Engineering Measurements

(CVEN 3341)
Spring 2021

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

1
 Course Syllabus
 Course Title and Number: Engineering
Measurements (CVEN 3341)
 Credit Hours: 3 (2,1)
 Level: A third-year course
 Required Prerequisites: GEEN 1211:
Introduction to Engineering, PHYS 1421: Physics
for Engineers I, and PHYS 1422: Physics for
Engineers II

2
 Course Syllabus
 Instructor: Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D.,
P.E., ExCEEd

 Office: S018

 Phone: 9756

 E-mail: [email protected]

3
 Course Syllabus
 Class Days and Time:

 Section 201: UT (2:00 to 2:50 pm) --

Classroom: G042

 Section 101: UT (4:00 to 4:50 pm) --

Classroom: TBA

4
 Course Syllabus
 Main Objective: Presenting the basic fundamentals of modern surveying
with emphasis on some practical problems.
 Course Description: This course introduces students to the theories
and practices of various types of survey measurements commonly used
in civil engineering. The course covers classic and modern surveying
topics including error propagation, linear measurements, angle
measurements, area determination, differential leveling, topographic
mapping, and geographic information system.
 PMU Learning Competency: Students completing this course
understand the theories and practices of survey engineering and receive
training in contemporary methodologies used in common civil
engineering measurements that are likely to be encountered in their
professional careers. Students develop professional competencies in the
application of up-to-date measuring procedures for solving problems
related to surveying. Students receive training in critical thinking through
discussions and analyses of various surveying problems. Students also
learn to communicate their conclusions in writing in a discipline-
appropriate format.
5
 Course Syllabus
 Textbook:
 “Fundamentals of Surveying”, Milton O. Schmidt and
Kam W. Wong, PWS-KENT Publishing Company, 3rd
Edition, 1985
 Kavanagh, B., Kavanagh, & Mastin. (n.d.). Surveying:
Principles and Applications, 9th Edition
 References:
 “Elementary Surveying, an Introduction to Geomatics”,
Charles D. Ghilani and Paul R. Wolf, Pearson, 13th
Edition, 2011
 “Surveying for Construction”, William Hyslop Irvine,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1995
 ‫ للدكتور يوسف صيام‬،‫أصول في المساحة‬
6
 Course Syllabus
 Course Outline: The following subjects will be covered:

No. Topic Chapter

1 Introduction: Basics of surveying 1
2 Errors in surveying operations, Precision, & Accuracy 2
3 Tape Measurement: Distance Measurements & Chain Surveying 3

4 Leveling: General, Profile Leveling and Cross-section Leveling 4

5 Angles measurements and bearings 5
6 Coordinate geometry 7
7 Traverse Surveying 8
8 Stadia, Total station, Contour Maps, Plane Table 9
9 Areas and Volumes 10
10 Earthworks and Mass Haul Diagram ---
11 Land Survey 13
12 Horizontal control surveys (Triangulation) 11
13 Electronic distance measurement (EDM) 6
7
 Course Syllabus
 Laboratory Exercises: The following laboratory exercises will be covered:

Lab No. Topic

1 Overview of the laboratory/field exercises

2 Review of mathematical and computer skills for surveying
3 Level and sloped ground linear measurements
4 Data acquisition with GPS
5 Transit field operations
6 Differential leveling
7 Angular measure with theodolite/total station
8 Three-dimensional positions of a traverse with total stations
9 Layout of simple circular curve using taping and total stations
10 GIS software application

8
 Course Syllabus
 Assessment and Grading Policies:

 First Exam: 20.0 %

 Second Exam: 20.0 %
 Quizzes/Assignments: 10.0 %
 Field Reports & Project: 20.0 %
 Final Exam: 30.0 %

9
 Course Syllabus
 The final grade is calculated based on the
points a student has accumulated as follows:

 A-A+… >90
 B-B+… >80 but <90
 C-C+…>70 but <80
 D-D+…>60 but <70
 F...<60

10
 Course Syllabus
 Course Learning Outcomes
 To be able to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and
engineering to civil engineering measurements.
 To understand the concept of measurement error and what is
the acceptable and non-acceptable error.
 To learn the operations of modern surveying equipment.
 To learn how to measure the horizontal distance and
adjustment for temperature and sag errors.
 To understand the concept and practice of differential
leveling for open and close loops and error adjustment.
 To learn the concept and practice of direction
measurements.
 To learn how to read and develop surveying map.
 To learn how to carry out earthwork computations.
11
 Course Syllabus
Solid Rules:
1. Attendance: University rules will be strictly applied
2. Academic Honesty
a) Homeworks: Students may work together on homework
assignments and are encouraged to help each other. However,
blind copying of assignments is not permitted. Copying of
homework will be considered an act of scholastic dishonesty and
will receive zero credit for that assignment.
b) Exams: Students have the responsibility of avoiding the
appearance of cheating during tests, e.g., clearing desk in and out
of all unauthorized material, putting all unauthorized study
materials out of view, and keeping their eyes on their own work.
c) Violations of academic honesty on exams will result in
punishment ranging from a grade zero to a grade F in the course.
12
 Course Syllabus
Solid Rules:
3. Exams Attendance
It is the student's responsibility to be fully aware of
exams’ dates. Only valid reasons will be accepted for
being absent from an exam. For authorized absences,
the instructor will give a makeup test. For unauthorized
absences, the instructor will decide on a course of
action depending on the circumstances. Loss of credit
for the missed test is a possible course of action.

13
Course Syllabus

14
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

15
Chapter 1: Introduction
(Basics of Surveying)
1.1) Definition of Surveying

1.2) Boundary Surveys

1.3) Engineering Surveys

1.8) Spherical Earth

1.9) Plane Surveying

16
 1.1) Definition of Surveying
 Surveying is simply defined as Earth Measurements
 It involves
1. Measurement of:
Elevations, Distances, and Angles
2. Processing of measurements into positional
information (Maps & Coordinates)
 Its activities include:
- The surface of the earth,
- The sea and deep underground,
- Extraterrestrial space.

17
 1.2) Boundary Surveys

 One of the oldest uses of surveying is the

demarcation of boundaries (boundary surveys).
 Boundary surveys are conducted for boundaries:
- On the land’s surfaces
- In the air (high-rise buildings)
- At sea (off-shore oil leases)
- Underground (Coal mines and rights-of-way for
tunnels and shafts)

18
 1.3) Engineering Surveys
 Surveying is necessary for:
Planning, design, construction, and operation of
engineering facilities
 Accurate topographic maps (with proper scales) are
needed for: planning and design of roads, dams,
reservoirs, tall buildings, canals, pipelines, etc.
 Surveying measurements are also needed for
- Laying out designed engineering facilities,
- Computing surface drainage areas and volumes of
earthwork,
- Monitoring landslide, dam deformation, and
structural settlements
19
 1.8) Spherical Earth
 Basic surveying problems:
- The irregularity in the shape of the physical
surface of the earth.
- The density of earth’s material is not uniform
(causes local & regional variations in the force of gravity)

 Geodesy:
The science that deals with studies concerning the
size and shape of the earth.

 Geodesists traditionally approximated the earth with

an ellipsoid
20
 1.8) Spherical Earth
 Spherical geometry and advanced mathematics
must be used.
 Geodetic Surveying:
Accurate surveys that extend over an area larger
than about 10 miles in radius must take into
consideration the spherical shape of the earth and
the effects of gravity (ex. Surveying and mapping of
an entire state or nation and large engineering
projects).

21
 1.9) Plane Surveying
 Most common surveys are confined to an area less
than 10 miles in radius and then require only a
moderate level of accuracy.
 For these surveys it is sufficient to project points on
the physical surface of the earth orthogonally onto a
flat surface.
 Then, relative positions of points can be computed
by plane geometry.
 This course deals mainly with the Fundamentals of
Plane Surveying.

