Childhood and Growing Up

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UNIT -1

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDHOOD

As children grow older, they develop in several ways. Child


development includes physical, intellectual, social, moral and
emotional changes. World Health Organisation (WHO) takes
international effort to develop child growth that will change the
National Centre of Health Statistics (NCHS). It gives references
from the infancy to early childhood (age 0-5yrs).

Growth: Meaning & Definition


Growth refers to increase in the size of a child, such as
height, weight, etc., It can be considered as quantitative changes. It
can be measured easily. It involves structural and physiological
changes that take place within individual. It starts with conception
and ends at a particular age.
“Growth involves changes in the body in terms of amounts,
such as size and weight, length/height, head circumference, and so
on mostly observable and easily measured factors” (McMillan,
2013). According to Crow and Crow (1962), “Growth refers to
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structural and physiological changes”. According to Hurlock,
“Growth is defined as change in size, in proportion, disappearance
of old features and acquisition of new ones”.
Characteristics of Growth
• Growth is measurable and observable.
• It is quantitative, argumentative and additive.
• Rate of growth is unique and not uniform.
• Physical factor plays a dominant role.
• Individual differences among children due to their growth.
• Growth stops at a particular point of life.
Development: Meaning & Definition
Development is a process of quantitative and qualitative
change of individuals in their life span, from the time of conception,
infancy, childhood, childhood, adolescence, to adulthood.
“Development can be interpreted as a process of change in the
individual or organism, both physical (physical) and psychic
(spiritual) to the level of maturity or maturity that takes place in a
systematic, progressive and sustainable” (Roostin, 2018). It
continues throughout the life.
“Development accompanies growth and maturation but
refers to changes from simple to increasingly complex ways of
dealing with the world for instance, in facing physical challenges,
communicating, thinking and problem solving, and feeling about
and relating to oneself and others” (McMillan, 2013).
According to J.E. Anderson (1950), “Development is
concerned with growth as well as those changes in behaviour which
result from environment situation”. According to Weber, Poulos
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and Marmor (1979), “Development refers to a process of change in
growth and capability over time, as function of both maturation and
interaction with the environment”. According to Hurlock (1959),
“Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in
an orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and
experience”.
Characteristics of Development
• Development is a qualitative change.
• It is a continuous process.
• It continues throughout our life.
• It is the result of interaction between the individual and the
environment.
• It is predictable.
• Most of the traits are correlated in development.
Principles of Growth and Development

There are several principles for the pattern and process of


growth and development. These principles describe the typical
development. The change brought about is an individual by the
process of growth and development.
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1. Principle of Continuity
A child has limited knowledge and experience about his
environment. He or she develops himself or herself continuously to
acquire more information through exploration. Development of one
stage helps to the development of another stage. The process of
growth and development continues from the conception till the
individual reaches maturity. Development is a continuous process.
It can be attained even after maturity and it has no end. It is a never-
ending process.
2. Principle of Sequence
Development of child is in sequential order. It does not
come suddenly. Both growth and development of species follow the
sequential pattern. This pattern in general is the same for all
individuals. All children follow a development pattern with one
stage leading to the next. i.e., Infants stand before they walk.
3. Principle of Difference
The development is not even for all. It depends upon
individual’s learning. Each person has his own particular growth of
their body. Growth and development is different from one person
to another person. Growth depends upon their gene and hormones.
Development is the process of gaining knowledge from their own.
It does not depend upon growth.
4. Principle of Prediction
“Every stage has some common traits and characteristics
aspects of development occur in predictable, orderly patters”
(Singh & Bisht & Parveen, 2019). Human development is
predictable during the life span. With the help of the uniformity of

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pattern and sequence of development, it is possible to predict the
future development.
5. Principle proceeds from simple to complex
Children use their cognitive and language skill to reason
and solve problems. Skills related to mental or intellectual abilities
and skill related to verbal communication are used by a child to
solve the problem. In first level of learning, the child uses it to solve
simple problems and learn simple things. Later, he or she will be
able to understand more complex things.
6. Principle of individual rates of growth and development
Each child is different and the rate at which individual
children grow is different. Although the pattern and sequence for
growth and development are usually the same for all children, the
rates at which an individual child gets development is different.
7. Principle of Interaction
Active interaction between the focus within the individual
and forces belong to their environment is prominent. Individuals’
behaviour is an end product of the constant interaction between
hereditary and environment.
8. Principle of uniformity and universality
The development of language follows a definite sequence
which is common to all the human beings. In a child, there is a
uniformity of pattern to follow the relevant pattern for ensuring and
enhancing the learning of all.
9. Principle proceeds from the general to specific
In all the area of development, general activity always
proceeds towards specific activity. Individuals exhibit general

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response and learn to show specific and goal directed response.
With respect to emotional behavior, infants approach bizarre object
with general response. Later, their fear become more specific and
elicit with different kinds of behaviour, such as crying, hiding, etc.
10. Principle of development depends on maturation and
learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristics of growth
and development. The biological change occurs in sequential order
and give children new abilities. The child's environment and the
learning that occur as a result of the child's experience largely
determine whether the child will reach optional development.
Factors influencing Growth and Development
Each child's growth and development is determined by
genetic and environmental factor. There are some influences that
cause child growth and development.
1. Heredity

Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from


parents to children through their genes. It influences all aspects of
physical appearance, such as height, body structure. Some diseases
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also pass-through genes, thereby affecting the growth and
development of the child, example: diabetes. The health history of
parents should be studied to determine the hereditary traits before
the marriage.
2. Environment
Some environmental factors influencing early childhood
development involve the physical surrounding and geographical
condition of the place. The child lives in as well his or her social
environment and relationships with family and peers are depending
on the environment. A good school and a loving family build strong
social and interpersonal skills in children.
3. Sex
The sex of the child is another major factor which affects
growth and development. Growth is different in males and females:
girls get menstruation and boys get nocturnal emission after the
puberty. Their body structure varies physiologically with essential
nutrition. Mostly boys play outdoor games and girls play indoor
games.
4. Exercise and Health

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Exercise refers to normal play activities which help to
increase the physical strength and emotional development. Proper
exercise helps children to grow well and it makes them to free from
diseases. The children who play in outdoor can expose to sunlight.
It protects their skin from microbes and also increases the strength
of immunity.
5. Hormones
Hormones influence various functions of our body. Specific
parts of our body secret hormones to control the functions of the
body. The correct secretion of hormones regulates the growth of
human body and allows it to function properly. The incorrect
secretion of hormones affects the behaviour pattern and growth of
people. During maturation, some secondary sex hormones develop
and control secondary sexual characteristics.
6. Nutrition
Nutrition is very important to build our body and repair the
damaged cells. When we take good nutritional foods, our body
absorbs the nutrition and utilise it for growth. If there is a lack in
having healthy foods, the body absorbs low nutrition which causes
malnutrition. Malnutrition can cause deficiencies. Over food or
overeating causes obesity and health problems. i.e., cardiovascular
diseases. Every child needs to have foods with rich nutrition. It can
develop the healthy body and keep free from diseases.

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7. Familial Influence

Children need love and care from their parents and


surroundings. It helps them to live a healthy life with individual
functions. The family members should spend more time with their
children to develop positive attitude. Parents need to play, guide,
and communicate with their children. i.e., telling story, reading
books. These can help the children to improve social skills.

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When a family neglects children, they will feel alone and
do not show interest to play with others. They develop negative
attitude and find difficult to interact within the family. The loss of
a parent builds negative childhood experience for children without
necessary parental care and support.
8. Geographical Influence

The geographical area also influences child growth and


development. The children who are living in good and enriched
community can develop their skills and interests to learn many
things with their peers and families. The poor community, like rural
area, can limit their interests and knowledge with less learning
experiences. Weather changes is a barrier to health of children.
9. Socio-Economic Status
The children who come from good economic status have
opportunity to study in better schools. They have all facilities to
learn according to their interests and improve their knowledge.
They have good learning resources in their family. It helps the child
to learn from early childhood. Children from low socioeconomic
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status have poor learning resources and they do not able to learn in
better schools. They cannot learn according to their interests. Their
family do not have money to invest for their higher education.
Differences between Growth and Development

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Growth is quantitative. Development is qualitative.
It is the increase in size and body, It is the progressive changes in size,
such as height, weight. shape and function.
It is a part of development. It is comprehensive and wider refer to
overall changes in the individual.
It can be measured easily. It cannot be measured easily.
It is an aspect of development. It is complex and many sided.
It has individual differences. The level of development is different
from one child to another.
It is multidirectional. It is progressive and sequential.
It is not uniform. The rate of development is not uniform.
It is structural in nature. It is functional in nature.
It does not affect the learning. It develops by learning and experience.
It can be estimated accurately. It cannot be estimated accurately.
It may or may not bring It is possible without growth.
development.
It stops at maturation. It continues throughout life.

Impact of Nature and Nurture


A developmental psychology has the relationship between
nature and nurture. The effect of nature and nurture is most
critically important in the earliest year of the child's life. The nature
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is inseparable from nurture and that both nature and nurture are the
sources of human potential and growth as well as risk of
dysfunction and problematic behaviours.
Nature
Nature refers to the hereditary factor or the genes of a child.
It defines not only child's physical appearance, but also help in
building child's personality traits. The behaviours are determined
by biological factor.
Nurture
Nurture refers to the environmental factors that impact our
personality traits, experience, how and where the child is raised,
social relationships and culture. An individual’s behaviour is
determined by the environment.
Nature Vs Nurture
The significant issues in developmental psychology is the
relationship between the uniqueness of an attributes and
environmental effects.
Nature is an account of development influenced by genes.
Natural human behaviour is a biological factor, the behaviour
transfers from one generation to another.
Example: Son’s behavior like his parents.
Nurture is acquired through interactions with the
environment. Nurturing human behaviour is seen as the result of
interaction in the environment.
Example: Children learn behaviours from their peers, like language
slang.

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1. Sleeping
Nature: The child keeps waking up at night. It may be because of
his gene. In a study conducted on identical twins, it was observed
that the gene plays an important role in the sleeping pattern. Most
of child waking in night and slept morning. In pregnant period, their
mother has a good sleep-in morning time than night. It continues to
their babies.
Nurture: If a baby does not sleep properly, his sleeping schedule
can be improved by us to provide him better sleep. In study, it was
observed that the child waking in day time because we expose the
child in sunlight. It regulates the child’s sleeping in night and he
wake up in day.
2. Crying
If your baby cries incessantly, it is because of his nature or
it is a habit that he has developed due to his way of nurturing.
Nature: Baby cries to get attention from his or her parents for their
care. Genetics plays an important role in baby’s cry. Many
researches show that almost 60 percentage of the temperament of
baby is heredity.
Nurture: Baby born with calm nature. His or her cry depends upon
nurture, because of weather, sounds, etc.
3. Socialising
In a society, the comfort and discomfort of a baby is
depending on the nature and nurture.
Nature: A baby may feel shy and uncomfortable in the company
of people and another baby may attach to people easily. These can

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be segregated as active infant and passive infant. It is the reason of
their inherited genes.
Nurture: The baby who feels uncomfortable needs the warm
support of parents to engage with others. It needs nurturing to
develop the social interaction for playing and other activities.
4. Eating
Many of the eating habits and food preferences of children
may be inherited and some of them are developed by the society.
Nature: Eating habit of children may be genetic. If a child eats
slowly or frequently, it is because of his or her genes.
Nurture: Parents can regulate the eating habits of children. The
society is the main thing which provides various food provisions
for children to taste and follow the food habits.
5. Moving
If a child likes to be in motion for all the times or does not
like to move around much, it may be because of his genes or
nurture.
Nature: The children may be active and like to move around
frequently or being more relaxed and calm, because of their
inherited genes. In a study, it was shown that active babies are
grown up into active adults and relaxed babies are remained as the
same in the adulthood.
Nurture: The parents may help children to be more active for
involving them in various activities and games. They should
provide necessary nutritional food items for active physical
participation.

