ones. Circular
movements are better than zig-zag ones. Movements towards the body are
easier to control than move~nentsaway from the body.

(c) Serial movements should flow rhythmically. Movements wliich start

suddenly or stop suddenly are more difficult to control and cause fatigue.

(d) The arrangement of materials. tools, components should ensure the flowing
movement, i.e. when a series of activity has been completed, the operators
should be near to the initial starting position. Requirements should be
arranged in front of the operator in semi-circle (Figure 16.3).

(e) In two handed operations, the effort should be equally divided. All
movements should start and end at the same time for both the hands.

(f) A free rhythm is superior to any kind of imposed rhythm, in doing so energy
expenditure is less, motor control is easier, and fatigue is less.

160
14 Y
Dimension in Centrimeter
35-45 cm optimum grasping distance. 55-65 cms.

Figure 16.3 : Maximum Grasping Distance and Effective Working Area

SAQ 3
(a) Describe the ergonomic conditions and guidelines for body postures to get
best output of the work.
(b) Give some guidelines to organise the work place with reference to
ergonomic designing.
(c) List out the guidelines for lifting and carrying work loads with reference to
ergonomic studies.
(d) Explain the ergonomic guidelines and principles for designing the products
like seats and tables.
(e) Discuss the ergonomic principles to be considered while training the people.
(0 Describe the guidelines to be followed in arrangement of tools and materials
at work place in view of enhancing the human productivity.

Activity 3
Observe the seats or chairs at different places such as a dining chair, executive
chair. a chair in a cinema hall, a seat in bus, a seat in car, etc. check the
dimensions such as height from ground, width, back rest dimensions, etc. Do you
find any variation? Justify.
-- --
Working Environment
16.7 RULES AND REGULATIONS TO ENCOUNTER and l l u m r n Productivity
FATIGUE
Investigations have shown that the fatigue can be reduced or removed by the following
certain rules and regulations. The following rules are proven and are accepted
internationally.
(a) Duration of work in a 24-hr day should be 8 to 8 !h hours. Experiments have
shown 3 to 10% of increased performance by reducing working hours from
8 % hrs to 8 hours.
(b) Working for 5 or 6 days week allowing the 7thday for rest. Research of
American Labour Office has shown that changing 6 day week to 5 day week
has no effect on loss of output as was expected but has shown significant
hourly performance. Therefore medical and physiological strand
recommend bringing the changes in working hours, number of working days
per week and the rest periods.
(c) Overtime work is another reason for fatigue. It may be economical in short
runs but was adverse effects in long run. However Government has imposed
certain restrictions on overtime working through labour legislation.
Children below 18 years, expectant mothers and any human suffering from
illness or chronic diseases and drunken or intoxicated people should not be
allowed to work on overtime. Similarly a maximum overtime period
allowed is also restricted and rest pauses are clearly specified. The readers
are advised to go through the labour legislation and make a note of this.
(d) Allow the rest pauses by treating indispensively physiological requirements
for preservation of work capacity of an individual. The rest pauses are
usually referred to as
(i) spontaneous pauses
(ii) disguised pauses
(iii) work condition pauses
(iv) Prescribed pauses.
Spontaneous Pauses
They are somehow arranged by the workers making themselves relieved
from stresses such as Yawning. They are not long lasting and appear during
strenuous work and may appear frequently.
Disguised Pauses
These are rest periods of secondary work and are not necessarily to be taken
at a specified moments of task. These are taken by the operator during the
cleaning of the machine or bench, sitting comfortably while work is being
processed, stopping the machine and consulting with his foreman. etc.
Work Condition Pauses
These are pauses taken by the workers by the virtue of waiting due to
technical or work condition demands or delays in predecessor activity or
waiting for some components, etc. for example the following activity of
painting has to wait till it is dried up. Similarly certain activity has to be
done after a tool is cooled down. some activity where the apparatus is
warmed up are waiting till ambient temperature is obtained or the job has to
wait till machine is adjusted or idle run or repaired, etc.
Prescribed Pauses
In certain operations like move~nentof material on conveyor belt. the pilot
of an aeroplane a bus driver on driving operation, etc. it is not possible to
 take rest while the operator is on job. Hence a rest pause is prescribed at
suitable period of operation and is allowed for relieving his stresses. In
general the total rest period should amount to at least 15% of the working
time. For heavy work the rest pauses are evenly distributed while for lighter
work 10 to 15 minutes twice in a day will be required.