22
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

23
 Chapter 2: Errors, Precision,
and Accuracy
2.1) Introduction
2.2) Measurement Errors
2.3) Characteristics of Random Errors
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, and Standard Error of
the Mean
2.5) Probable Error and Maximum Error
2.6) Precision and Accuracy
2.7) Relative Precision
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random Errors
2.11) Weights and Weighted Mean
2.12) Significant Figures
2.13) Rounding Off
24
 2.1) Introduction
 Surveying operations are subject to
- imperfections of instruments
- fallibility of human operator
- uncontrollable nature of natural environment

 No surveying instrument is exact, and the true value

of the measured parameters is never known

 The surveyor must understand the sources of errors

in various surveying methods as well as the
methodology for evaluating the achievable accuracy
of surveying programs

25
 2.2) Measurement Errors
 True Error: difference between the measured value xi
and its true value x (which is never known and can
never be determined exactly)
ei  x i  x
 True error can never be exactly determined.
 An estimate vi of the true error ei can be computed
vi  xi  xˆ
 Errors in surveying measurements can be classified
into:
1. Blunders
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
26
 2.2) Measurement Errors
 Blunders:
- mistakes caused by human carelessness, fatigue,
and haste

- Take any sign (+ or -) and magnitude, and there

occurrence is unpredictable

- Examples of blunders:
1) Transportation of digits in recording observations
2) Misreading the tape
3) Sighting on the wrong target (in measuring angle)

27
 2.2) Measurement Errors
 Systematic errors
- Caused by some maladjustment of surveying
instruments, personal bias or inclination of the
human operator, and natural environment
- Can sometimes be modeled by a mathematical
expression
- Examples of systematic errors:
1) Change in length of a steel tape with temperature
2) Maladjustment of a leveling instrument (line-of-sight not
being perfectly horizontal when the level bubble is perfectly
centered)

28
2.2) Measurement Errors

 Random errors:
Caused by:
- Imperfection of the measuring instruments,
- Inability of the human operator to make an exact
measurement, and
- Uncontrollable variations in the natural
environment

29
 2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
 Random errors have the following characteristics:
1) Positive and negative errors of the same
magnitude occur with equal frequency;
2) Small errors occur more frequently than large
ones; and
3) Very large errors seldom occur

 ෡ )] is called
The estimated error [𝑽𝒊 = (𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
deviation from the mean

30
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors

𝑽𝒊 =(𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
෡)

31
 2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
 Scientist have found that the pattern of the random
errors can be approximated by a continuous curve
called the normal curve of error.
 This curve is commonly known as the normal
distribution or Gaussian distribution.
 The normal distribution curve, as shown in Figure
2.2, is mathematically expressed by the following
equation:
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗 𝟐
−
𝑭 𝒗 = 𝒆 𝟐𝝈
𝟐𝝅𝝈
32
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors

𝟏 𝟏 𝒗 𝟐
−𝟐 𝝈
𝑭 𝒗 = 𝒆
𝟐𝝅𝝈

33
 2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
 The probability that the random error in a
measurement takes on a value between a and b is
equal to the area under the curve and bounded by
the values of a and b (Figure 2.3)

 Mathematically:
𝒃 𝟏 𝒗 𝟐
𝟏 −
𝑷 𝒂≤𝒗≤𝒃 =න 𝒆 𝟐 𝝈 𝒅𝒗
𝒂 𝟐𝝅𝝈

34
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors

35
 2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
 The probability that a random error takes on a value
between −𝝈 and +𝝈 is equal to 0.683 (or 68.3%)
 In terms of 𝝈, some representative probabilities for
selected error ranges are as follows:

 The value 𝝈 is called the standard error/deviation or

simply sigma
36
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean
 Mean or x or Probable Value of n repeated
measurements is computed as follows
n

x i
x i 1
n
 Unbiased estimate of the standard error of one
measurement of the quantity:
n

 ix  x 2

ˆ x   i 1
i
n1
37
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean
 ˆ x is often called the standard deviation of the set of
i
n measurements or the root-mean-square (RMS)
error of one measurement

 An estimate for the standard error of the mean of the

n measurements
n

 ix  x 2
ˆ x
ˆ x   i 1
 i

nn  1 n

 ˆ x is also often called RMS error of the mean

38
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean
 What is the difference between 𝝈𝒙𝒊 and 𝝈𝒙ഥ ?
The standard deviation (𝝈𝒙𝒊 ): measures the amount
of variability or dispersion for a subject set of data
from the mean.

The standard error of the mean (𝝈𝒙ഥ ): measures how

far the sample mean of the data is likely to be from
the true population mean.

𝝈𝒙ഥ is always smaller than 𝝈𝒙𝒊 .

39
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean

 Example 2.1
A length was measured ten times, the results are:
4.536, 4.533, 4.530, 4.531, 4.532, 4.534, 4.535, 4.531,
4.531, & 4.533m.
Compute:
1. The mean ( x )
2. An estimated standard deviation ( ˆ xi )
3. An estimated standard error of the mean ( ˆ x )

40
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean
 Solution:
45.326
x  4.5326m
10

0.00003440
ˆ xi  
9
 0.00196m
 0.002m

0.00003440
ˆ x  
10  9
0.00196

10
 0.00062m
 0.0006m
41
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, & Standard
Error of the Mean

In case of
a small
sample,
the
histogram
usually
does not
resemble
the pattern
of normal
curve

42
2.5) Probable Error & Maximum Error
 Probable error of a measurement is defined as being
equal to  0.6745. There is a 50% probability that
the actual error exceeds (or less than) the probable
error

 The maximum error in a measurement is most

commonly defined as being equal to  3. There is
99.7% probability that the actual error falls within 3,
and only a 0.3% probability that it exceeds, from
either side, the 3.

 The maximum error is used as the criterion for

separating blunders from random errors
43
2.5) Probable Error & Maximum Error
 Example 2.2
An angle was measured 15 times:
27 30 41, 32, 30, 38, 31, 34, 39, 37, 32, 03, 40,
42, 30, 37, & 36

a) Reject any measurement containing a blunder, then

b) Compute the mean, standard deviation, & estimated

standard error of the mean

44
2.5) Probable Error & Maximum Error
 Solution First Iteration:
1) Mean = 27 30 33.5
2) Standard Deviation
=  9.3
3) Estimated standard
error of the mean
=  (9.3/15) =  2.4
4) Maximum error of a
single measurement
=  3 9.3 = 27.9
5) Then, REJECT
measurement
27 30 03
(Its error Vi is
larger than 27.9)
45
2.5) Probable Error & Maximum Error
 Solution
Second Iteration:
1) Mean = 27 30 35.6
2) Standard Deviation
=  4.1
3) Estimated standard
error of the mean
=  (4.1/14) =  1
4) Maximum error of a
single measurement
=  3 4.1 = 12.3
5) Maximum error of
the mean =  3 1
= 3

46
2.5) Probable Error & Maximum Error

 Solution

47
 2.6) Precision and Accuracy
 The measurement is said to have a high precision if
it has a small standard deviation.

 Figure 2.5, large  means a flatter distribution curve

for the random errors.

 The measurement is said to have a high accuracy if

it is close to the true value.

 High precision does not necessarily mean also high

accuracy. Both occur at the same time if the
measurement contains little or no systematic error.