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Theories of Growth and Development in Psychology
Nature Theory
• Nature is what we think of us and influence by genetic
inheritance and biological factors. The certain physical
characteristics are biologically determined by genetic
inheritance. Colour of eyes, type of hair, pigmentation of
skin and certain diseases is all inherited.
• Chomsky (1965), who proposed language is gained through
the use of an innate language acquisition.
Nurture Theory
• Nurture is generally taken the influence of external factors.
i.e., individual’s learning. Psychological characteristics and
behaviour differences that emerge through infancy as the
result of learning in the environment or society.
• Freud's theory (1905), the childhood has a great influence
on shaping our personalities. He thought that parenting is
of primary importance to a child's development and family
on the most important factor of nurture.
• Bandura's (1971) social learning theory: He states that
aggression is learned from environment through
observation and imitation. This is seen from his experiment
called Bobo doll experiment.
• Skinner (1957): He believed that language is learnt from
other people and also behaviour shaping technique.
Interaction of Nature and Nurture
The term of nature and nurture seems to imply a polarity
but, of course, not open evidence of a major impact from specific
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that enacts in a vacuum. “Genetic effects have to be environments
as measured on manifest with respect to organisms develop- the
grounds that environments have little entering in a particular
environmental milieu, and defect unless they represent extreme
departures environmental effects have to operate on or- from
normality” (Scarr, 1992). “It is indeed the organisms that differ with
respect to genetically case that good evidence of major influences
influenced individual characteristics” (Rutte & Dunn & Plomin &
Simonoff & Pickles & Maughan & Oramel & Meyer & Lindon,
1997).
In the present days, developmental psychologists are of the
opinions that apart from how nature and nurture effect physical
development in childhood. The human development also depends
on social factor such as socio-environmental, socio-economic and
cultural factors.
All children are born with specific genetic traits and are
nurtured in different environment and thus we all develop different
traits. The children react to various environmental factors that are
determined by the genetic factors of parents. For example, a child
may have the ability to understand music because of his or her
genes, but the genes alone do not make it perfectly. A child needs
to practice and learn well from his or her master, it considers as an
environment.

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UNIT -2
STAGES AND DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT

Stages
Stages and dimensions of development considered as the
mile stone to shape the child. These have four types, such as
infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Based on
psychology, the types of stages differ on individuals. The problems
of individuals are varying regarding to their age levels. The three
primary stages of human development are infancy, childhood and
adolescence.
“There is in every child at every stage, a new miracle of
vigorous unfolding.” - Erik Erikson.

Stages and Development


Stages Development
Infancy Physical
Childhood Cognitive
Adolescence Social-Emotional

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Physical Development
Physical development refers to the physical and biological
changes that occur in humans between birth and adolescence. As a
child grows and changes, he or she increases his or her ability to
explore and interact with the environment around him.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is the construction of thought
processes, for remembering, problem solving and decision making,
from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. It includes
information processing, intelligence, reasoning, and language
development.
Social and Emotional Development
Social and emotional development are the changes over
time in children’s ability to react to and interact with their social
environment. They are complex with different areas of growth.
Those are temperament, attachment, social skills and emotion
regulation.
INFANCY (0-2)
In the stage of infancy, the infant cannot do anything of his
or her own. It is the stage of complete dependence. It is the age from
birth to 2 years of the human life. In the second-half of the infancy
period, the babies are called as toddlers who can crawl the
horizontal surface of land area. It is the beginning stage of learning
through trial-and-error method i.e., blabbing in language
development and crawling in gross-motor development.
“From infancy onward, children are the most fantastic
learners in the world.” - Daniel Quinn

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Physical Development
• The infant’s height and weight increase rapidly.
• Begins to head up (1-3 months).
• Rolls over from stomach to back (3 months).
• The infant learns to sit alone (6 months).
• Baby teeth emerges (6 months).
• The infant starts to crawl, pull up and walk with support
(9-12 month).
• Ability to grasp and suck develop slowly.
• Takes few steps of walk without holding objects (12
months).
• Stands alone (12 months).
• The infant starts to walk alone without any support (12-18
months).
• Able to jump, run and climb.
• Ability to stand on tip toe (24 months).
• Begins to walk up and down to upstairs (24 months).
• Learns to throw and catch objects by using hands.
• Learns to use spoons.
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Cognitive Development
• Infant starts to learn with primary senses, such as eyes,
ears and hands.
• Starts to communicate by coos and babbles (1-3 months).
• Pays attention towards moving objects from a side to sides
(4 months).
• Sees closely to the faces of others (4 months).
• Begins to imitate the speech sounds (6-9 months).
• Begins to use objects and toys.
• Ability to recall the memory of places, objects and people
(9-12 months).
• Improvement in the power of understanding and analysing
objects.
• Starts to respond for orders, i.e., sit down, stand up.
• Active and enthusiastic in playing games (12 months).
• Spoken vocabulary improves gradually from 200 to 300
words.
• Begins to form sentences with 3 to 4 words (24 months).
Social and Emotional Development
• The infant starts to respond with a smile while seeing
others.
• Imitates facial expressions, such as smiling and frowning.
• Plays with parents and caregivers.
• Gets afraid of strangers and feels comfortable with
parents.
• Starts to choose favourite toys, people and things.

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• Being interested to listen stories.
• Imitates the performances, such as actions and dances (9-
12 months).
• Engages in parallel, cooperative and dramatic play.
• Gets to follow gender stereotyped behaviours.
• Learns to be with others for being less dependent (24
months).
CHILDHOOD (3-11)
Childhood is the second major phase in human
development. It is the age span ranging from birth to puberty. The
concept of childhood emerged during 17th and 18th centuries,
particularly by the educational theories of John Locke, a
philosopher. The childhood is divided into two types. They are
early childhood (3-6) and middle childhood (6-11).
Early Childhood (3-6)
In early childhood, the age of three to six, children are
commonly referred as preschoolers. They regulate their emotions
and thoughts to interact with others through communication.

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Physical Development
• The physical activities, such as running, jumping and
throwing get coordination.
• Learns to drive tricycle (Age 3).
• Starts to scribble something which become a picture.
• Gross-motor and fine-motor skills develop systematically.
• Gets permanent teeth is the main feature of this stage (Age
5).
• Starts to fulfill the basic needs on their own, such as
brushing the teeth, eating foods and dressing themselves.
Cognitive Development
• Improvement in cognitive structures, schemata, with the
high egocentrism.
• It is a questioning phase which explores everything with
random questions.
• Starts to understand and use symbols, alphabets and
numerical system.
• Learns many stories with high appreciation of emotions and
morals.
• Able to recognise shapes, letters and colours.
• Attention and concentration stimulate development.
• Recalling repeated behaviours can be enhanced in this
phase (Age 5).
• Plays with toys of strange mechanisms. i.e., remote cars,
bulldozers.
• Starts to go to school and learn formal culturalism.

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• Begins to understand time, date and day order.
• Understands materialistic objects, such as, food, dress and
money.
Social and Emotional Development
• Imitates behaviours of parents, friends and others (Age 3).
• Starts to respond to others’ worries. i.e., crying baby, crying
mother.
• Engages in physical games for emotional development.
• Sharing and cooperating attitude improve in this phase
(Age 3-4).
• Tries new things with abnormal creativity (Age 4).
• Has own interests in several topics. i.e., favourite sports
player and actor.
• Participate in extra-curricular activities, such as lemon in
the spoon (Age 5).
• Plays games as homophile and learns to adjust with the
environment.
Middle Childhood (6-11)
In the middle childhood, the age from six to eleven, children
get changes in both growth and development. Their skills attain
coordination and bodies become capable of doing physical tasks
with more stamina. It is the period of performance for both mental
and physical learning. They become responsible to maintain their
physical and mental health.

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Physical Development
• The height and weight increase slowly (Age 6-9).
• Improvement in the coordination of gross-motor skills (Age
9-11).
• Hand and eye coordination get stable development.
• Physical growth gets a boost by participating in sports
activities.
• Gets new structure of the face. i.e., Round face, Oval face.
• Starts to attain changes in vocal aspects for better verbal
expressions.
Cognitive Development
• Multi-tasking ability to perform activities.
• Logical thinking is the prominent feature of this phase.
• Improvement in memorisation. i.e., recite poems, speech
competitions.
• Gets stable progression in body and mind coordination.
• Increasing of fluency in communication.
• Emergence of reasoning and problem solving.
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• Self-thinking and self-awareness begin in this phase.
• Make relationship with concepts for better understanding.
Social and Emotional Development
• Starts to compare themselves with peer groups.
• Feels confident by victories and inferiority by defeats.
• Able to understand positive and negative sides of people.
• ‘Gender Stability’ is the special feature of this phase.
• Starts to value others’ feelings and responds others with
respect.
• Emotional intelligence rises to have empathy on people
(Age 6-9).
• Has friendship with a peer and reduce own family time.
• Gains the support of the society with individual abilities.
• Be an independent person to learn from the society with
adaptation of norms.
• Gets to learn moral behaviours for rewards from the
society.
ADOLESCENCE (11-19)
Adolescence is the transitional phase of growth and
development between childhood and adulthood. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) defines that adolescent as any person between
ages of 10 to 19.
“Adolescence is the period of the decisive last battle fought
before maturity. The ego must achieve independence; the old
emotional ties must be cast off, the new ones created.” - Helen
Deutsch

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Physical Development
• Height and weight increase in the time of puberty.
• Bones become stronger and harder.
• Sex hormones start to form.
• Genital hair begins to grow. i.e., in armpits, as moustache,
beard, etc.
• On puberty, girls have the elevation of breasts and boys
have nocturnal emission.
• Gets hoarse voice with awkward appearance.
• Boys get broader shoulder and girls get changes in hip size.
Cognitive Development
• Advancing in reasoning skills, hypothetical thinking and
logical process.
• Adolescents think more abstractly than concretely.
• Starts to take risks in this period.
• Easily attracted by the colour and outer appearance of
objects.

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• Has interest on the programmes of beauty and
entertainment.
• Gets knowledge on various topics with multidisciplinary
attitude.
• Shows interest towards music and clothes.
• Maintains a cognitive frame to face debates and arguments
with high attention.
• Aware of problems in the society and tries to find
solutions.
Social and Emotional Development
• Gets affection by intense feelings. i.e., love, sorrow, grief.
• Gives importance to own thoughts and develops egocentric
behaviours.
• ‘Gender Consistency’ is the prominent feature of this
period.
• Starts to respond to “Imaginary Audience” with their
egoistic character.
• Narcissism begins to emerge in this stage.
• Begins to create own identity among peer groups.
• Peer pressure reaches its peak and leads to group
behaviours.
• Attains many real-life experiences with controlled
emotions.
• Heterosexuality is the norm of this phase.
• Acts like adult and teases children for their normal acts.