SAQ 4
(a) What are the rules and regulations to encounter fatigue?
(b) What are the various rest pauses?

Activity 4
Observe the type of fatigue and its intensity on about 10 people in the following
jobs. (Observe after how much time of work, they are facing fatigue)
(a) A typist and a computer operator

.............................................................................................
(b) A TV viewer and a viewer in a theatre

............................................................................................
(c) An operator on an conventional lathe and a CNC lathe
............................................................................................

............................................................................................
(d) A passenger traveling in first class, second class and general compartments:
............................................................................................
............................................................................................

16.8 HUMAN NEEDS CONSIDERATIONS FOR

WORK ORGANISATION
Sitting Position
As the sitting position is most comfortable to any human being, as far as possible
the designer of work place has to aim for 'sitting position' of work. If it is
impossible to consider the sitting position due to the nature of work, then only the
standing position is to be considered. The body dimensions of an average human
in sitting position are shown in the Figure 16.4.
 Forearm + Working Environment
Men 475 ,p
4
kVomen 438 ILength of hand I and Human Productivity

Height of
Knee
Men 522
Women 47

Knee back
Men 468
Women 466

(a) Body Dimensions of an Average Human in Sitting Posture

(b) Correct Sitting Posture for Reading and Painting Works

(c) Normal Sitting Posture

Figure 16.4

Standing Position
When it is inevitable, the standing position is designed instead of sitting position.
For example, plastering the ceiling, fitting a ceiling fan, painting a wall sign
board, painting a car, umpiring a cricket match, a bearerlwaiter of a restaurant, etc.
are to be done in standing position only. The working condition of such standing
position are designed by certain norms as shown in the following Figures 16.5(a)
and (b).
Ergonomics

(a) Body Dimensions of an Average (b) Angles of Sight in Standing

Man in Standing Posture Posture for Visual Work

(c) Correct standing Posture (Middle) (d) Normal standing posture

(e) Correct Standing Posture (9 Correct walking posture

Figure 16.5

Depending on the degree of precision, the work table for standing posture should
be 50 to 100 mm below the elbow height (elbow height is 1040 for males and 980
for females). Usually, 50 mm is used for precision work and 100 mm for light
work.
 In light of the above, the recommended dimensions for the seats, foot rests, Working Environment
working table and work area are shown in the following figures : and Human Productivity

Figure 16.6 : Important Recommended Dimensions for Working Seats, Tables and Foot Rest

A '
740-780men
700-740 women women
v

(a) Recommended Tables Heights for Office Work and Typing Work

(b) Correct Sitting Posture for Ticket Counter and Cash Counter

(c) Sitting Posture for Computer Operator

 Wrong Wrong Right

r lgurr lo. I

Unnatural Positions
All the unnatural body positions should be avoided to reduce the fatigue. The
muscles will be subjected to tension when a workman works in cramped working
positions. Observe various figures given under this Section, i.e. from 16.4
to 16.16.
Tiring Works
The tiring works such as holding a weight with an arm stretched, the supports for
hands, arms and elbows should be designed with soft rubber or felt lining.
Continuous Loads
When a load is continuous the provision for the use of both hands or legs should
be incorporated otherwise which leads to fatigue with the use of single hand. See
Figures 16.8(a) and (b); 16.9(a) and (b) and 16.10.