48
2.6) Precision and Accuracy

49
2.6) Precision and Accuracy

50
 2.7) Relative Precision
 The term relative precision is commonly used to
describe the precision of distance measurement in
surveying
 If a distance D is measured with a standard error D,
then
1
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷 𝑎𝑡 1𝜎 =
𝐷
𝜎𝐷

1
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷 𝑎𝑡 3𝜎 =
𝐷
3𝜎𝐷

51
 2.7) Relative Precision
 For example:
A distance was measured to be 3,673.24 ft with an
estimated standard error of 0.03 ft, then:

1 1 1
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷 𝑎𝑡 1𝜎 = = =
𝐷 3,673.24 120,000
𝜎𝐷 0.03

1 1 1
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷 𝑎𝑡 3𝜎 = = =
𝐷 3,673.24 41,000
3𝜎𝐷 3 × 0.03

52
2.7) Relative Precision
 RP is a way to show uncertainty as a fraction of a
quantity.
 It is the ratio of a measurement’s precision and
the measurement itself.
 It is usually given as a ratio (e.g. 5/8), or as a
percentage (e.g. 62.5%).
 RP can also be used to show a confidence
interval for a measurement.
 For example, if the RP is 10% and your
measurement is 220 degrees, then the
confidence interval is 220 degrees ±22 degrees.

53
 2.7) Relative Precision
 In general, there is a tradeoff between confidence
levels and precision.
 The higher the confidence level, the wider the
confidence interval, and the lower the precision.
 The CoV is one of the more common measurements
of RP, and is the ratio of the standard deviation over
the mean of the measurements.
 For example, the expression “The standard
deviation is 15% of the mean” is a CoV.
 As σ increases, RP, uncertainty, confidence level
and confidence interval increase as well while
precision and certainty decrease
54
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random
Errors
 Suppose that the value of parameter Y can be
calculated from the measured values of n other
parameters, say X1, X2, X3, … , Xn , and:
𝒀 = 𝑭 𝑿𝟏 , 𝑿𝟐 , 𝑿𝟑 , … , 𝑿𝒏
 ෝ𝑿𝒊 be the estimated standard error of parameter
Let 𝝈
ෝ𝒀 be the estimated standard error of Y
Xi and 𝝈

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝝏𝑭 𝟐 𝝏𝑭 𝟐 𝝏𝑭
ෝ𝒀
𝝈 = ෝ𝑿𝟏
𝝈 + ෝ𝑿𝟐
𝝈 + ⋯+ ෝ𝑿𝒏 𝟐
𝝈
𝝏𝑿𝟏 𝝏𝑿𝟐 𝝏𝑿𝒏

 Examples 2.3 and 2.4

55
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random
Errors

663,981 ft2

56
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random
Errors

1 acre = 43560 ft2

29 ft2

15.243 acres
0.00066 acre 57
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random
Errors

1 acre = 43560 ft2

58
 2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
 Let
𝝈𝒐 𝟐
𝒘𝒊 = 𝟐
𝝈𝒊
wi be the weight of measurement xi
𝝈𝒐 the standard error of unit weight (because if the
standard error 𝝈𝒊 of a measurement is equal to 𝝈𝒐 then
it has a weight of 1)
 Note: wi is inversely proportional to the square of 𝝈𝒊

 Thus, the more precise the measurement, the

smaller will be its standard error and the larger will

be its weight
59
 2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
 Let x1, x2, …, xn be n independent measurements of a
quantity, and let 1, 2, …, n be the corresponding
standard errors of the n measurements.
 Then, the most probable value (ෝ 𝒙) of the quantity is
given by the weighted mean of the n measurements

𝒘𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … + 𝒘𝒏 𝒙𝒏
ෝ=
𝒙
𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘 𝟐 + … + 𝒘𝒏
and
𝝈𝒐
ෝ𝒙ෝ =
𝝈
σ𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒘𝒊
 Example 2.6
60
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean

61
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean

62
 2.12) Significant Figures
 The significant figures in a number are those digits
with known values.
 They are identified by proceeding from left to right,
beginning with the first nonzero digit and ending
with the last digit of the number.
 Some examples are as follows:
a. 541.6800 has 7 significant figures
b. 50.0006 has 6 significant figures
c. 0.00058 has 2 significant figures
d. 0.006200 has 4 significant figures
e. 8.000050 has 7 significant figures
f. 51.0 has 3 significant figures
63
 2.12) Significant Figures
 For further clarification, the following rules may help:
1. All nonzero digits are significant
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number merely indicate
the position of the decimal point. They are not
significant
3. Zeros between digits are significant
4. Zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant
5. Zeros at the end of a nondecimal number are not
necessarily significant
23,600 may have 3, 4, or 5 significant figures
depending on whether its value is correct to the
nearest hundred, ten, or unit. If it is to be expressed
to 3 significant figures, it can be written as 23.6103.
64
 2.13) Rounding Off
 If the result is to be expressed to n significant
figures, then the nth figure should be retained as is if
the figure following it is less than 5 in the (n+1)th
place.
 If the digit following the nth significant figure is
greater than 5 in the (n+1)th place, the nth figure
should be increased by one unit.
 When the (n+1)th digit is 5, round off to the nearest
even digit in the nth place

65
2.13) Rounding Off
 These examples illustrates the usual rules:
a. 6746.589 to 5 significant places is 6746.6
b. 837848 to 4 significant places is 837800
c. 468.767 to 5 significant places is 468.77
d. 468.762 to 5 significant places is 468.76
e. 468.755 to 5 significant places is 468.76
f. 468.745 to 5 significant places is 468.74

 When performing addition (or subtraction) the sum

cannot be more precise than the least precise
number included in the addition (or subtraction)

66
2.13) Rounding Off
 For example, the summation of the following 3
measured segments of a survey line (in feet):
𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟏𝟕 + 𝟒𝟔𝟖. 𝟒𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟑. 𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟕 ≈ 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟓. 𝟖 𝒇𝒕
 When performing multiplication (and/or division):
The result should have the same significant numbers
as the number with the fewest significant numbers
𝟓.𝟐𝟕×𝟖𝟑𝟖×𝟓𝟏.𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟏
= 𝟔𝟗𝟕. 𝟐𝟒𝟔 ≈ 𝟕𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏
𝟓.𝟐×𝟔𝟐.𝟓𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟔
 General guides for trigonometric functions:
1. For a 01 error in angle, use 5 places (s.f.)
2. For a 10 error in angle, use 7 places (s.f.)
3. For a 01 error in angle, use 8 places (s.f.)
67
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)
Fall 2019-2020

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

68
Chapter 3: Tape Measurement
3.1) Introduction

3.2) Units of Length and Area

3.3) Conversion of Length Units

3.4) Tapes

3.5) Taping Accessories

3.7) Taping Party

3.8) Taping Horizontal Distance over Level Ground

69
Chapter 3: Tape Measurement

3.9) Taping Horizontal Distance over Sloping Ground

3.10) Taping Slope Distance
3.11) Correction for Systematic Errors in Taping
3.13) Sources of Random Errors in Taping
3.14) Mistakes
3.15) Checks

70
 3.1) Introduction
 One of the fundamental operations in surveying is
the measurement of distances.
 Pacing, Pedometer (an instrument usually in watch
form that records the distance a person covers on
foot by responding to the body motion at each step)

71
 3.1) Introduction
 EDM (electronic distance measuring) equipment
 Stadia method: combines distance measurement
with measurement of elevation difference
 This chapter: measuring distances by graduated
tapes (taping, or chaining)
Figure 3.1

72
 3.2) Units of Length & Area
 In USA the basic units are Foot and Meter
 The term ‘Metric System’: Le Système International
d’Unités (SI) or the International System of Units

73
 3.2) Units of Length & Area
 Prefixes in the metric system:
Kilo=1000, milli=0.001,
mega=1000000, micro=0.000001,
micron=0.000001m

 In southwestern US (TX and CA), old Spanish unit

vara is used.