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UNIT -3
THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Child development theories focus on explaining how


children change and grow over the course of childhood. Such
theories focus on various aspects of development including social,
emotional, and cognitive growth. The study of human development
is a rich and varied subject. In order to understand human
development, a number of different theories in child development
have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth. The most
important theories are:
✓ Erickson's theory of Psycho-social development
✓ Jean Piaget's theory of Cognitive development
✓ Kohlberg's theory of Moral development
✓ Vygotsky's socio-cultural approach to Cognitive development
✓ Bronfenbrenner's Ecological systems theory
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the


most popular and influential theories of development. He
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maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through Eight Stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to
adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.
Stage 1: Oral - Sensory
• Conflict: Trust Vs Mistrust
• Period: Infancy (Birth - 18 months)
• Important Events: Feeding
• Outcome: Hope

Description
Trust Vs Mistrust is the first stage in Erikson's theory of
Psychosocial development. This period begins at birth and
continues to approximately 18 months of age (Infancy). The
important event in this stage is Feeding. The infant develops the
sense of trust, if the parent or caregiver is responsive and consistent
with the basic needs. The need of food and care must be given
regularly. The infant must first form a trusting relationship with the
parent or caregiver, otherwise the infant may develop a sense of
mistrust. Success in this stage leads to the virtue of Hope. By
developing a sense of trust, the infant has confidence. Fail to
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acquire the virtue of hope leads to the development of fear. As they
grow older, they become less competent and sympathetic with
peers. They also explore their environment with anxiety,
heightened insecurities and an over feeling of mistrust among the
people around them.
Stage 2: Muscular - Anal
• Conflict: Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt
• Period: Early Childhood (2-3 years)
• Important Events: Toilet training
• Outcome: Will

Description
Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt is the second stage of
development. It occurs between the ages of 18 months to 3 years.
According to Erikson, self-control and self-confidence begin to
develop at this stage. Toilet training is the most important event at
this stage. They also begin to feed and dress themselves, playing
with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. If parents do not maintain a
reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child's efforts
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to master basic motor and cognitive skills, the child may feel
shame; they may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world
on their own terms. Children who experience to much doubt at this
stage will lack confidence in their own powers throughout life.
Success in this stage leads to the virtue of Will. Parents who always
punish the child for his or her simple mistakes can make child to
feel shame or self-doubt.
Stage 3: Locomotor
• Conflict: Initiative Vs Guilt
• Period: Preschool (3-5 years)
• Important Events: Exploration
• Outcome: Purpose

Description
Initiative Vs Guilt is the third stage of Erikson's theory of
Psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of
3 and 5 (Preschool). The most important event of this stage is
Independence. During this stage, children assert themselves more
frequently. Children begin to control and power over the
environment by taking initiative for planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. It is important for
caregiver to encourage exploration and help children to make
31
appropriate choices. They need to try things on their own and
explore their own abilities. By doing this, they can develop
ambition and direction. However, it is important that parents
enforce safe boundaries and encourage children to make good
choices through the use of modeling and reinforcement. Success in
this stage leads to the virtue of Purpose.
Conversely, if this tendency is questioned either through
criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. At this stage,
the child begins to ask many questions by his or her thirst of
knowledge. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may
cause children to feel ashamed of themselves and to become overly
dependent upon the help of others. They may struggle to develop a
sense of initiative and confidence in their own abilities. Children,
who experience guilt, interpret mistakes as a sense of being "bad".
Stage 4: Latency
• Conflict: Industry Vs Inferiority
• Period: School-age (6-11 years)
• Important Events: School
• Outcome: Confidence

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Description
It is the fourth stage of Erikson's theory of Psychosocial
development, which happens after the third stage of Initiative Vs
Guilt. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of
approximately 6 to 11 (School age). The important event in this
stage is Attendance at school. Children at this stage where learning
to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers
play an important role in children’s lives with their specific
teaching skill. A child's social world expands considerably as he or
she enter school and gain new friendships with peers. In this stage,
the child's interaction with peers at school also plays an imperative
role of child development. Through social interactions, children
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities. By feeling competent and capable, children are able to
form a strong self-concept. Success in this stage leads to the virtue
of competence.
Difficulty with the child's ability to move between the
world at home and the world of peers lead to feel inferiority. This
can set the stage for later problems in child development. People
who do not feel competent in their ability to succeed may be less
likely to try new things and more likely to assume that their efforts
will not measure up under critical observation or examination. They
can result in social and emotional struggles that last a lifetime.
Stage 5: Adolescence
• Conflict: Identity Vs Role Confusion
• Period: 12-18 years
• Important Events: Social Relationship
33
• Outcome: Fidelity

Description
The fifth stage Identity Vs Role Confusion occurs during
the age period 12 to 18 years (Adolescence). At this stage,
adolescents are in search of an identity that leads them to adulthood.
They make strong efforts to answer the question, “WHO AM I?”.
The most important event of this stage is Social Relationships.
During this stage, adolescents explore their independence and
develop a sense of self. As they seek to establish a sense of self,
teens may experiment with different roles, activities and
behaviours. Friends, social groups, schoolmates, societal trends and
even popular culture, all of these play major roles in shaping and
forming an identity. Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement have a strong sense of self, a feeling of independence
and control. Success in this stage leads to virtue of Fidelity.
Children who are not allowed to explore and test out
different identities may be left with role confusion. These
individuals are not sure who they are or what they like. They are
always moving from one job or relationships to another. They are
not really sure about what they want to do with their lives. They are
left with the feeling of disappointment and confusion about their
34
place in life. They remain insecure and confused about themselves
and their future. If an adolescent cannot make proper decision and
choices about vocation, sexual orientation and life in general, role
confusion becomes a threat.
Stage 6: Young Adulthood
• Conflict: Intimacy Vs Isolation
• Period: 19-40 years
• Important Events: Relationships
• Outcome: Love

Description
Intimacy Vs Isolation is the sixth Stage of Psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during the age between 19 and
40 (Young Adulthood). The most important events are Love
Relationships. Intimacy refers to one's ability to relate to another
human being on a deep and personal level. This stage begins in
early adulthood and ends in the formation of lasting relationships.
Success in this stage leads to the virtue of Love. It is important to
mention that having sexual relationship does not indicate intimacy.
People can be sexually intimate without being committed and open
with another. True intimacy requires personal commitment they
also have strong bond with their family and friends.
35
Usually, an individual who has not developed a sense of
identity fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation.
Adults who struggle with this stage experience poor romantic
relationship. They never share any deep conversation with their
partners or ever try to develop any relationships. These adults are
often left with feeling alone and being isolated. Some of them feel
lonely, even if they form close friendship with others.
Stage 7: Middle Adulthood
 Conflict: Generativity Vs Stagnation
 Period: 40-65 years
 Important Events: Work and Parenthood
 Outcome: Care

Description
Generativity Vs Stagnation is the seventh stage of Erikson's
theory of Psychosocial development. This stage takes place
between the ages of 40 to 65 (Middle Adulthood). The most
important event in this stage is Parenting. In this stage generativity
refers to ability to care for another person. The characteristics of
generativity are making commitments to people, developing
relationships with family, advising others and donating to next
36
generation. Those who attain success in this stage feels that they are
being active in their homes and communities. Success in this stage
leads to the virtue of Care.
Stagnation refers to the failure in their way of contribution.
Some of the characteristics are self-centered, not involving with
others, not takings effort to improve themselves, etc. An individual
must deal with issues that they are worried about or it leads to
stagnation in their later life. These individuals feel that they are not
involved with their communities and the society. Those who fail in
this stage feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Stage 8: Maturity
 Conflict: Integrity Vs Despair
 Period: 65 years onwards
 Important Events: Reflection on Life
 Outcome: Wisdom

Description
Integrity Vs Despair is the eighth and final stage of Erikson's
theory of Psychosocial development. This stage begins at the age
of 65 and ends at death (Maturity). The most important event at this
stage is accepting one's life and reflecting in a positive manner.
37
Those who attain success in this stage feel fulfillment about their
lives and accept as an unavoidable. These individuals attain
wisdom, even after confirming death. Success in this stage leads to
the virtue of Wisdom.
Individuals who are unable to obtain a feeling of fulfillment
and completeness lose themselves in despair and afraid of their
death. Those who attain failure in this stage feel that their lives have
been wasted and they are being left with feelings of bitterness.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the last of 1800s and he was
a precocious student. His first scientific paper was published when
he was 11years old. Piaget's interest in the cognitive development
of children was inspired by the observation of his own nephew and
daughter. His theory was focusing on development and learning
theories. Development is based on learner's capabilities and
learning is based on realisation. Piaget segregated the process of
cognitive development into three components and four stages.
Components of Cognitive process
According to Piaget, “To know an object, one must act upon
it either mentally or physically.” This mental representation is
called 'Schema'. In the process of developing schemas some
components are involved:
✓ Assimilation: The process of taking a new information into
already existing schemas is known as assimilation.
✓ Accommodation: The process of changing existing
schemas into a new information is called accommodation.

38
✓ Equilibration: A balance between assimilation and
accommodation through a mechanism is called
equilibration. To maintaining a balance between applying
previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behaviour
for new knowledge (accommodation), equilibration is a
most necessary process.
Stages of Cognitive Process
Theory of intellectual development includes four stages:

 Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth to 2 years)


The infants know the world through their movements and
sensations. The main achievement during this stage is object
permanence, knowing that an object exists. It requires the ability
of mental representation of the object.
 Pre-operational Stage: (2 to 7 years)
During this stage, children begin to think symbolically and
learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. Children at this

39
stage tend to be egocentric. Even though they get better language
and thinking, they struggle to think about things in very concrete
terms.
 Concrete Operational Stage: (7 to 11 years)
During this stage, children begin to think logically about
concrete events. They begin to understand the concept of
conservations. Children begin using inductive logic or reasoning
from specific information to a general principle.
 Formal Operational Stage: (12 years and above)
During this time, people develop the ability to think about
abstract concepts. They begin to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems. Teens think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social and political issues. They begin to use
deductive logic.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive
theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children.
Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development, Pre-
conventional, Conventional and Post-conventional levels. Each
level has two distinct stages. According to Kohlberg, an individual
is progressing from the capacity of Pre-conventional morality
(before the age of 9) to the capacity of conventional morality (early
adolescence) and forwarding to attain Post-conventional morality
(adulthood).

40
Pre-conventional Level
During the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of morality
is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of
authority, such as parents and teachers. They judge actions based
on their consequences.
Stage 1: (Heteronymous Morality)
At this stage, the ability of egocentric level is limited. This stage
focuses on the child's desire to obey rules in order to avoid
punishments. Children’s behaviour is determined by their
consequences. They learn social rules and disciplines imposed by
their families or other social system. There are cultural variations
and they influenced children to engage in disciplined manner.
Stage 2: (Individualism, Instrumental Purpose and Exchange)
At this stage, children concern with their own point of view and
not integrate them together. The individual focuses on receiving
rewards for satisfying his or her own personal needs. Children
understand their own values in different and similar situations.
41
They prove their values by physical equality, bargaining or give and
take, if people's needs are in conflict. There are culture differences
in the degree of experience by the variety of individual needs and
values. They learn more relativistic morality, where they
experience common or shared feelings and values.
Conventional Level
During the conventional level, an individual's sense of
morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children
continue to accept the rules of authority, because they believe that
it is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
Stage 3: (Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships
and Interpersonal Conformity)
At this stage, people start to adopt role-taking by their own.
They also start to take or understand the third - person's suggestion.
People understand how to act according to the shared views and
have their own point of view. One-to-one relationships can be
extended to represent others in general. There are variations in the
types of relations and behaviours across cultures. These cultural
differences are caused by the types of literature of concerning
students who are facing the cultural differences among their friends.
Stage 4: (Social System and Conscience)
At this stage, people concern about the views of their higher
authorities. Individuals believe that later has better opinions and
moral values to follow. Moral rights are defined as behaviours
serving to maintain the social systems, the social systems may be
families, communities, countries and so on. Culturally, there are
variety of social systems.