I Figure 16.8(a) : The Suitable Leg Position and Footwork (Pedaling) in the Sitting Posture

I 66 Figure 16.8(b) : Sitting and Pushing with Legs (Pedaling)

 w -
Figure 16.9(a) : Laying Down and Pushing Work with Legs (Pedaling)

Figure 16.9(b) : Laying Down and Lifting with Legs (Pedaling Up)

Figure 16.10 : Correct Lifting Posture

Torsional Loads
As far as possible, torsional loads should be avoided so that the number of groups
I
of muscles required to perform a job is minimised.
Bench and Seat Height
I
The bench and seat are to be designed such that there will be a good support for
back, buttocks and thighs as it is spring board for seated muscular activity. The
height of seat should be so designed that the feet should rest firmly on floor or on
footboard. The bench height is designed in such a way that the elbows can rest
freely. It is always better if the seat is adjustable (Figure 16.1 1)

Figure 16.11 :Bench and Seating Height

Display Board
Display board should be in front of line of sight and at right angles to reduce
visual fatigue (Figure 16.12).
Ergonomics

b
Human hand length

Figure 16.12 : Design Specification of Display Board

Provision for Hand Movements in Working Area

Based on the average dimensions of the body, the area for movement of hands
should be provided accordingly. Most frequent movements of hands should be as
close as possible to the body (Figure 16.I?).

Common workina
Area for
--
Both hands

Figure 16.13 : Dimensions of Work Area in Sitting Posturc

The layouts for tools and accessories should be designed in such a way that they
should be able to grasp immediately.
Working Load on Limbs
The working load on limbs of a human body should not exceed their load canying
capacity. If it is inevitable to use full capacity of limb, it should be used for a short
duration. And the load distribution should be so done. The designs have identified
the angular position of the limbs in which the load can be taken to maximum
extent with a great ease. For example the work load distribution on fingers is
shown in terms of percentage of the load in the following Figure 16.14.

Third 13% Second Second Finger Third ~ i ~ g ~ ~

Finger 9% F~~~~~
15% 13.5

Figure 16.14 : Percentage of WorkLoad Distribution on Fingers

 Working Environment
end Ifurnan Productivity

Figure 16.15 : The Most Suitable Head Position while Sitting for Visual Work
Lighting
The lighting should neither be glare and dim nor highly reflective and flashy.
Naked light sources should also be avoided. Adequate light should be provided
that falls in visible region of light spectrum. As far as possible coloured light is to
be avoided as the coloured light looks dim in other colours except in itself (looks
like black in other colours) and can not be identified. The ultra violet and infra red
rays (invisible light rays) are also strictly avoided or the humans should be
properly protected in unavoidable circumstances. Since ultra violet rays cause
burning on unprotected skin and infra red rays produce heat. For example, it is
inevitable in welding operations. Hence proper shield is to be used and the
welders should wear the apron shoes, sleeves and other specified clothing.
Visual Work
The jobs, which require operation constantly on visual controls, should be so
designed, as the visual controls are located that allow a comfortable head position.
The most comfortable head positions are shown in the following figures as are
proven (Figures 1 6.15 and 16.16).

Figure 16.16 : The Most Suitable Head Position Whlle Standing for Visual Work

SAQ 5
(a) What are the human needs to be considered in a design problem?
(b) Explain the importance of ergonomic studies in sitting and standing
positions of working?
(c) Explain various positions of working with their approximate design
considerations?
(d) How do unnatural working positions affect the productivity? Explain with
suitable examples.
Activity 5
Prepare a list of regulations from labour legislation related to ergonomics.