 1 vara = 33 inches in CA
and 1 vara = 33 1/3 inches in TX

74
3.3) Conversion of Length
Units
 Relation between m and yd:

1 yard = 0.9144 meter

or 1 foot = 0.3048 meter
and 1 inch = 25.4 millimeter

 1 hectare = 2.47104 acres

or 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare

75
 3.4) Tapes
 The most common surveying tapes are made of:
a) Steel ribbon (constant cross-section,
graduations at regular intervals)
b) Steel Alloy
c) Metallic or nonmetallic cloth
c) Fiberglass; relatively new and well-suited for all
construction work

 Of special significance is the location of the end

marks, particularly the zero mark

76
3.5) Taping Accessories

o Steel Pins
o Marking tape ends o Clamping
on the ground Handle
o Tallying the o To grip the
number of tape ribbon
lengths o Tension Handle
o Pulling the tape
appropriately

77
3.5) Taping Accessories

o Range Pole
o Aligning the taping
process

o Plumb Bob
o Vertical
reference o Thermometer
line o Expansion and
shrinkage

78
3.7) The Taping Party

 The minimum party consists of 2 persons

 Front tapeperson: person holding the zero end

proceeds in front of the line

 Rear tapeperson: person holding the rear end

79
 3.8) Taping Horizontal Distance
Over Level Ground
1. When the tape is fully supported by the
ground

Steel Pin

80
 3.8) Taping Horizontal Distance
Over Level Ground
2. For rough or uneven surfaces OR presence of
obstructions; the tape is only supported at its
two ends
Use plumb bob

81
 3.8) Taping Horizontal Distance
Over Level Ground
3. For slightly uneven surfaces OR obstacles
are small; the tape is partially supported

82
 3.9) Taping Horizontal Distance
Over Sloping Ground
The distance can be measured by supporting the tape
at the two ends only; Break tape

Use plumb bob

Break tape when the

height of the tape is more
than 5 ft above the ground

83
 3.10) Taping Slope Distance
1. Slope distance is directly measured, and the
corresponding horizontal distance is:
Accuracy of d
o Uniform slope d  s 2  h 
2 depends on s and Δh
o Tape is fully or
partially supported; no 2 2
sagging  d  2  d  2
o Height difference ˆ d2    ˆ s    ˆ h
between the two end  s    h 
points is known
o d is computed while s  s2  2  h 2  2
ˆ   2
2
ˆ   2
2  s
ˆ
2  h
and Δh are measured
 s  h    s  h  
d

The estimated error of the computed d is

determined for accuracy purposes

84
3.10) Taping Slope Distance

Recall the Pythagorean

theorem

85
 3.10) Taping Slope Distance
 Example 3.1:
Given the followings: s = 472.36 ft , ˆ s  0.08 ft
h = 21.6 ft , ̂ h   0.1 ft
Compute the horizontal distance and its estimated
error.
Solution: d  472.36  21.6
2 2
 471.87 ft
 472.36
2

 
 21.6
2

 
ˆ  
2

2 
0.08
2
  
 472.362  21.62  0.1
2

 472.36  21.6 
d 2
 

ˆ d2  0.006413  0.000021  0.006434 ˆ d  0.0802

86
3.10) Taping Slope Distance
2. Over rough terrain, tape supported at
two ends only
o Slope distance is difficult to be
measured this way
o Calculation of sag correction is difficult
o Use EDM or stadia

87
Taping a Distance

88
 Taping a Distance Problem
Using a measuring tape, the ground distance from
station A to station B on a uniform slope of S1= + 20%
was measured to be 315.45m. The ground distance from
station B to station C on a second uniform slope (S2) was
measured to be 583.21m. The difference in elevation
between A and C is 100m.

a. Calculate the horizontal distance between A and B

b. Calculate the second slope (S2).

89
Taping a Distance Solution

90
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
 Distance between the two ends of a fully stretched
tape varies slightly with changes in temperature,
tension, and mode of support

 The errors caused by these sources behave

according to some physical laws of nature and can
be modeled with simple mathematical expressions.
So, they are systematic errors

 All survey tapes should be frequently calibrated

against a standard tape or a specially constructed
calibration range
91
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
A) Length Correction (Cl)
- Difference between the nominal length (LNom) of a
tape and its actual length (LAct) under the conditions
of calibration (Cl = LAct – LNom)

- For measuring a distance between two points, add

(subtract) the correction if the actual length is
longer (shorter) than nominal length

- For establishing a distance, subtract (add) the

correction if the actual length is longer (shorter)
than nominal length
92
 3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
A) Length Correction (Cl)
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝑳𝑵𝒐𝒎 − 𝑳𝑨𝒄𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = − 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = − 𝑳𝑵𝒐𝒎 − 𝑳𝑨𝒄𝒕 = 𝑳𝑨𝒄𝒕 − 𝑳𝑵𝒐𝒎

Measuring
Case 𝑪𝒍 = 𝑳𝑨𝒄𝒕 − 𝑳𝑵𝒐𝒎 Establishing Distance
Distance
𝐿𝐴𝑐𝑡 > 𝐿𝑁𝑜𝑚 +𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑙
𝐴𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

100.1>100 ft + 0.1 100+0.1=100.1 100−0.1=99.9

𝐿𝐴𝑐𝑡 < 𝐿𝑁𝑜𝑚 −𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑙
𝐴𝑑𝑑 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

99.8<100 ft − 0.2 100−0.2=99.8 100+0.2=100.2

93
 3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
A) Length Correction (Cl)
 Example: if a tape has a nominal length of 100 ft

and its actual length at calibration was found to be

100.02 ft.
 Tape is said to be 0.02 ft too long

 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒇𝒕Τ𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒆

 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒇𝒕Τ𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒆

 If a measured distance is 705.76 ft, then

𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟔Τ𝟏𝟎𝟎 × −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒇𝒕,

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = +𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒇𝒕, and
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟗𝟎 𝒇𝒕
94
 3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
A) Length Correction (Cl)
 Example: if a tape has a nominal length of 100 ft

and its actual length at calibration was found to be

100.02 ft.
 If a distance of 600 ft is to be established , then

𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎Τ𝟏𝟎𝟎 × −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕,

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = +𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕, and
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟓𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟖 𝒇𝒕

95
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
B) Temperature Correction (Ct ):

𝑪𝒕 = 𝜶 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎 𝑳

a : coefficient of thermal expansion

For steel, a = 0.00000645 per 1F
0.0000116 per 1C
T1: Field temperature
To: Calibration temperature
L : Length of the line

96
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
B) Temperature Correction (Ct ):
Example 3.2:
The measured length of a line was 876.42m. The
field temperature was 24C and the 30-m steel tape
was exactly 30 m at 20C.
Find the Corrected length.
Solution:
(Tape is 30m at 20 C and at 24 C it is longer)
𝑪𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟔 × 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟐 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝒎
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒎

97
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
C) Sag Correction (Cs ):
W 2L w 2L3 W
Cs     , where w 
24P 2 24P 2 L
W : the total weight of the section of
tape located between supports
L : the interval between supports
P : the tension on the tape
w : weight per foot of tape
- Cs is always negative
- the total sag correction for a tape resting on
multiple supports is the sum of the sag
corrections for the separate intervals 98
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
C) Sag Correction (Cs):
Example 3.3: A 100-ft steel tape weight 2 lb and
is supported at the ends only with a pull of 12 lb.
Find the sag correction, Cs.

Solution:
2 2 100
Cs    0.12 ft
24 12 2

99
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
C) Sag Correction (Cs):
Example 3.4: A 30-m steel tape weighs 0.336 kg
and is supported at the 0, 15, and 30-m points
under a tension of 5 kg. What is the sag correction?
Solution:
a) between 0 and 15m; W=0.336/2=0.168 kg
Cs  
0.168 15
2
 0.0007 m
24  5
2

b) between 15 and 30m; W=0.336/2=0.168 kg

Cs  
0.168 15
2
 0.0007 m
24  5
2

The total sag correction, Cs = -20.0007 = - 0.0014100m

3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
D) Tension Correction (Cp):

CP 
 P1  P L
AE
Cp: the elongation of the tape of length L in feet (ft)
P1: the applied tension in pounds (lb)
Po: the calibration tension in pounds (lb)
A : the cross-sectional area of the tape in (in2)
E : the modulus of elasticity of the tape material
(for steel, E = 29,000,000 psi)
- Examples 3.5, 3.6
101
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
D) Tension Correction (Cp):
Example 3.5:
A 100-ft steel tape having a cross-sectional area of
0.0046 in2 is correct length under a pull of 12 lb.
Calculate the elongation due to a tension of 20 lb.