42
Post-conventional Level
During the post conventional level, a person's sense of
morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values.
People believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated.
Stage 5: (Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights)
At this stage, people adapt the ability to think about problems
and decisions in a reasonable way, from the society and understand
the values of the society. They also understand the welfare and
protection of all the people and their rights. They understand the
values, such as freedom, life and so on, are universal. Because, they
are preconditions for people to follow in the society.
Stage 6: (Universal Ethical Principles)
At this stage, people follow the moral perspectives. Moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and it requires a
sense of personal commitment to internalise the principle of social
justice. The principle of justice is respect and equality of human
beings. This commitment to justice makes them to disobey unjust
laws.
Vygotsky's Socio-cultural approach to Cognitive Development
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky was a Russian Psychologist. He
described his search for a methodological approach that appreciates
the study of the human psyche, which he viewed as a unification of
the brain and mind. Vygotsky used the concept of meaning to
analyse the relationship between language and thought process. He
looked at the ways in which other culturally constituted symbols

43
systems, such as mathematics and written language, contribute to
the development of human cognition.

Culture affecting Cognitive Development


Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget
does. He assumes that cognitive development varies across the
cultures, not the age levels of individuals.
Social Factors contributing to Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is developed in the form of social
interaction, which is developed from the guided learning of children
and their parents' knowledge within the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). Children's thinking and their behaviours are
influenced by the surroundings.
Role of Language in Cognitive Development
According to Vygotsky, thought and language are the two
separate systems in the beginning of life. They integrate into a
single system at the first of 3 years. It will be developed into the
verbal thought or inner speech. Cognitive development forms an
internalisation of language.
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Adults are important sources of Cognitive Development
Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual
adaptation by which the children are internalising well.
Tools of Intellectual adaptation
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic
abilities for intellectual development. The elementary mental
functions are,
➢ Attention,
➢ Sensation,
➢ Perception,
➢ Memory.
These are developed into more sophisticated and effective
mental process through interaction within the socio-cultural
environment. Cognitive function is affected by the beliefs, values
and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person
is developed and socio-culturally determined among others. The
tools of intellectual adaptation vary from one culture to another
culture.
Social Influences on Cognitive Development
According to Lev Vygotsky, children are actively involved in
their own learning, discovery and development of new
understanding. A child's most of the learning occurs through social
interactions with a knowledgeable guide. The guide may be a
behavioural model or verbal instructor for the child. The child
understands the information of the guide by regulating his or her
own performance. Social interaction involving co-operative or

45
collaborative dialogues promote cognitive development of the
child. The main principles of Vygotsky's work are,
1. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO):
The more knowledgeable other refers to someone who has
a better understanding or good ability level than the learner with
respect to a teacher or tutor or any other adult with more knowledge
or experience, sometimes the MKO's is that they must have more
knowledge about the topic being learned than the learners.
2. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is related to
the second principle, the Zone of Proximal Development. It relates
the differences between what the child does his or her own and
achieves with the help of guidance and encouragement of MKO.
Interaction with peers is also an effective way to develop children’s
skills. Vygotsky suggests the teachers to co-operate with the
learning exercise.
Language Development
Vygotsky views that language is the greatest tool, a means
of communication. He believed the language is developed by the
social interaction. According to Vygotsky, language plays two
critical roles in cognitive development.
 Language is the main means of communication by which
adults transmit information to children.
 It becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
The 3 forms of language:
• At age 2, Social Speech, which is used to communicate
with others.

46
• At age 3, Private Speech, which the speech is addressed to
self, not only for others, but also for the purpose of self-
regulation.
• At age 7, Inner Speech, it is a function in itself. The words
are connected with thoughts.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological systems theory is also called as human ecology


theory. It was developed by Psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner.
The theory explains how human development is influenced by
different types of environmental systems. It describes the child's
ecology in terms of a set of nested levels of the environment. There
are 5 interrelated types of environmental system namely,
Microsystems, Mesosystem, Ecosystem, Macro-system and
Chronosystem.
 Microsystem: The most proximal ecological level is the
microsystem. In this system, it includes how individuals
interact directly. Youth who participate in any activities
47
display more positive social, emotional, psychological and
physical outcomes than non-participating counterparts.
Adolescents report more positive developmental
experiences in faith-based activities. Participating in a
combination of sports and youth development programs
seem more beneficial. Program quality is likely more
important than activity type. It is defined as the set of
activities that feature to know about fostering positive
youth development. The degree to which activities asset
rich environments that provide youth life skill-building
opportunity, adult leaders who serve as mentors and
leadership opportunities.
 Mesosystem: Moving outward level is the Mesosystem,
which includes the process that occurs between the multiple
microsystems in which individuals are embedded. The key
point is that what happens in one microsystem affects what
happens in another microsystem. It is important to
understand youth's developmental settings beyond
activities. Families and Schools are the central
microsystems interacting with youth's organised out-of-
school activities. Parents are more likely to support and
encourage their children for their goal setting. Coordination
between activities and schools may be more easily achieved
because many activities are in school based and led by
school teachers’ clear communication among the activity
leaders and parents, and teacher is necessary to foster
alignment across the settings.

48
 Ecosystem: The ecosystem is the next outermost level that
includes the microsystem in which individuals are
involved, but not directly embedded. The ecosystem
trickles down to influence development through other
people involved in individuals lives. Here, the research is
limited in and out-of-school activities. Parents expose their
children to the activities which they are familiar. Children
start to participate in the same type of activities, that their
parents participated at their childhood. Children who are
from the families of working parents are participating in
fewer activities than the children from the families of non –
working parents.
 Macro-system: The Macro-system, which defines the set
of overarching beliefs, values and norms as reflected in the
cultural, religious and socio-economic organisation of the
society. It influences the development within and all other
systems which serves as filter for the individuals interpret
future experiences. Here, the research says that what
predicts participation, why some individuals do some
activity in different experiences and what are the reasons
behind it.
 Chronosystem: The outermost system is the
Chronosystem; it influences the change and constancy of
children's environment. It may include a change in familial
structure, address, parent's employment status as well as
societal changes. It demonstrates the diversity of
interrelated influences on child development.

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UNIT -4
SOCIALISING AGENCIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

1. Agencies of Socialisation
In this topic, we are going to discuss about the concepts and
definitions of socialisation that influences family, school, peer
groups and community. Man is a social being and no man can live
in isolation. Aristotle has rightly said, “No man is an island”. Man
needs to concern and encourage others for various reasons. Here,
we can discuss about these topics.
Socialisation
Socialisation is a complex learning process and pattern in
the development to understand the world. It is said that people are
coming for understanding social norms and expectations to accept
society’s beliefs and get aware of social values. People learn the
roles of families and peer groups by socialisation process and
understand that how we are socialising ourselves through formal
institutions such as, schools, workplaces, and the laws of
government. Whereas, socialisation is a process that may
include socialising as an element, but it is a more complex, multi-
faced and formative set of interactive experiences. It is a lifelong
learning experience, because society is constantly changing and
affecting automatically. We may find ourselves in several new
situations such as, a new job with different norms and values or in
a different family role (spouse, parent, uncle/aunt, grandparent).
Current research on socialisation is guided largely by symbolic
interaction theory that focuses on the process and outcomes of

50
socialisation across the life course as it occurs within specific
context of interaction, mainly in family, peers, school, workplace,
and resocialisation settings.
Concept of socialisation
Socialisation is a process that means the children should
learn the habits, attitudes, values, norms, and beliefs of the social
group in which they born. Moreover, socialisation takes place at
different stages - Primary, Secondary and Adult. In a primary stage,
children may surround with their family and neighbors. Here,
parents are the best teacher to teach the basic behavioral pattern,
language and skills for their children. In a secondary stage, they
enter into playschool and surround with their teachers and peer
group members, where they easily adapt to the situation and mingle
with their friends. Later, they enter into the schools and join in
social clubs such as, dancing, drawing, music, sports, etc.
Apart from that, they learn reading, writing and speaking
skills. Because, these skills are seen as the necessary skills in
society that help them to communicate with others. According to
Ogburn, “Socialisation is the process by which the individual learns
to confirm to the norms of the group”. This process shapes the
personality of children in the period of child development. By this
process, the individuals develop a unique personality of their own.
2. Definition of Socialisation
Socialisation is defined as the lifelong process of how
an individual study habits that includes ways of life, values and
social norms present in the community to be accepted by society.

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According to Charlotte Buhler, “Socialisation is the process
that helps individuals learn and adapt, how to live, and thought his
group so he can play and work with the group.”
Peter Berger defines “Socialisation is a process by which a
person appreciates and understands the norms in the community
where he lived so that will shape his personality.”
Paul B. Horton says, “Socialisation can occur through
social interaction directly or indirectly. Socialisation process can
take place through social groups, such as family, playmates and
school, workplace, family and neighbors and the mass media. The
media can become a means of socialisation are family, school,
friends and the mass media play on work environment.”
3. Family as a Social institution
Role of Family in Socialisation
Family institution plays an important role in socialisation.
In a family, there is a sexual relationship between man and woman.
Family is a primary unit for socialising children. It plays several
important roles and functions. It may provide food, clothing, shelter
and other essentials. It also provides them love, comfort and help in
times of one’s emotional distress. Another function of family is to
give both a formal and informal education to the family members.
Children have to go to school for formal education but informal
education is given by the family. The family gives information
about culture and helps to develop their personality. It carries out
social regulations by developing individual’s potentiality or innate
abilities.

52
Berk’s family styles of upbringing (2008) describe as a
combination of parents’ behavior in different life situations based
on which the permanent educational climate is created in the
family. Steinberg & Silk (2002) also emphasises that how in a
family with open communication in among the members, while
though the children should have a desirable skill and they come to
know about dealing their problems. According to Augbern and
Nimcoff, “Satisfaction of sexual needs and child bearing are
important functions of family.” Because of the opinions of various
social scientists, the main reason for the existence of family
institution is longer period of child influence.
Family Influence in Child Development
According to Soefandi and Pramudya (2009), “The family is
a social group consisting of two or more than people who have
blood relationship, marriage, or adoption. Through the family they
were individually develop early stages of the socialisation process,
and acquire their knowledge, skills, interests, values, emotions and
attitudes in life.”
Research of Library Review (2012) states that there are
several definitions for family from these sources, namely:
❖ Family is a group of people with marriage or unmarried,
grandmother and grandfather, birth or adoption ties aimed
at creating, maintaining culture, and improving the
physical, mental, emotional, and social development of
each family member (Duvall and Logan, 1986).
❖ Families are two or more individuals who live in one
household because of blood, marriage, or adoption

53
relationships. They interact with each other, have their own
roles and create and maintain a culture (Bailon and
Maglaya, 1978).
❖ The family is the smallest unit of society consisting of the
head of the family and several people who gather and live
in a place under one roof in a state of interdependence
(Ministry of Health, 1988).
Family has been performing several economic functions.
The head of the family works outside for the basic needs of the
family, such as clothing, shelter, food, etc. The family members are
following a particular religion and involve in religious ceremonies
at home. So, children also learn different religious values from their
families. The family members often take care of children’s health
issues. Certainly, grandparents have direct control over the
behavior of children in the family and finally the children will
become good citizens.
4. School

54
Importance of School in Socialisation
School is one of the most important parts of the society. The
importance of the school as an agency of socialisation can be
divided into three types, such as School and Society, Classroom,
and Teacher. Each and everyone have to learn something in the
school sector, and it is considered as a second home. When a child
starts to grow, he or she understands other’s feelings and emotions.
Moreover, children care for them of their own and share things to
their friends. Because, school bond is always stand till end of
everyone’s life. Almost of the time, students spend their hours in
the classroom with friends. In this process of socialisation, students
can utilise their knowledge and skills. A student must sharpen own
skills that allow him or her to function better with socially,
emotionally and intellectually within school environment. Students
develop their skills through reading, writing and thinking, so
recreation lies in their behavior. They work together to acquire
more knowledge from others. They join in co-curricular activities,
so they develop physically, mentally and socially. The teacher
should not teach mere an academic subject only, but they should
teach rules and regulations of our society also. Students must learn
not from the curriculum only. They must also learn social rules and
expectations from interactions with others in the school. They
impart knowledge of social customs, traditions and develop values
of society among students. A child must learn to be independent to
achieve the academic goals of school. The socialisation process
involves how we stand with - self, others, students, teachers and
live our life with adventures and face more challenges.