16.9 EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT

16.9.1 Noise
Noise is the most disturbing factor and affects the efficiency of the operator by
distracting the concentration on the job. The probability (or risk) of accident occurrence
increases when the environment is noisy. The noise often produces vibration, which
causes the machine breakdown and imbalance in pressure of surrounding air. The
audible frequency of sounds is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Violent and unexpected noise is not
harmful but the less intense noise even at around 4000 Hz when heard continuously can
impair the hearing. A right combination of frequency (measured in Hz) and intensity
(measured in decibels - db) and the period of exposure and effect should be considered
while designing the work place. The specified optimal noise level combinations are
considered to be as maximum limits for an exposure of 8 hour of a day in a stretch of an
year
(a) Frequencies above 1000 Hz : 85 db.
(b) Frequencies below 1000 Hz : 95 db.
(c) The general noise level should not exceed 55-60 db.
This is treated as low noise work environment. Silencers, sound absorbers, sound proof
booths and various design considerations in constructions based on acoustic studies are
employed by industrial engineers to attack this problem, as it is proven that the noise is
affecting human beings by rise in blood pressure, accelerated heart beat rate,
contractions of blood vessels in skin, increased metabolic rate and increased muscular
tension.
16.9.2 Thermal Comfort
The temperature of the environment and weather also play a vital role on the efficiency
oFthe operator. There will be continues heat exchange process in between the Inan and
his environment. Almost constant temperature around 37' C (98.4'~) is maintained in the
interior of the brain, in the heart and in the abdominal organs. However, the variation
occurs due to muscular activities. This is controlled by the blood circulation to the skin,
which acts as the basis for heat exchange process between the environment and the inner
organs through conduction, convection, evaporation and radiation.
The conduction process is taken into consideration while selecting the flooring.
furnishing, material for knobs, levers etc. The local loss of heat may cause arthritis due
to which is avoided by selection of right floor materials and good insulating materials
such as leather, felt, wood, etc.
The convection depends on temperature gradient between skin and the surroundings,
which may amount 25-30 %of total heat exchange in normal conditions.
The heat required to evaporate 1 gram of water in the form of sweat from skin is about
0.85 K Cal. The rate of heat loss due to this evaporation depends on
 the area of the skin exposed from which sweat can evaporate, Working Environmcnl
(a)
and F l u l ~ ~ sI'r~)tlucti~ilj
n
(b) the difference in vapour pressure in the air next to the skin and the air in the
environment, and
(c) the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
One cannot notice the heat loss as long as the heat radiation is high.

Cold environment Comfortable Hot environment

Figure 16.17 : The Impact of Environment (Thermal) on Human Body

When the conditions deviate from comfort limits, human gets annoyed and agony
depending on the degree of disturbance. Higher heats lead to the sensation of tiredness
orland sleeplessness, which automatically lowers the efficiency. Over cooling results in
restlessness and reduced attentiveness. (Please refer Figure 12.11). Of course, this
comfort limits vary from place to place, country to country and person to person.
However the following points are treated as comfort range.
Temperature : 26.5" to 29.5OC
Air velocity : 0.5 m to 2 mlsec
Humidity : 40 to 50 %
16.9.3 Lighting
It is needless to mention the effects of light of human beings. One can easily assume the
adverse effects of bad lighting and over lighting particularly the impacts of ultra violet
and infrared radiation on the eyes. In general practices, there are four systems of lighting
as explained below :
Directly Radiating llluminants
These include the sport lights, flood lights, focus lights etc, from which more than
90% of the light is transmitted in the form of cone. These are employed in
exhibitions, shop windows, booking offices, sports and games when played in
nights (such as day night cricket match, tennis, etc.). Such lights produce strong
contrast and relative glare.
Combined Direct and Indirect llluminants
In this system, about 40 % of the light radiate in all directions and the rest is
directed towards ceiling and walls. This light produces moderately soft shadows
and blurred borders and is useful for shops, offices and houses as it produces
uniform effect but not recommended for precision work.
Freely Radiating 1 lluminants
They radiate light of high luminance evenly in all dir.ections (e.g. lights, bulbs)
and are recommended for stores, corridors, toilets, etc.
Indirectly Radiating llluminants
In this system more than90 % goes on to the walls and ceiling and then reflected
in to the room. They cause little glare and are used in the rooms where additional
Ergonomics After World War 11, Weston developed a performance test for visual work and
recommended the following optimal values.
Table 16.1 : Visual Work - Optimal Values