Solution:

CP 
20  12100
 0.006 ft
0.004629,000,000

102
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
Comprehensive Example 3.6:
A distance was measured using a 100-ft steel tape
in five sections: 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 +
89.32 = 589.32. The tape was supported at the two
ends only during the measurements. The field
temperature was 80F and a tension of 20 lb was
used. The tape was previously calibrated using a
tension of 15 lb at a temperature of 68F with the
tape fully supported. The tape was found to
measure actually 100.02 ft. The tape had a total
weight of 2.80 lb and a cross-sectional area of 0.003
in2.

Compute the corrected distance.

103
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
Solution:
 Cl = (100.02 – 100)(589.32/100) = + 0.12 ft
 Ct = (0.00000645)(80-68)589.32 = + 0.05 ft
 Cs for each full tape length
Cs  
2.80 100
2
 0.08 ft
2420
2

Cs for the last partial tape length

Cs  
0.028  89.32
2 3
 0.06 ft
2420
2

Total sag correction, Cs = -(0.085+0.06) = - 0.46 ft

104
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping
Solution:
 Cp for each full tape length

CP 
20  15100
 0.0057 ft
0.00329 10 
6

Cp for last partial tape length

CP 
20  15 89.32  0.0051 ft
0.00329 106 
Total Cp = (0.00575+0.0051) = + 0.036 ft
 Total Correction 0.12+0.05-0.46+0.036 = - 0.20 ft
 Corrected distance = 589.32 – 0.2 = 589.12 ft
105
3.11) Correction for Systematic
Errors in Taping

A longer distance was measured

less, so we have to compensate
for that by the addition process
and vise versa!

106
3.13) Sources of Random
Errors in Taping
 The most serious sources are pin setting, tape
reading, plumbing, incorrect tension, and
temperature reading

 Cannot be totally eliminated, can be minimized (by

proper field procedures)

107
3.14) Mistakes

 Some of the common mistakes are:

- Faulty tallying,
- Misreading the tape,
- Calling and recording numbers,
- One-foot mistakes, and
- Mistaking the end mark

108
 3.15) Checks
 A common practice is to measure each distance first
forward (from A to B) then backward (from B to A).

 Close agreement between both does not necessarily

mean high accuracy (same systematic errors may be
present in both measurements)

 It is important that the sources of systematic errors

be recognized and their effects corrected for in the
measurements

109
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

110
Chapter 4: Leveling

4.1) Introduction
4.2) Elevation Datum
4.4) Basic Principle of a Level
4.5) Bubble Tube
4.6) Circular Bubble Vial
4.7) Tripods
4.8) - 4.11) Dumpy, Tilting, Automatic, and Hand Level
4.12) Level Rods
4.13) Vernier
111
 4.1) Introduction
 Elevation of a point in space is its vertical distance
above (+ve ) or below (-ve) a surface of reference
(datum). The most commonly used datum is the Mean
Sea Level (MSL).
 Leveling (height, altitude) is the operation of
determining the difference in elevation between points
 Height of an object means the vertical distance
between its top and bottom
 Altitude of a point means the vertical distance of the
point above sea level
 Leveling is an important operation in all engineering
and construction projects; drawing topographic maps,
contour maps, earth profile, terrain (level, rolling or
mountainous)
112
 4.2) Elevation Datum
 Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the most commonly
used datum for measuring elevation
differences (leveling)

 In a location, MSL is the average height of

the surface of the sea for all stages of the
tide at that particular location

 MSL differs from one location to another.

Even within a distance of a few miles along
the same coast line, MSL may differ slightly

113
4.2) Elevation Datum

Figure 4.2: Elevation and Elevation Difference

114
 4.4) Basic Principle of a Level
 Level is the basic instrument used in measuring
differences in elevation (leveling)
 It consists of telescope (for sighting) and a leveling
device (for maintaining the line of sight in a
horizontal position at all times)
 Figure 4.5, line of sight of the telescope is
perpendicular to its vertical axis/axis of symmetry
 When a level is set properly on a tripod:
- its vertical axis coincides with the direction of
gravity,
- line of sight is horizontal and moves in a horizontal
plane when the telescope is rotated about its
vertical axis

115
 4.4) Basic Principle of A Level
Figure
4.5:
Basic
Principle
of a Level

116
 4.5) Bubble Tube
 A bubble tube is used to establish a horizontal line
 It is a glass vial of uniform cross-section
 The tube is nearly filled with ether or some other nonfreezing
liquid
 The remaining volume being a vapor space is called the bubble
 Axis of the bubble tube is the tangent (which is truly horizontal)
at the highest point that is on the arc of a circle that lies in a
vertical plane

Figure 4.6: Bubble Tube, Bubble Centered 117

 4.6) Circular Bubble Vial
 A circular bubble vial (Bull’s-eye level) is used in
many modern levels to approximately establish a
horizontal plane

(a) (b)
Bubble Bubble
Centered off-Centered

Figure 4.7: Circular Bubble Vial

118
 4.7) Tripods
 A tripod is 3-legged stand used to support a level
instrument or other surveying tool
 Figure 4.8, two models of tripods (Extension leg and Fixed
leg tripod)
 They are usually made of either wood or aluminum
 To assure the safety of the instrument, a stable setup
should be secured
 On level terrain, each leg should form an angle of about
60 with the ground
 On a sloping ground, stability will be increased by having
one leg pointed uphill and two legs downhill
 When pressing on the tripod shoes, apply pressure
parallel to the legs not vertically to avoid breakage of the
legs
119
 4.7) Tripods

a) b)
Extension Fixed
Leg Tripod Leg Tripod

Figure 4.8: Tripods

120
 4.8) Dumpy Level
 Dumpy level is American-made.
 This term is associated with the dumpy appearance
of its older models (inverting eyepieces and short
telescopes)
 Figure 4.9, dumpy level with an internal focusing
telescope providing an upright image
 The line of sight of the instrument is the line fixed by
the intersection of the cross-wires and the center of
the objective lens
 When the instrument is in proper adjustment, the
line of sight is parallel to the axis of the level tube.

121
4.8) Dumpy Level

Figure 4.9: A Dumpy Level

122
 4.8) Dumpy Level
 Setting up the dumpy level (Figure 4.10):
o Tripod legs are adjusted so that leveling head

base is almost level

o Foot screws are operated in diagonal pairs

o In each diagonal pair, one screw is turned inward

and the other outward

123
4.8) Dumpy Level

Figure 4.10: Leveling an Instrument with Four Foot Screws

124
4.8) Dumpy Level

Figure 4.10: Leveling an Instrument with Four Foot Screws

125
 4.9) Tilting Level
 A tilting level has a telescope that can be tilted about
a horizontal axis

 This enables the operator to quickly and accurately

center the bubble and thus bring the line of sight
into a horizontal plane

 Figure 4.11, Figure 4.12, Figure 4.13

126
4.9) Tilting Level

127
4.9) Tilting Level

128
4.9) Tilting Level

129
 4.10) Automatic Level
 One of the most important improvements in leveling
instrumentation has been the Automatic (or self-
leveling) level
 The distinctive feature is an internal compensator
that automatically makes horizontal the line of sight,
maintains it horizontal during the application
 They are accurate, fast, and easy to use
 Figure 4.14