55
Theoretical Views of the Child Development
“To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to mature is
to go on creating oneself endlessly”. - Henri Bergson
This theory mainly focuses on child development. When
children were started to grow, their behavioral system were being
changed. This theory is based on the various aspects of
development including social, emotional and cognitive growth. In
this study of child development, it is more interesting and varied
subject. Moreover, many theorists of psychology defined their
views on child development. An understanding of child
development is necessary, because it allows us to fully recognise
the cognitive, emotional, physical, social and educational growth
that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory of human


development (1979) frames the child inside a series of concentric
circles that represent different contexts of socialisation. In this
theory, he describes four parts of child development:

56
✓ Microsystem - Family, Siblings, Peer groups and
Classrooms.
✓ Mesosystem - Parent-teacher relationships, Parents’ work
environments, and Extended family networks.
✓ Exosystem - Schools, Neighborhoods, Local media, Local
government, and Sociocultural context (Macrosystem).
Bandura (1977) said that learning is a process that should
develop knowledge about the world, as well as the social works.
Lancy (2007) has rightly said that children should play with others
more than their parents and neighbors. At last, children regularly
engage with the society and they develop their knowledge within
school premises and accordingly develop their sense of self through
the process of interpreting the social roles, which serve as the
symbols of society.
5. Peer groups and Socialisation

57
Characteristics of Peer groups
The peer group is considered as a social group. The major
characteristics of a peer group is sharing beliefs, interests and
wishes for specific activities. Peer groups also learn to develop
relationships with others in the social system. In every good and
bad aspects, they may involve in some common activities as a group
with nearly same interests. They talk about entertainment,
diversification of knowledge and other social aspects. In the period
of adolescence, they need love, affection and caring relationship
with people. Their character ought to be progressive, thinking
forward, self-motivator, patient, trusting and respect their family
members as well as the society. They have a capacity to listen,
while others talking and then they speak skillfully. Their thoughts
should be unique in the way of talking, dressing and their attitudes.
Positive Effects of Peer Pressure Include
• Spend their time in a proper way with their interests.
• Increase their self-confidence and motivate themselves.
• Belonging with love and support from others.
• Reinforcement of positive habits and attitudes.
• Focusing for their future and work hard till they get success.
Negative Effects of Peer Pressure Include
• Giving more importance to their friends rather than their
families.
• Addicted to alcohol, drugs, cigarette smoking, etc.
• Pressure to engage in risk taking behaviours.
• Trying to escape from the school works.
• Drastic changes in their behavior and attitudes gradually.
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Teach Gender Roles and Unity
In this part of socialisation, children come to know about
the sex difference, social and cultural expectations. In the gender
role, boys are always being masculine and girls are always being
feminine. In school sector, teachers should teach basic things about
gender roles and sex education. Moreover, they should not give
more importance to any one gender, either male or female. They
must treat both of them equally. Whenever children gather together,
there are opportunities for them to socialise one another based on
gender lines. Unity is a necessary value towards build a successful
institution. Parents and teachers must teach all the important values
in a child’s life which including peace, love and unity. Students
come from different cultures, countries and languages, usually, they
come together as a cohesive unit and work towards promoting a
better community. Peer Socialisation of Gender Development
(PSGD) said that boys and girls grow up in a separate social world
and they learn by each surrounding of the school system, teacher
must teach unity among students i.e. group activities such as, group
discussion, debate, team work, to engage the classroom with unique
activities. Group activities can easily break any barriers among the
diverse group of students. They may follow certain rules and
regulations with their own interest to boost up the team’s
performance. They properly follow the dress code, good mannerism
and respect. Finally, the society has been said that every individual
person should be in their own way, with our knowledge, we develop
ourselves as well as help others also.

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6. Socialisation and Community

Social Media Affect the Child Development


The impact of social media has been identified in number
of studies. Through the social media, children and adolescents are
learning some behavioral attitudes, those may provide both positive
and negative effects on child development. An individual is using
social media and communication behavior which are interlinked
with corresponding family habits. Not all the social media programs
give negative influences, but the research data shows that the
negative effects of exposure to violence, inappropriate sexuality
and offensive language are emotionally disturbing children. So,
they cannot concentrate in their studies. Parents must often limit
children’s time of using social media and make them to spend the
time on other activities, such as playing, reading, learning to talk,
storytelling and participating in regular exercises which develop
necessary physical, mental and social skills on child development.
They spend more time in front of the media and television alone or
with their parents. Apart from that, they can watch useful movies
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or television channels to motive themselves that improve language
skills. Because of these media, they tend to face problems on their
both physical and mental development.
Social Media Affect Physical and Mental Health
Children and teens may have a plenty of reasons for using
digital media and social media. But, the common problems for them
are:
 Addiction of media tends to lack of sleep that causes eye
strain.
 Use harmful skin and facial care products without medical
transcriptions.
 Social media lead to inappropriate advertisements that
have pornographic materials.
 Cyberbullying causes depression, anxiety and suicide also.
Some of the benefits of using digital and social media are:
• Source of getting new opportunities and data collection.
• Gain insights of professional ideas and benefits.
• Get more friends and stay in connection with them.
• Easy to communicate instantly.
• Attend Webinars, Conferences and Workshops for
personality development.
• To be creative and share own ideas with friends.
7. Neighborhood Influence on Social and Child Development
Neighborhood is a geographically localised community
within a larger city, or town. It is a setting that refers to physical
environment and social environment that are available to children.
Children’s life is shaped by their neighborhood conditions as well
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as their own families. Neighborhoods are often social communities
with considerable face-to-face interaction among members. Those
are frequently developing through the social interaction among
people who are living near one another. It may cause children to be
affected by stress and isolation also. The major limitations of
previous research on neighborhood influences said that
mechanisms through which neighborhood disadvantage may affect
children's social and emotional outcomes have not been studied.
The negative effects of exposure to domestic violence include low
self-esteem, sleep disturbances, aggressive behavior and impaired
social development. In areas where families move in and out often,
social ties are weak and protecting children from negative
influences is more difficult.
Communities can provide informal or formal support for
families. Community development can have positive impacts on
children by making investments that support healthy social and
cognitive development. When children grow up in supportive
environments, they are more likely to succeed in school and boost
human capital, a key ingredient for building strong communities.
For example, safe and affordable housing, high-quality childcare,
and community health centers, parks, and healthy food outlets help
to provide a consistent and nurturing environment for children.
Role of Religious Group
“The greatest religion is to be true to your own nature. Have
faith in yourselves.” - Swami Vivekananda
Religious group plays a vital role in socialisation process.
There are various types of religious groups such as, Christianity,

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Islam and Hinduism, etc. Religious group is a collection of cultural
beliefs and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality, morals,
rituals and beliefs. In past days, people believed and followed
religious ideas. Now-a-days, they follow superstitions. In the
society, important ceremonies associate with family structure such
as, marriage and birth are connected to spiritual celebrations. Many
religious institutions have gender norms those contribute to the
constraints by socialisation process. Parents and neighbors teach
norms of particular religion to encourage children for cultivating
virtues and positive emotions, such as, love, joy, peace, patience,
gratitude, kindness, faithfulness, mercy and self-control. It must
help children to scale back greed, overcome hate, remove ignorance
and stand for justice. Religion should be a noble force for
motivating children to embrace that fundamental livelihood to
become good citizens.

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UNIT -5
GENDER STEREOTYPES AND GENDER ROLES

Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotype is defined as characteristics and
attributes of certain group of people based on their gender. It deals
with whether someone is a male or female. Gender identity is about
how someone express his or her own gender. Nowadays, there are
many roles that men and women play in the society. People are
judged by others based on their behaviours, “How they act?”
Children grow up by identifying certain gender
characteristics which belong to males and females. Female
stereotypes are the characteristics about family and domestic life.
They should be caring, feeling, sensitive, beautiful, lovable,
attractive and socialise children. Male stereotypes are the
characteristics of dominance and authority. They must be a
financial provider, encourager and focused on career development.
Children learn and follow gender stereotypes automatically
by observing elders. It passes gender stereotypes from one
generation to another. This is the primary reason of socialising the
society with gender stereotypes.

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Common Gender Stereotypes
Personality Traits
Masculine stereotypes are being different from feminine
stereotypes. When comparing to men, women are shy, passive and
submissive. Men dominate women and always step towards attain
self-confidence and social development.
Domestic Behaviour
Women do cook and other most important domestic duties
to nurture the family. But men are in the position of commanding
women and limit women’s roles within the four walls of the house.

Occupation
Women do only domestic works and some other white-
collar jobs, such as nursing and teaching. Because, they are
considered as physically weak. By birth, men are stronger than
women. So, they do blue collar jobs and working in STEM
(Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) areas with
high financial outcomes. It makes women to be dependent on men
for their financial security.
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Physical Appearance
In generally, women are looking short and thin while men
are looking tall and thick. These differences in physical
appearances make them to participate in various tasks. Men act as
heavy humans with high confidence and women consider
themselves often as the object of physical beauty.
Gender Stereotypes in Early Childhood
Gender stereotypes start in early childhood from birth to
age seven. In research, 45% of respondents said that children
experience gender stereotypes and behave in certain ways with
limitations. Girls at the age of seven to ten are being affected by
stereotypes which limit their career choices and restricting them
with the traditions of marriage.
In early childhood, children are socialised in the society.
Girls are more likely to get dresses, dolls, makeup kits and jewels.
But boys are more likely to get heavy toys, such as hammer and
motor cars. These change their behaviours and attitudes. Parents
decorate rooms of girls with pink colour and rooms of boys with
blue colour. What are the things which they are using have
socialised them to live in a society that is filled with full of gender
stereotypes?

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Gender Stereotypes in Middle Childhood
Middle childhood is a period of children when they spend
more time in schools to learn social and cultural norms through
education. In this period, children build strong friendship with same
sex group. They do not attach with opposite sex friends. i.e. girls
make friendship with girls.
Martin explains “Gender stereotyping in children is an
activity of homophile. Children prefer to play with peers in same
sex group.” His studies show that children select playmates based
on their sex group and prefer to play the similar type of gender
activity. Boys and girls grow differently in the society.

Gender Stereotypes in Adolescence


Adolescence is the period of maturity and transition. It is a
period which is a bridge from puberty to adulthood. In this stage,
adolescents attain growth physically as well as psychologically.
They are commonly called as teenagers. They get self-confidence,
self-esteem and have changes in appearance. They expect
encouragement from parents for their activities.
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Gender development is natural to reach potentials in the
day-to-day life. Parents make initiatives for the development of
adolescents. Adolescents follow friendship with same sex group
and attach to the parent who is the opposite sex. i.e., Father-
Daughter Relationship and Mother-Son Relationship.