packing, shipping,
etc.
4. Casual seeing Stairways, reception High 20-30
rooms, active storage Medium 50-70
area Low 100-200
5. Rough seeing Corridors, dump High 10-20
yards, scrap yards, Medium 30-50
inactive storage LOW 80-170
[* The intensity of illumination is defined as the amount of light falling on a
surface and is measured in luxs, which is equal to one lumen per square metre].
However, the above will change depending on the age of'operator, day light,
degree of reflection, significance of the work, perception power of the operator,
etc.
SAQ 6
(a) Environment can affect the productivity adversely. Explain.
(b) Explain the impact of the following on working of an operation.
(i) Noise
(ii) Temperature
(iii) Humidity
(iv) Lighting

Activity 6
Visit some of the following types of industries and observe the effect of
environmental factors that affect the productivity of the workmen by conducting
the interviews with them.
Chemical Industries
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
 Process Industries such as Cement Plants, Paper Industries Working Environment
and Ilurnan Productivity

...................................................................................................
Power Plants

...................................................................................................
Steel Plant

...................................................................................................
Heat Treatment Furnaces
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................

efficiency as a whole is improved. Ergonomics is also considered as the study of the

relation between man and his occupation, equipment and environment, and particularly

Ergonomics is mainly concerned with human aspects and efficiency of a system, comfort
of a human operator at work. The factors affecting the operator efficiency are nature of.
works, environmental conditions, fatigue, heat, noise, humidity, safety considerations
etc. ergonomics concentrates on the facilities, scientific analysis of his comfort and rest
periods while doing work in different positions like sitting, standing, and cramped
working positions. This covered all the factors like human limbs movements, stresses
developed due to different actiSjties of human body, fatigue developed and different
types of rest and fatigue allowances required for an operator to work efficiently.

Productivity : Ratio of input to the output.

Fatigue : It is a concept used to describe a variety of

conditions. which lower the efficiencv. It is of two

Human Efficiency : It is the ratio of work done by an operator to the

standards set for that work done by a standard
worker.
Ergonomics Work Pedagogies : A part of science, which deals with training and
instructions.
Cramped Working Positions : Working positions which are not standard and
tires fast as compared with standing or sitting
positions. For example sitting on knees, bending
body at an angle and tilting head to odd directions.
Erroneous Operation : The operation, which is out of specification.

Audible Frequency of Sound : It is the frequency of the sound, which can listen
by ear of an average man (20 Hz to 20000 Hz).
Illurninants : The lighting devices like electric lamps, torches,
fluorescent lamps, etc.
Sensing Elements : The human organs which sense the surroundings
like ears to listen, eyes to see, tongue to smell, etc.
Physiology Fatigue : It is the fatigue developed by the stresses on the
body.
Muscular Fatigue : It is a painful phenomenon in over stressed
muscles. It is a result of work and its type carried
out by the workers.
General Fatigue : This is caused by physical stress on the whole
organ. It forces us to give up the work since the
worker feels heavy and sluggish.
Visual Fatigue : This is the fatigue caused through stresses on the
worker.
Chronic Fatigue : It is caused by a number of persistent fatiguing
factors.

16.12 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.
-
Working Environment
FURTHER READING and Human Productivity

ILO (1 979), Introduction to Work Study, 31d Edition (Revised), Published by Universal
Book Corporation, Mumbai.
Dr. R. Shankar (2000), Industrial Engineering and Management, Galgotia Publishers
Pvt. Ltd.
Ralph M. Barnes, Motion and Time Study Design and Measurement of Work, 7'' Edition,
John Wiley and Sons.
T. R. Banga, N. K. Agarwal, S. C. Sharma (1 998), Industrial Engineering and
Management Science, Khanna Publishers, Delhi.
R. M. Curie (1984), Workstudy, BIM, London.
Phevant, S., Body Space, Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design, Taylor and Francis,
London.