130
4.10) Automatic Level

131
 4.11) Hand Level
 For rough leveling and for sight distances not more
than 50 ft (Figure 4.16)
 They are extremely useful in setting grade stakes to
rough tolerance and for leveling the two ends of a
tape in taping

132
 4.12) Level Rods
 Used to measure the vertical distance between a
horizontal line of sight and a survey point (Figure
4.17)
 Among the most commonly used style is the
Philadelphia rod (Figure 4.18). Usually constructed
of wood with a graduated metal scale on its face
 It consists of two sections and measures 12 or 13ft
when fully extended and 6 or 7 ft when the two
sections are closed
 Foot level rods are graduated in feet, tenths, and
hundredths (Figure 4.18)

133
4.12) Level Rods

Vertical
distance

Figure. 4.17: Use of Level Rod

134
 4.12) Level Rods

Figure 4.18:
Philadelphia Level Rod
Graduated in Feet

135
 4.12) Level Rods

 Metric rods are graduated in m, dm, and cm (Figure

4.19)
 Figure 4.21, has a calibrating spring that
automatically compensates for climatic variations on
wood while metal scale maintains its accuracy
 Figure 4.22, Sighting target for level rod
 Figure 4.23, Scale on backside of a Philadelphia rod

136
4.12) Level Rods

cm

dm

137
 4.12) Level Rods

Figure 4.21: Level Rod with

Calibrating Spring

138
4.12) Level Rods

139
 4.12) Level Rods

Figure 4.23:
Scale on Backside of a
Philadelphia Level Rod

140
4.13) Vernier

 A device commonly used to provide accurate

reading of fractional units on a scale
 Additional and smaller graduated rod set next to
the level rod’s original graduation for additional
accuracy
 Figure 4.24, the principle of a Vernier with 10
divisions

141
4.13) Vernier

Figure 4.24: Principle of Vernier

142
Chapter 4: Leveling

4.14) Differential Leveling

4.15) Systematic Errors

4.16) Random Errors

4.17) Mistakes

4.20) Closure Error

143
Chapter 4: Leveling

4.21) Adjustment of Level Network (Loops)

4.26) Monumentation

4.27) Reciprocal Leveling

4.28) Profile Leveling

4.29) Cross-Section Leveling

144
4.14) Differential Leveling
 The most widely used method for determining
difference of elevation
 Bench mark (BM) is a permanent object of known
elevation
 Figure 4.25, determining the elevation of a surveying
point (P) from an existing bench mark, called (BM 1)
 Figure 4.26, field notes for differential leveling
 Backsight (BS), Height of the instrument (HI),
Foresight (FS), Turning point (TP)  Change Point
(CP), Intermediate Sight (IS), Rise (R) and Fall (F).
145
4.14) Differential Leveling

Figure 4.25: Differential Leveling

146
4.14) Differential Leveling

147
 4.14) Differential Leveling

Figure
4.26:
Field
Notes for
Differential
Leveling

148
 4.14) Differential Leveling

Figure
4.26:
Field
Notes for
Differential
Leveling

149
 4.14) Differential Leveling
 Page check:
1) No. of BS readings = No. of FS readings
2) Elevation Difference
= elevation of P – elevation of BM 1
= S BS readings – S FS readings

 Errors or mistakes in reading the rod can not be

disclosed by a page check

150
 4.14) Differential Leveling
 Example

151
 4.14) Differential Leveling

 Example (Height of Instrument (Collimation) Method)

152
4.14) Differential Leveling

 Example (Height of Instrument (Collimation) Method)

HI

153
4.14) Differential Leveling

 Example (Rise and Fall Method)

154
4.14) Differential Leveling

 Example (Rise and Fall Method)

155
 4.15) Systematic Errors
 Horizontal line is what we think we’re measuring or our reference. Level
line is the actual that must be sighted taken into consideration the earth
curvature, and the line of sight or the refracted line of sight is the line
seen by the level telescope shifted up of the level line due to atmospheric
refraction (Figure 4.27).

156
 4.15) Systematic Errors
 Four major sources of systematic errors:
1. Inclination of line of sight (earth curvature &
atmospheric refraction)
Let (BS distance = FS distance)
2. Inclination of line of sight (maladjustment of the
level)
Level it properly
Let (BS distance = FS distance)
3. Changes on the dimension of the graduated scale
due to temperature
Use invar rods
4. The rod not being held plumb
Make it plumb
157
4.16) Random Errors

 The bubble not centered

 Incorrect reading of the rod
 Poor turning points
 Heat waves
 Wind

158
 4.17) Mistakes

Mistakes commonly made in leveling work include:

1. Misreading the rod
2. Not setting the rod on the same point for a FS
and the subsequent BS
3. Recording and computing

Repeating measurements is always good!

159
 4.27) Reciprocal Leveling
BS
Figure 4.54:
FS
Reciprocal
Leveling

o When a line of
levels crosses
a broad body
of water or a
ravine…
o Forward and FS
BS
backward
leveling
o Take the mean
elevation
difference

160
 4.27) Reciprocal Leveling
Example 4.7 (page 143)

Elevation difference = BS reading – FS reading

161
 4.27) Reciprocal Leveling
Example 4.7 (page 143)

162
 4.20) Closure Error
 If possible, a level line should be closed (on the starting BM or
on a 2nd BM)
 Figure 4.34, Level Line closing on a 2nd BM
 Figure 4.35, Level Loop closing on the same BM
 Figure 4.36, Double-Run Level Line
 Closure error (e) = measured elevation – known elevation
 For level loops, the closure error (e) may also be computed as
the algebraic sum of the elevation differences for the line of
sections in the loop
 Corrections for closure error can be distributed to the line
sections by proportion,
ni
hi   e 
n
closure correction for
i
 Table 4.1, Figure 4.37

163
 4.20) Closure Error

Good for highways or

pipeline surveys

Figure 4.34: A level line closing on a second benchmark

164
 4.20) Closure Error

Figure 4.35:
A Level Loop

+ve : Increase in Elevation -ve : Decrease in Elevation

165
4.20) Closure Error

Forward

Backward

166
4.20) Closure Error

167
4.20) Closure Error

168
4.20) Closure Error
Figure 4.37:
Adjustment of
a level line

Known
elevation of
BM 101
=233.203

169
4.20) Closure Error

Figure 4.37:
Adjustment
of a level
line

170
 4.20) Closure Error

Number of setups
for a level line
section = number
of setups between
two stations =
number of TP + 1

171
 4.21) Adjustment of Level Network
by Successive Iteration
o When leveling is done for a construction site, the level lines should be
run in short closed loops.
o The adjoining loops form a level network.
o The loops within the network can be adjusted for closure error.
o The network in Figure 4.38can be adjusted as follows:

1. Adjust loop 1
2. Adjust loop 2. Use the adjusted elevation differences from step 1
for line sections common to loops 1 and 2
3. Adjust loop 3. Use the latest adjusted elevation differences from
steps 1 and 2 for line sections common to loops 1 and 2
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 until the closure error is negligible for all three
loops.

Usually 2 to 3 iterations are sufficient.

172
 4.21) Adjustment of Level Network
by Successive Iteration

Figure 4.38:
A level
Network
173
 4.26) Monumentation
o It is the process
of marking in an
enduring manner
the physical
position of
survey points.
o Used to
document
surveys.
o Used to establish
relationships
between filed
surveys and
maps and charts

174
 4.26) Monumentation

Figure 4.50:
Concrete
post
monument

175
 4.28) Profile Leveling
o It is the operation of determining the elevations of
points at regular intervals along a fixed line.

o Before sewers, highways, railroads are designed

and constructed, stakes are set at intervals (called
Stations), usually 100 ft, or at intermediate “plus-
station” points along the centerline.