Influences of Gender Stereotypes


Gender stereotypes construct the society of human beings
with social, cultural and economic changes to maintain the lifestyle
within the norms and principles. Gender behaviour is differed from
one society to another. It makes significant differences in social
class, family status, age and religious background.
Kinds of Influences
i. Biological influences,
ii. Cultural influences,
iii. Environmental influences.

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Biological Influences on Gender Stereotypes
Biological factor is one of the reasons for gender
stereotypes. It includes the changes in hormones and brain
functions. After the puberty, there are a heavy increase in hormones
throughout the body. Men and women have development in
primary and secondary sex organs for reproduction. Women
become weak physically and submissive, because of menstruation.
Men become aggressive and competitive, because of the secretion
of testosterone.

Cultural Influences on Gender Stereotypes


Culture refers to beliefs, customs, values, behaviours, ideas
and traditions of a particular society. It transmits languages, norms
and personality traits from one generation to another. By this kind
of socialisation, boys play with toy guns and girls play with Barbie
dolls. Culture defines gender roles, career choices and
responsibilities for men and women. In homes, women do
household duties to serve men and men do works outside the
homes.
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Environmental Influences on Gender Stereotypes
Environment is providing the opportunities for males and
females to nurture themselves as men and women. It makes them
to dress and behave as themselves in the society. Parents treat boys
more roughly than girls. They overprotect girls and consider them
as weak. The environmental influences make people to follow their
gender stereotypes.
• Books and Televisions
In books and television channels, men are portrayed as
aggressive characters who play prominent roles with dominance.
Women are portrayed as loving roles who care children and do
household works to support male characters. It shows the
occupation and interests of men and women to children who nurture
themselves in the society.

• Schools and Teachers


In schools, teachers treat boys and girls differently.
Teachers encourage boys’ arrogance as their bravery. They
encourage girls’ quietness, obedience and passivity. Teachers

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appreciate girls for their marks and appearance as well as scold boys
for their performances in education.
Gender Identity
Gender identity is defined as a person’s sense of self as a
male or female. It impacts that how one is relating to another. Boys
and girls are indirectly identified to the group of their gender. It
means that individuals can understand themselves as “Me, a boy”
and “Me, a girl”. Then, it relates to the collective level, “We, boys”
and “We, girls”. In the age of two, children become conscious of
their gender difference physically. During this period, they learn the
behaviour of men and women as “What should boys do?” and
“What should girls do?”.

Gender Identity in Middle Childhood


In this period, children spend more time in schools. They
like to be with friends rather than family members. Boys start to get
masculine traits and girls start to get feminine traits. Children’s
gender identity differs with the parental care and guidance of the
caretakers. It may affect them emotionally.

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Gender Identity in Adolescence
In this period, adolescents spend more time with peers
rather than before. They get peer pressure to follow their gender
stereotypes. They develop their gender identity by stepping into
gender consistency. They learn everything individually through
social interaction. There may be a conflict between parents and
adolescents, because of negative influences of peer pressure. This
leads to involve in sexual activities, test with alcohol and group
violence.

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Gender Schema Theory
Gender schema theory is evoking personal cognitive
development regard with gender roles in the society. It stores
information about norms and principles of genders. It was
introduced by Sandra Bem in1981. It explains that how individuals
become genders in the society and how sex of a person is linked
with the culture of his or her region.
It is a dynamic approach which explains gender acquisition
by considering personal and social factors. Research shows that
children who know their gender roles are imitating the adults of the
same gender i.e., a boy acts as a working father and a girl act as a
cooking mother.

Strategies for Developing Non-Gender Stereotyped Children


The society limits men’s capacity with forced career
guidance and women’s capacity in nurturing children. Men should
be independent, unemotional and active in all situations. Women
should be dependent, emotional and passive in all situations. It is
commonly known as gender discrimination. It is a curse for the
society which has equal number of men and women.
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Common Problems in Gender Stereotyping
• The society stresses girls to express everything more than
boys. Scientifically, it is proved that there are no differences
in verbal skills between boys and girls.
• When comparing to boys, girls are not encouraged to learn
mathematics and technical skills.
• Parents always underestimate girls and refuse to appreciate
their talents. It is a kind of demotivation.
• In sports, boys are allowed to play outdoor games and girls
are allowed to play indoor games.

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Ways to Challenge Gender Stereotyping
✓ Teachers should give equal importance to both boys and
girls in a classroom.
✓ While teaching a lesson, they must provide examples of
both genders to reduce gender stereotyping.
✓ Parents should appreciate girls’ talents and guide them
with proper career guidance.
✓ Use of non-gendered games in schools, such as Carom and
Chess board, can boost the self-esteem of both boys and
girls.
✓ Schools should encourage girls to enroll in mathematical
and technical courses.

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UNIT -6
MARGINALISED CHILDREN ISSUES AND CONCERNS

Introduction
The history of marginalised children varies from inequality,
poverty and social exclusion. It is a global problem that impacts
negatively upon societies across the world. “It is not hard to
marginalise people when they have already done it to themselves.”
Peter Leonard (1984, p.180) defines “Marginality as being outside
the mainstream of productive activity”.
Meaning and Concept of Marginalised Children
Marginalisation is also called as ‘Social exclusion’. It refers
to the relegation to the fringes of society due to a lack of access to
rights, resources and opportunities. Marginalised children are a
group of children who confined to the lower edge of the society.
They are being denied in the involvement of mainstream society.
• Economic,
• Political,
• Cultural and
• Social activities.
Definition of Slum
In the world, more than half of the population lives in urban
areas. “A topic of academic and public-debates talk about slum and
their precarious living conditions. There is often hesitant to
regularise informal settlements, and provide basic infrastructure
and services to such areas, because rural to urban migrants are often

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regarded as temporary urban residents” (UN Millennium Project,
2005).
Slums have one or more of the following characteristics:
• In slums, a lot of people earns low income and being
unemployed with low level of literacy.
• An area with high levels of noise, crime, drug abuse,
immorality and alcoholism and high HIV prevalence.
• An area where houses are in environmentally fragile lands
i.e., Wetlands (Ministry of Lands, 2008).
Children living in urban slums of India

The census of India defines a slum as a residential area


which are unfit for human habitation reasons to dilapidation,
overcrowding, faulty arrangements of streets, lack of oxygen, light
or sanitation facilities, or any combination of these factors
determined to safety and health. For children growing up in slums,
the urban experience is the main factor of poverty and exclusion.
The slum children have no proper access to safe drinking water and
sanitation services that put children at increased risk of illness,
malnutrition and death. Children are born, grow and live their lives
with good health is primarily determined by the socio-economic
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conditions of the place they are living. Children living in informal
settlements and impoverished neighborhood are excluded from the
essential services and social protection to have their fundamental
rights of living.
Family
Family is usually large in slums, because family planning
methods are not followed by people. In the slums, their occupations
depend on the works what are available for them at that time.
Caste
A large number of people belongs to different lower castes.
Ratna N. Rao said “Caste rules are mainly concerned with the
restrictions on touching, eating or marrying people whose caste is
lower than ours, but it is not said that we should not be helpful
friendly or neighbourly with them.”
Housing and Sanitation
Housing is the important thing for humans where not only
physical shelter is provided, but also it provides all the services and
facilities for human welfare. In slum areas, the housing conditions
are poor and built with inadequate water supply, lack of proper
sanitation, very poor ventilation and overcrowding due to limited
space. These lead to many diseases such as Tuberculosis, Hepatitis,
Typhoid, Jaundice, Skin infection and Stomach related diseases.
The urban housing might increase beyond 7.8 million in 21st
century which was 2.9 million in 1981, Singh et. al. In India, nearly
20 percentage of the urban population live in slums and become
much worse in metropolitan as well as industrial cities (Singh,
D.N., 1991).

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Health
The increase in number of people living in the urban residents
creates environmental problems that affects the health,
environmental conditions, sanitation and inadequate diet, result in
high malnutrition in urban areas, especially in slums. Out of a
billion children in urban India, about 300 million of children face
exclusion from the essential health services and other services, such
as safe drinking water, sanitation, education etc. Their existence is
not recognised, neither their births nor their deaths are registered.
Slum Lords
“Slums are not a liability, they are an asset as they have
human resources, which can act as engines of economic
development", says Mehta. Slum dwellers do not have houses for
free.
Education in Slums
“Despite a large number of studies on education in India,
education related to children in urban slum areas has not been
adequately researched and attention in education research has not
been paid to the high level of disparities within the urban sector”
(Govinda, 2002). He states, surprisingly, successive policy
documents on education have made no mention of the problems of
Education among the urban disadvantaged. Consequently, there is
no coherent perspective on tackling the problems of education of
such children, and nor is their adequate information on the
educational provisions reaching disadvantaged children in urban
areas (Govinda, 2002. p.8).

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Socially Deprived Children
The term "social deprivation" is correlated with social
exclusion, which is when a member of a particular society is
ignored by other members of the society. The elimination of a
member is defined as the restrictions of access to the resources that
allow him or her to be active in healthy social, economic and
political literature.

These are the key factors that set social exclusion in motion:
Poverty; Lack of access to jobs; Denial of social supports or peer
networks; Exclusion from services; Negative attitudes of the local
neighbourhood,
It is also associated with abusive caretaking, developmental
delay, mental illness and subsequent suicide. Although a person
may be socially deprived, he or she will not have necessarily
developmental illness or maintains the cycle of loss, such group
may have completely normal development and retain in a strong
community.
Dalit Children in India
In Sanskrit, dalit means ‘broken or scattered’. In Hindi, it is
a term using for people belong to lower caste in India, who have
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been subjected to untouchability. In India, dalit’s population
estimated as 138 million people who are most helpless group. It is
also referred as Scheduled Castes (SCs). After a schedule drawn up
by the Government of India (GoI), they are placed at the bottom of
the social and economic ranking of the caste system.

This group has suffered with discrimination and exclusion


in all its measures for centuries under the caste system. It has been
historically backward passage and power, not only in economic
rights, but also in social needs, such as Education; Health; Housing
discrimination; Source of income (land, capital, education) under
the access of exclusion has led to high level of economic
deprivation and poverty among SCs. A child’s wellbeing with
respect to his or her health, nutrition and education are the result of
complex interactions of many decisions.
At the present time, caste-based common laws relating to
property rights, employment, wages and education has been
replaced by a more equality legal framework, under which the
untouchables have the equal access. In rural India, dalits and their
children suffer from discrimination and exclusion in economic and
civil spheres such as,
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✓ Access to capital assets like agriculture land,
✓ Nature of occupation,
✓ Level of poverty,
✓ Level of literacy and Education of dalit parents and their
children,
✓ Relationship between poverty and status of school
attendance (attending, drop-out, never attended),
✓ Health and nutritional status of dalit children and mothers,
✓ Programme started by the government or public institutions
under the level of access to health services,
✓ Level of basic facilities, e.g., housing and drinking water.
This analysis based on two official sources, namely
National Sample Survey (NSS) and National Family Health Survey
(NFHS). The evidence on economic discrimination that dalits
suffer is largely derived from the NSS data while NFHS gives data
on exclusion in health services.
Numerous rights are violated
The state as well as non-state people violate a number of
human rights protected by domestic laws and international human
rights agreement. The following is an overview of the various rights
that are violated,
 Rights to Education,
 Rights to Health,
 Rights to be free from Child Labour and Manual
Scavenging,
 Rights to be free from Slavery.

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Status of Tribal Girls
Tribal societies have large characterised as equal societies,
especially in relation to the ranking character of caste in the society.
“In gender specified status, gender related roles have been by
families socialise their children according to kinship, sexuality,
work, marriage and age. Men role is head of the family, and job
holder, and dominant in public, in social and religious affairs.
Women enjoy their family life, they have a greater deal of social
freedom and several of their actions are excuse and tolerated”
(Bhasin, 1991).
“Status of women is using three indicators to be measured
such as., Education, Employment status and Intra-household
decision making power. In general women with higher education
tend to have a higher position” (WHO, 1989).
“The tribal girl relevance to woman who has traditionally
had a higher socio-economic status than high caste woman. In the
family, only girls had decision making power, she acted as the main
decision maker in the family, controlled production as part of the
family, she took only decision making about children marriage. The
boy and girl choose life partner first approached her” (Fernades,
2005).
Tribal female child should be treated as an equal to male
child. In the tribal society, each new female born will be a potential
mother, they will be honoured like a mother. Female children work
in the house and in the farms under the assets to the tribal
households. During the time of marriage, parents compensate their
loss under the bride groom to pay a bride price.

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“In half of the tribal population, women live in the tribal
community as in other communities. The well-being of the tribal
community, as that other community, depends importantly on the
status of their women” (Shanker R, and Tamilarasan, M, .2005).
There exists child marriage, widow remarriage and marriages
within the relatives that is preferential mating which deserve high
respect among the women folk.
Problems faced by Tribal Girls
Economic Problems
Majority of tribal women section is still uneducated. After
taking an interview and analysis of their responses of respondents,
there were a gathering of tribal women with economic problems or
their backwardness in economic field.
Cultural problems
The tribal women are educationally very backward. The
literacy rate of tribal women is only 30.92% and the remaining
seventy percent of tribal women are illiterate. It is seen and
observed that poor percentage of tribal women had received their
education and inequality between men and women.
Article 17 of the Indian constitution declared that
untouchability is abolished and its practices are not only equal
treatment, but also for further encouragement. Most of the tribal
people are illiterate, still they are living as blinds. Because, they do
not have education and cannot understand the social and cultural
values. Parents are not giving attention to cultural and social care
on their attitude. They are always in favour of their boys, not for
their girls.

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Wastage and Stagnation in Education
There is an increase in wastage of women education rather
than men, because of their lack of interest in education, family
burdens, lack of study materials, and heavy workloads at home. Sex
biasness makes a negative impact on women's education. Because,
parents give more importance to male children and less importance
for female children.
Child Abuse
According to United Nation Convention on Rights of Child,
a child is recognised as a person under the age of 18. UNICEF
defines that child abuse as a mistreatment that takes advantage of
child selfishly. As in making a child work to pay off their parent's
debts or making them to do dangerous or illegal works.

Physical Abuse:
It is defined by National Society for the Prevention of Child
Physical Abuse, that involves hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning,
burning, drowning, suffocating, or physical harm to child. Physical
harm may also be caused when a parent or caretaker fabricates the
symptoms of, or strategic induces, illness in a child.
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Signs of Physical Abuse
 Injuries that may reveal a pattern, for example, more than
one burn or welts on the hand.
 Unexplained black eyes, broken bones, bruises, bites, or
burns.
 Kidnap when it is time to go to a particular location whether
it is home or school or another place where abuse might
occur.
 Turn up to be scare of a specific individual.
 Being watchful, as if expecting something irritating to
happen.
 Avoid when touched.
 Wearing improper clothing, for example, long sleeves in
summer, to cover up injuries.
 Talking about being injured by a parent, caregiver or other
person.
Sexual Abuse:
It is defined as any act that forces a child or young person
to participate in sexual activities. If the child does not understand
what is happening under the sexual abuse and there is no force,
violence, or even contact. If the child is forced to participate in any
activity that causes the other to be induce, this is called sexual
abuse.
Signs of Sexual Abuse
• Talking about being sexually abused.
• Displaying sexual knowledge or behaviour which is beyond
their years, bizarre, or unusual.

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• Withdrawing from friends and others.
• Running away from home.
• Shying away from a specific person.
• Having nightmares.
• Wetting the bed often.
• Changes in mood or hunger.
• Pregnancy or having a Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STD), especially before the age of 14 years.

Emotional Abuse:
It happens when people behave in a way that conveys to the
child that they are inadequate, unloved, worthless, or only valued
as far as the other person's needs are concerned.
Signs of Emotional Abuse
 Appearing withdrawn, nervous, or afraid.
 Showing extremes in behaviour, for example harmony,
lifelessness or aggressiveness.
 Lack of attachment to parent or caregiver.
 Age-inappropriate bahaviour, for example sucking a
thumb.
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Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
➢ Strengthen economic supports to families and household
financial security.
➢ Make social rules to support the parent by positive
parenting and family-friendly work policies.
➢ Public Engagement and Education Act Administration
approaches to reduce bodily punishment.
➢ Provide a good quality Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE).
➢ Preschool enrichment with family engagement by
improving quality of child care through authority and
empowerment.
➢ Increase parenting skills to promote healthy child
development and family relationships approaches.
➢ Enhance primary care for behavioural pattern training
programmes.
➢ Provide treatments to lessen the harms of abuse, neglect
exposure, and parent problem behaviour.

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Children Growing Up in Poverty
Child poverty is the poverty experienced during childhood.
The impact of poverty during childhood has permanent negative
effects on children. It affects their mental, physical, emotional and
spiritual development. According to the Christian Children's Fund,
the child poverty involves in three inter-related domains. They are:
• Deprivation – a lack of material conditions that derives
generally held to be important for the development of
children's full potential.
• Exclusion – the result of unjust process through which
children's dignity, voice, and rights are denied, or their
existence threatened.
• Vulnerability – an inability of society to manage with
living or probable threats to children in their environment.
Causes for Child Poverty
Poor and Unemployed Parents
The children born for parents living in poverty are in lack
of education, high child mortality rates, patriarchal value system,
forced marriage, superstitious beliefs and to support the wider
family.
Lack of Education
When the children born to poor parents, they have less
possibilities to get schooling and education. If the parents are
involved in agricultural works, they involve their children to their
works. The children cannot develop their educational skills and
they cannot have possibilities for greater earnings in the future life
also.
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Lack of Social Services
Many developing countries do not help poor children and their
families. It can increase the problem of child labours.
Discrimination
If children and their families have discriminated against their
gender, religion, nationality, and social class, it is another factor for
the increase in poverty.
Street Children

UNICEF defines street child as “Any girl or boy for whom the
street has become his or her habitual abode or source of livelihood,
and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by
responsible adults.”
The term “street children” refers to children for whom the
street is more important than their family in their real home. It
includes children not only be homeless or without families, but also
who live with the situation where there is no protection,
supervision, or direction from responsible adults-human rights.

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Street children is usually applied to children under the age
of 18 who either live or make a living on the streets. It includes
children that are homeless, lonely and deserted most of them are the
victims of their own families and indifference of neighbours,
authorities and society.
Categories of Street Children
Street children are categorised into three types. According to
UNCHS and UNICEF, they are:
✓ Children of the street – It refers to children who are being
homeless, sleep and live at a street in urban areas.
✓ Children on the street – It refers to children who work and
live on the street at day time and return back at the night
time where they sleep, although they sleep on the streets.
✓ Children in the street – It refers to children who are
completely staying away from their families and live with
gangs in the street.
Characteristics of Street Children
Street children face more difficulty in the situation of good
sources of food, clean drinking water, health care services, toilets
and bath facilities, and adequate shelter. They are also suffering
from absence of parental protection and security due to the missing
connection with their families and lack of any kind of moral and
emotional support. (Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1999).
In gender representation, the majority of the street children
are boys (Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1999; Le Roux and Smith, 1998)
compared to the girls, females are less representation in the street
girls are more controlled by their families when they escape from

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their families, that girls are work servants for a family or caught by
criminal.
In the street, children live in the average age of 9 to 12 years
old and they keep living in till reach at the age of 15 to 16, after 16
years of age, they ready to work at any job with better wages
(Rizzini et al, 1994).
Street children do not have knowledge about the culture,
morals and traditions. Because, they are being away from their
families since childhood. Lugalla and Mbwambo (1999, p.332)
described street children as not only homeless, but they are also
culturally rootless.
Street children have unprotected sexual behaviours, so they
have sexually transmitted disease like HIV, because they have
casual sexual relationship. Girls who offer sex in exchange for
security and shelter cannot oppose any unsafe sexual behaviour,
because of their week position (Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1999).
In terms of social networks, street children have strong peer
relationships. This peer group plays the role of a family and are a
source of solidarity, economic and emotional support for their
members. Each group has a leader who is obeyed by group
members, and how well organised as they are (Le Roux and Smith,
1998; Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1999).
Some street children are handled to dangerous and illegal
activities such as drug dealing, crime, theft and gang activities
(UNCHS, 2000). However, many of them also work legal economic
activities such as parking, car washing, baggage loading and others
(Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1999).

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In terms of security, half of the street children depend on
peer groups to provide them with security and protection. Girls are
different from boys in forming their security groups. Girls group
usually have an older girl who has a sexual relation with a boy or a
guard who provides them with protection in return (Lugalla and
Mbwambo, 1999).
Consequences
• Lack of Adequate Nutrition: In the day-to-day life, street
children get some food to eat and they do not have nutritious or
balanced diets. This deficiency causes Anemia, Malnutrition,
and Vitamin deficiencies.
• Homelessness: Street children are being affecting by all ranges
of weather conditions without the proper shelter. It affects them
physically as well as psychologically.
• Health Problems: Some children live in an atmosphere of
continued physical and mental strain. Many street children
roam through dust to find foods. Some of them drink water or
consume drugs to diminish their sufferings from hunger.
• Substance Abuse: Many children are using psychoactive
substances (such as alcohol and drugs) for escape from the high
pressure, shockable past and their daily problems.
• Deprivation of Needs, Lack of Resources and
Opportunities: The various needs of Street Children are rarely
met. They frequently go hungry, wear torn, tattered and dirty
clothes or sometimes no clothes at all. They have no permanent
place to stay, no educational facilities, no facilities for hygiene
and in brief, no facilities at all.
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• Exploitation: Street children have to work for survival, and
they have no skills. They are damaging employees who wish to
make profit by them. Myron (1991) felt the child labour and the
presence of children on the streets must be seen as less
phenomenon of poverty and more phenomenon of social
attitudes, exploitation, compulsions and sensibilities.
HIV affected children
About 17 million children have lost one or both parents to
HIV/AIDS. since the eruption of the epidemic (USAID, 2016).
About 90% of these children live in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
Totally 3.4 million children are currently living with HIV under
estimated at 15 years (USAID, 2016). HIV infected children, AIDS
orphaned children and children with HIV infected parents are
losing their opportunities that lead them to become economically
productive adults (UNAIDS, 2016).
Particularly, HIV/AIDS may refuse children's schooling
through childhood illness, orphaned and parental illness. The effect
may increase the gap between boys and girls in schooling among
children affected by HIV. It is important to know the impact of
HIV/AIDS in life changes of boys and girls, specifically their
educational attainment, enrolment and attendance.
Causes of HIV affected Children
Vertical Transmission: It means HIV affected children by birth.
HIV contracted in utero is called perinatal transmissions or vertical
transmissions. HIV transmissions to children can happen;
 During gestation (passing from mother to baby through the
placenta),

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 During delivery (through the transfer of blood or other
fluids),
 While breastfeeding,
 Not every child gets affected by the HIV at birth when the
mother uses antiretroviral therapy.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), it is
found that the rate of transmitting HIV during pregnancy falls to
below 5% with interference. Without interference, the transmitting
HIV during pregnancy is about 15 to 45% in the world-wide.
In the United States, vertical transmission is the most
common way for children under age 13 to contract HIV.
Horizontal Transmission: Secondary transmission or horizontal
transmission is defined as the transmission of HIV by contacting
with infected semen, vaginal fluid, or blood. In teenagers,
unprotected sexual transmission is the most common way for
contracting with HIV. Adolescents may not always use a barrier
method of birth control and also use it correctly with proper
awareness of HIV symptoms. It increases the Sexually Transmitted
Infection (STI).
Children and teens who share needles, syringes, and similar
items are also risks for contracting HIV. HIV can be transmitted
through infected blood in healthcare setting. According to the
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), HIV does not
spread through: Insect bites, Saliva, Sweet, Tears and Hugs. It does
not transmit from sharing of towels or bedding, drinking glasses or
eating utensils, and toilet seat or swimming pools.