176
 4.28) Profile Leveling

Figure 4.55:
Profile leveling

177
 4.28) Profile Leveling

Figure 4.55:
Profile leveling

178
 4.29) Cross-Section Leveling
o Cross-sections
are profiles taken
transverse to the
centerline of a
project.
o Provide data for
estimating
quantities of
earthwork.
o For roadways,
they extend to
the right and left
of the centerline

179
 4.29) Cross-Section Leveling

o Shows the
relationship of
the proposed
roadway to the
ground line.

o The same scales

are usually used
vertically and
horizontally.

180
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)
Fall 2019-2020

Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

181
Chapter 5: Angle Measurement

5.1) Introduction
5.2) Units of Angle Measurements
5.3) Horizontal, Vertical, and Zenith Angles

182
 5.1) Introduction
 Distance and angular measurements are required to
fix the position of a point
 Angular measurements: Horizontal & Vertical
 Instruments: Transit or Theodolite
 Scope of this chapter includes:
 An introduction to the basic concepts of angles
and directions
 A brief introduction of the four most commonly
used types of angle-measuring instruments:
* Vernier transits * Scale-reading theodolites
* Digital theodolites * Electronic theodolites
183
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Sexagesimal System:
 Circumference is divided into 360 degrees (360)
 One degree is divided into 60 minutes (1=60)
 One minute is divided into 60 seconds (1=60)
 Centesimal System:
 Circumference is divided into 400 grads or grades
(400g)
 One grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes
(1g=100c)
 One centesimal minute is divided into 100
centesimal seconds (1c=100cc)
184
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 The Radian (Rad):
 One radian is defined as the angle at the center of

a circle that is subtended by an arc having exactly

the same length as the radius.
 S: Arc Length = r g
 r: Radius
 g: Central Angle
(in radians)
 Circumference = 2pr

185
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 To convert among the three systems:
360  400g  2p rad 
 Example 5.1: Find the sum of these three angles
Centesimal System Sexagesimal System
100.4527g 755123
251.7590g 2071841
312.0314g 3403957
Sum = 664.2431g Sum = 6235001
Or 264.2431g Or 2635001

186
5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example:
 
 51   23 
75 51 23  75     
 

 60   60  60 
 75   0.85   0.00638
 75.85638

187
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example 5.2:
What is the sexagesimal equivalent of 264.2431g?

360
264.2431g  264.2431g   237 . 81879 

400 g
 60  
 237   0.81879   
 

 1 
 237   49.1274 
 60  

 237  49   0.1274 

 
 1 
 237   49   7.644 
 237  49 7.644 
188
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example 5.3:
What is the grad equivalent of 2635001?
 1
  1 1 

263 5001  263   50 
 
   01   
 60   60 60 
 263  0.83333  0.00028
 263.83361
g
400
 263.83361 
360
 293.1485 g  293g14c85cc
189
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example:
Find the sexagesimal equivalent of 1 rad?
360 
1rad   1rad    57.2957795 
2p rad 
 60  
 57   0.2957795   
 

 1 
 57   17.7467707 
60 
 57  17   0.7467707  


1
 57   17   44.806243 
 57 17 44.806243 
190
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example:
Find the centesimal equivalent of 1 rad?
400 g
1rad   1rad    63.6619772 g
2p rad 
 100 c

 63 g   0.6619772 g  g 
 1 
 63 g  66.19772 c
cc
100
 63 g  66 c  0.19772 c  c
1
 63 g  66 c  19.772 cc
191
 5.2) Units of Angle
Measurements
 Example:
What is the length of the arc that corresponds to a
central angle of 45 if the radius is 150m?

Arc Length S   rg rad 

 2p rad  
 150m   45 


 360 


 150m  0.785398163rad 
 117.810m

192
 5.3) Horizontal, Vertical, and
Zenith Angles
 Horizontal Angles (Figure 5.1):
 Angles measured on horizontal plane

 In
Figure 5.1, points A, B, & C, are the
projections of points A, B, & C, respectively.

 AnglesABC, BCA, and CAB are the

horizontal angles

193
5.3) Horizontal, Vertical, and
Zenith Angles

Figure 5.1: Horizontal Angles

194
 5.3) Horizontal, Vertical, and
Zenith Angles
 Vertical Angle (Figure 5.2):
 Measured in a vertical plane
 Uses the horizontal plane as reference plane
 It is +ve (-ve) if the point being sited on is above
(below) the horizontal plane
 Its value can range from -90 to +90
 Zenith Angle or Zenith Distance (Figure 5.2):
 Also, measured in a vertical plane
 Uses the overhead extension of the plumb line as
reference line.
 Its value ranges from 0 to +180
195
5.3) Horizontal, Vertical, and
Zenith Angles
Figure 5.2: Vertical and Zenith Angles

196
Chapter 5: Angle Measurement
5.4) True Bearings [Bearing  Reduced Bearing (RB)]
5.5) Magnetic Bearings and Declination
5.6) Azimuth [Azimuth  Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)]
5.7) Back Bearing and Back Azimuth
5.10) Principal Elements of an Angle-Measuring
Instrument
5.11) Surveying Telescope
5.12) Parts of a Vernier Transit
5.16 & 5.22) Setting up a Transit and a Theodolite

197
 5.4) True Bearings
(Horizontal Angles)
Bearing 
Reduced
Bearing (RB):
For OA:
N 70 E
A
For OB:
S 44 E
For OC:
S 8120 W
For OD:
N 3245 W

Figure 5.3: True Bearing 198

 5.5) Magnetic Bearings
(Horizontal Angles)

Figure 5.4: Magnetic Bearing

199
 5.6) Azimuths
(Horizontal Angles)
Azimuth  True
Whole Circle North
Bearing (WCB):
For OA:
70
For OB:
136

For OC:
26120
For OD:
32715
Figure 5.6: Azimuth of a Line 200
Bearing vs. Azimuths

201
Bearing vs. Azimuths

202
Bearing vs. Azimuths

203
 5.7) Back Bearing/Back Azimuth
(Horizontal Angles)
N
Back bearing of line OA=
Bearing of line AO = S 30 W

Back azimuth of line OA= A

Azimuth of line AO = 210
N 30

30 210

204
Recall

205
 5.10) Principal Elements of An
Angle-Measuring Device

Basic Elements:

• A line of sight
• A horizontal
axis
• A vertical axis
• A graduated
vertical circle
• A graduated
horizontal
circle
206
 5.11) Surveying Telescope

The principal features

of the surveying
telescope are:

 Objective Lens

 Eyepiece

 Cross-Wires

207
 5.12) Parts of A Vernier
Transit

These parts are:

1) Leveling Head
2) Lower Plate
3) Upper Plate

208
 5.16 & 5.22) Setting Up a
Transit and a Theodolite

In setting up a transit or theodolite we need to do:

1) Centering of the device
2) Leveling of the device

209
5.16) Setting Up A Transit

210
5.16) Setting Up A Transit

211
5.16) Setting Up A Transit

212
Engineering Measurements
(CVEN 3341)
Prepared by:
Mohammad Ali Khasawneh, Ph.D., P.E.,
ExCEEd

213
Chapter 7: Coordinate
Geometry
7.1) Introduction
7.2) Latitude, Longitude, & Elevation (G.C.S.)
7.3) Rectangular Coordinates (R.C.S.)
7.4) The Inverse Problem
7.5) Location by Angle & Distance
7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location by Angles)
7.7) Intersection by Distances (Location by
Distances)
214
 7.1) Introduction
 The use of coordinates to define geographic
positions of survey points is now considered
as a necessity with the increasing use of
computers in all facets of engineering
planning and design.
 Some of the fundamental principles of
coordinate geometry will be discussed in
this chapter.
 This chapter will be limited to discussions on
the computation of horizontal coordinates.

215
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
A perspective view
of the Earth
showing how
latitude (φ) and
longitude (λ) are
defined on a
spherical model.
The graticule
spacing is 10
degrees.

216
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
1. Latitude and longitude are useful to
locate any point on the surface of
the earth
2. Meridian is an imaginary great circle
on the Earth's surface, passing through
the North Pole and the South Pole
while longitude is angular distance
measured east or west of the
Prime Meridian.
3. A Prime Meridian is a meridian in a
geographic coordinate system at
which longitude is defined to be 0°.
4. The Equator is the line of 0° latitude.
Each parallel measures
one degree north or south of
the Equator. The latitude of the North
Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the
South Pole is 90° S.
217
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
Example: Locate the red
point on the geographic
coordinate system
using only latitude and
longitude.

50o E 40o N
218
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation

The definition of
geodetic latitude
(φ) and longitude
(λ) on an ellipsoid.
The normal to the
surface does not pass
through the center,
except at the equator
and at the poles.

219
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
 In the geographic coordinate system, the position of
a point is defined by its latitude, longitude, and
elevation (Figure 7.1)

 Latitude of point P (represented by f):

 It is the angle between the direction of the plumb
line at P and the earth’s equatorial plane.
 In Figure 7.1, latitude of point P is 43N.

220
7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
(Prime Meridian)

Figure 7.1:
Latitude f,
Longitude l,
and
Elevation (h)

221
 7.2) Latitude, Longitude,
and Elevation
 Longitude of point P (represented by l):
 It is the angular distance measured in the
equatorial plane, between the Greenwich meridian
(prime meridian in this case) and the meridian
passing through the vertical projection of P.
 It is measured either east or west of the
Greenwich meridian.
 It has a value between 0 and 180.
 In Figure 7.1, longitude of point P is 61W.
 Elevation of point P (represented by h):
 It is its vertical distance above a reference datum,
such as mean sea level 222
 7.3) Rectangular Coordinates
 In the rectangular coordinate system,
 The horizontal position of a point is defined by its
X- or Y- coordinates with respect to a set of X-
and Y- axes
 The vertical position is defined by its elevation
with respect to a reference datum, such as mean
sea level

 In Figure 7.2, the position of point P is defined by its

coordinates XP, YP, and hP.

223
 7.3) Rectangular Coordinates

Figure 7.2:
Rectangular
Coordinate
System

R.C.S. Origin
Used to define the R.C.S.
224
 7.3) Rectangular Coordinates
 A rectangular coordinate system can be arbitrary
defined for a project specifying all the followings:
1) The X- and Y- coordinates of one point;
2) The direction (bearing or azimuth) of one line,
OR the X- (or Y-) coordinate of a second point,
3) The elevation of one point

 In Figure 7.2, the rectangular coordinate system is

defined by specifying the following parameters:
1) Coordinates of point A (XA=1000 ft, YA=1000 ft)
2) Y- coordinate of point B (YB=1000 ft)
3) Elevation of point A (hA=500 ft)
225
 7.4) The Inverse Problem

Figure 7.3: The Departure

Inverse Problem Xj - Xi

Latitude
Yj - Yi

226
7.4) The Inverse Problem
 Given:
X- and Y- coordinates of two points (i and j)
 Required:
 The distance between the two points (dij)

 The azimuth of the line going from i to j (aij)

 Solution:
d ij  X j  Xi   Y
2
j  Yi 
2

a ij  tan 
1

 X j  Xi   tan 1  Departure of line ij 
  
 Y j  Yi
  Latitude of line ij 
 

227
7.4) The Inverse Problem

228
7.4) The Inverse Problem

229
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)

y
 Case 1 (QI)
Departure: +ve Dep. B

Latitude: +ve Lat. a

AB

𝑫𝒆𝒑. x
𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 A
𝑳𝒂𝒕.

𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 +𝑣𝑒
𝛼𝐴𝐵 = tan−1 = tan −1
 𝛼𝐴𝐵 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 +𝑣𝑒

230
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)
y
 Case 2 (QVI)
Departure: ve B Dep.

Latitude: +ve Lat.

q

𝑫𝒆𝒑. x
𝜽= 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 A
𝑳𝒂𝒕.
aAB

𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 −𝑣𝑒
𝜃= tan−1 = tan −1
 𝜃 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 +𝑣𝑒

𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 + 𝜽

231
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)
y
 Case 3 (QIII)
aAB
Departure: ve A
x
Latitude: ve
q

𝑫𝒆𝒑. Lat.
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 B
𝑳𝒂𝒕. Dep.

𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 −𝑣𝑒
𝜃= tan−1 = tan −1
 𝜃 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 −𝑣𝑒

𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽

232
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)
y
 Case 4 (QII)
aAB
Departure: +ve A
x
Latitude: ve
q
Lat.
𝑫𝒆𝒑. B
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝑳𝒂𝒕. Dep.

𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 +𝑣𝑒
𝜃= tan−1 = tan −1
 𝜃 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 −𝑣𝑒

𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽

233
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)

y
 Example on Case 1
Departure = + 100 Dep. B

Latitude = + 200 Lat. a

AB

+𝟏𝟎𝟎 x
𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕° A
+𝟐𝟎𝟎

234
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)

y
 Example on Case 2
Departure =  100 B Dep.

Latitude = + 200 Lat.

q

−𝟏𝟎𝟎 x
𝜽= 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = −𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕° A
+𝟐𝟎𝟎
aAB
𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 + 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 − 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟑°

235
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)
y
 Example on Case 3
aAB
Departure =  100 A
x
Latitude =  200
q

−𝟏𝟎𝟎 Lat.
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕° B
−𝟐𝟎𝟎 Dep.

𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟔. 𝟓𝟕°

236
 Azimuth for Line AB (aAB)
y
 Example on Case 4
aAB
Departure = + 100 A
x
Latitude =  200
q
Lat.
+𝟏𝟎𝟎 B
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = −𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕°
−𝟐𝟎𝟎 Dep.

𝜶𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 = 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟒𝟑°

237
 7.5) Location by Angle and
Distance

Figure 7.4:
Location by
Angle &
Distance

238
 7.5) Location by Angle and
Distance
 Given:
 X- and Y- coordinates of two points (i and j)

 The angle b between lines ij and ik

 The distance dik

 Required:
 The horizontal coordinates of point k (Xk & Yk)

 Solution:
a ik  a ij  b
X k  X i  d ik sina ik  Yk  Yi  d ik cos a ik 
239
7.5) Location by Angle and
Distance

240
7.5) Location by Angle and
Distance

241
Recall!

c = 7.36

242
Recall!

243
7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location
by Angles)

Figure 7.5:
Intersection by
Angles

244
 7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location
by Angles)
 Given:
 X- and Y- coordinates of two points (i and j)

 The angle b between lines ij and ik

 The angle g between lines jk and ji

 Required:
 The horizontal coordinates of point k (Xk & Yk)

 Solution: d ik d ij
Using the Sine law: sin g   sin 180   b  g
 
X k  X i  d ik sina ik  Yk  Yi  d ik cos a ik 
245
7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location
by Angles)

246
7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location
by Angles)

247
7.6) Intersection by Angles (Location
by Angles)

248
7.7) Intersection by Distances (Location
by Distances)

249
7.7) Intersection by Distances (Location
by Distances)
 Given:
 X- and Y- coordinates of two points (i and j)

 The distances dik & djk

 Required:
 The horizontal coordinates of point k (Xk & Yk)

Solution:
d 2jk  d ij2  d ik2  2d ijd ik cos b 


Using the Cosine law:

 d 2
 d 2
 d 2

b  cos 
1 ij ik jk

 2d ij d ik 
Xk & Yk can be computed from aik and dik
250
7.7) Intersection by Distances (Location
by Distances)
 Xk & Yk can be computed from aik and dik
 How?

X k  X i  d ik sina ik 
Yk  Yi  d ik cos a ik 
251
7.7) Intersection by Distances (Location
by Distances)

252