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Impacts of HIV/AIDS
Household Impact
Many parts of the world have documented by the
implication of having AIDS in family. These family spent less time
in entertainments for children and their education to manage with
rising care, support, and treatment costs due to HIV, and forced to
sell their assets and borrow from friends and relatives (ILO, 2003).
Impact on Women
In Millennium Development Goals (MDG), one of the main
tasks in human development is to reduce and eliminate inequality
between men and women by empowering women. AIDS can play
a key role in achieving this task. At the age of 15-24 years old young
women are having more HIV positive than men at similar age.
Impact on Children
In worldwide, children at the age of 15 die under one in six
AIDS and one in seven new HIV infections, the majority of the
virus are transmitted through mother-to-child relationship
(UNICEF, 2005). After the illness and death of parents, children
loss their parents’ affection, support, and protection.
Impact on Education
In 2015, there is a target of both Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) and Education For All (EFA) initiative. Education
is one of the pillars in development and providing universal access
to primary education. The latest report of UNESCO on
development towards the EFA goals set at world education. Over
half of the country considered unlikely to meet 2015 goals among
the most AIDS-affected people.

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Children Working in Unorganised Sector

National commission defines the term ‘unorganised sector’


in India is consisting of all separate private enterprise owned by
individual or household engaged in the sale or production of goals
and services operated on a partnership basis and less than ten total
workers.
The characteristics of this sector are ease of entry, smaller
scale of operation, uncertain legal status, less sophisticated packing,
absence of a brand name, unavailability of good storage facilities,
inadequate access to government schemes, finance and planning
activities.
Special Reference to India
The economic survey of 2018 - 2019, released on July 4,
2019 says almost 93% of the total workforce is informal, but the
Niti Aayog's strategy for New India at 17 released in November
2018, said "by some estimates, India's informal sector employees
approximately 85% of all workers".
In terms of occupation in India, the unorganised sector is
very large. Whole of the agriculture is an unorganised sector.
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Except agriculture, most of the mining, construction, trade,
transport and communication, social and personal services are also
in the unorganised sector. Because of unsafe job nature, poor work
environment, unhealthy life-style, work related problems and
negative demographic factors influence worker's health, poor
access to clean water and sanitation, India is suffering very much
with economic crisis and other curses by the unorganised sectors.
Characteristics of Unorganised Workers
 Employment is not secure, so people can be asked to leave
without any reason.
 In some seasons, they have less work and some people may
be asked to leave.
 There is no regular job and hard to work in the poor
environment.
 Workers are provided with low daily wages.
 There are a lot of laws in this sector, but they are not followed
correctly.
 Workers have limited or no education as well as no fixed job.
Child Labour
The term “Child Labour” is defined as work that deprives
children from their childhood, their potential and their honour. It is
harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to the works
that are mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous which
interfere with their schooling. They loss their opportunity to attend
schools by discontinuing their schooling. It involves children being
enslaved, separated from their families, exposed to serious hazards
and illness.

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Violence against Child Labour
Slavery – Child labour are considered as slaves who must not
have questioning attitude. They are not allowed to do anything that
is being away from the command.
Child trafficking – This is illegal trading (buying, selling or
movement) of children as a labour or the object for sexual
exploitation. Children are trafficked for forced labour, prostitution
and recruitment as child soldiers and beggars.
Debt bondage – This is forced labour that the children cannot
pay off with money or goods, so the works are exchanged to pay
off loans. i.e. a poor family hands over the child to someone to pay
off the debt and the child must work until the debt is cleared.
Serfdom – This is when a person is forced to live and work in
land to another person often with little or no pay.
Forced labour – This is when someone is made to work
against their wishes. i.e. children are forced to work as porters and
massagers. These children are abused, exploited and being forced
to kill or handicap other human being.
Approaches to stand against Child Labour
❖ Economic development is to raise the family income and
living standards, support a greater growth and distribution
of resources at macro level, and support the efforts of
effective families to increase income at micro level.
❖ A compulsory basic education as free and universal of good
quality is to raise the human capital.

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❖ Enforcement of anti-child labour laws, of laws on
compulsory education and of laws that indirectly target
children in the criminal sector.
❖ Changes in public attitudes towards children, and more
specifically positive changes in the attitudes of children,
families, employees, clients and institutions towards the
elimination of child labour.
❖ Provision of social services and social help-to-help families
to survive from crises of diseases, loss of home and shelter,
and support the demand for education.
Measures to Promote the status of Marginalised Children

Poverty retreat in India


 Giving importance to Education For All (EFA) programme.
 Provide more opportunity for children to learn about
literary and vocational education.
 Stand against the child abuse and take care of street
children.
 Increase the values of physical and mental education.
 Influence the enrollment in slum areas with the
scholarships.
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 Use bilingual methods of teaching to increase students’
participation.
Conclusion
Marginalisation is not just a matter of political and
economic exclusion. It is also a serious issue of psychological
alienation and social isolation. Its worst effects are felt in poverty
and it can also cause severe psychological trauma and damage to
the psyche.

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UNIT -7
UNDERSTANDING ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence
Adolescence is the stage of development which precedes
adulthood. It is a time of great changes in young people. It is
characterised by rapid growth, hormonal changes, changes in body,
appearance, and changes in brain structure. It is also a time where
young people make mistakes, which if not dealt with constructively
and sensitively.
Meaning of Adolescence
Adolescence is the transitional phase of growth and
development between childhood and adulthood. World Health
Organisation (WHO) defines adolescence as “the age group of 10 -
19 years”. In this stage, adolescents have multidimensional
changes, such as biological, psychological, cognitive and social
development.
Adolescents in Natural Settings
The physical changes that happen during adolescence are
both internal and external.
Puberty
➢ The physical changes of puberty are triggered by hormones;
the most dramatic changes of puberty involve sexuality and
ready up the reproductive organs for sexual reproduction.
➢ Girls generally begin puberty earlier on, typically between
the age of 10 to 14 years old, while boys enter puberty later
on, typically between the age of 12 and 16.

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➢ Many changes take places during adolescence period.
Prominent or physical changes includes puberty and other
socio-psychological changes.
Cognitive Transition
➢ Cognitive transition is the most important element of the
adolescence. While comparing to children, adolescents
think in ways that are more advanced, efficient and
generally more complex.
➢ During adolescence, they become better able than children
to think about what is possible. They can easily observe the
comprehended sorts of higher-order thinking, abstract
thinking, and analogies.
➢ In this cognitive transition stage, adolescents become more
logical and flexible. They develop the ability to classify
everything. The adolescents also grasp the important
meaning of their prior life experiences.
Emotional Transition
➢ In emotional transition, adolescents enter a world filled
with decisions, questioning and testing our morals, social
status and sexual identity.
➢ In this stage, adolescents take their own decisions. They
wish to become what they like and it is quite opposite to
parents’ wishes.
Social Transition
➢ Adolescents are developing in both socially and
emotionally during this time. The most important task of
adolescence is the search of identity.

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➢ The transition in adolescence is to increase the amount of
time for individuals to spend with their peers.
Types of Development
Physical Development
• Physical changes that happen during adolescence are
internal and not visible, the changes that occur both inside
and outside the body during adolescence.
• Many of the physical changes in adolescence are created to
get fertility.
• Males become stronger and their muscles get bigger.
• Males’ voices get deepen and crack during the shift.
• Girls get changes like breast become fuller and hips grow
wider.
Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development refers to the changes in the brain
that help us to think and learn.
• Brain in adolescence undergoes a lot of growth and
development.
• The brain grows and strengthens itself in three ways,
1. Growing new brain cells:
In adolescence period, one of the few times in which the brain
produces a large number of cells at very fast rate. Actually, the
brain creates more cells than it needs. The other extra brain cells
give adolescents more places to store many information, which
help them to learn new skills.

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2. Pruning some extra growth:
The fault of having extra brain cells is that they also decrease
the brain efficiency. This pruning process creates a brain
structure. It enables adolescents to easily access the information
they use most.
3. Strengthening the content:
The brain cells connection is enabling the information that is
stored in the brain to be used in daily life. It helps adolescents
to recall the information.
Emotional Development
Emotional development gives adolescents the opportunity
to build skills, discover unique qualities and develop strength for
optimal health.
1. Self-management:
Every situation teaches adolescents to lead a good life by
managing their own emotions. Firstly, they recognise and
describe strong or complex emotions. It helps them to improve
their ability to manage emotions. Although young people learn
to describe basic emotions earlier in life, they develop the
ability to grasp emotions and its impact when get older.
2. Social development:
Social development is the foremost important thing for
adolescents to interact with people from outside of the family
circle. It can teach them that how to maintain healthy
relationships in different contexts. Through conversations,
adolescents practice cooperation, communication, problem-
solving and decision-making skills.

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At Play

During adolescence, there are number of cognitive,


emotional, physical changes that provide the basic personality
development. Play is not just essential for the children’s lives only,
but also for adults. Play is a good form of relaxation and
stimulation. Most adults are in the mindset that they are simply
“Too old to play”, but it is wrong.
Play is more important for children’s lives with a lot of
developmental benefits. Adult play stops thinking about
communication instead of focusing on an opportunity to participate
in an unstructured fun experience. Taking part in regular physical
activity is critical for adults to the well-being.
At School
Schools constitute a large part of an adolescents’ existence.
Difficulties in almost any area of life often manifest in school
problems. Adolescence is the time for developing independence.
Typically, adolescents exercise their independence by questioning
or challenging and sometimes breaking rules. Schools are such a
critical setting for adolescents. It can be important even for
professionals who work in other settings to connect with the school,
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such of them are psychologists, counsellors, and social workers for
an at-risk adolescent to help in creating a supportive system of care.

During adolescence, young people typically move from


elementary school to middle or junior school and then to senior high
school. Each of these transitions can present challenges to both
academic performances and psychological well-being. Student –
school bonding can be advanced by developing social skills and
social competence, improving school climate, and encouraging
authoritative parenting practices.
Observation

An observation is something that have learnt by seeing or


watching something and thinking about it. If a person makes an
observation, he or she makes a comment about something or
someone usually as a result of watching how the subject behaves.

107
➢ Observation is the active acquisition of information from a
primary source. In scientific observation, it involves the
perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments.
➢ It can be qualitative, that is only observed or presented of a
property is noted, or quantitative, that is a numerical value
is attached to the observed phenomenon by counting or
measuring it.
Process of Observation
❖ Process of observation is a method of confirming exactly
what is occurring during any particular process.
❖ It allows the gathered information about the process
activities and human behaviour to support as testimonials.
❖ It uncovers the issue that can compromise the effectiveness
of the process.
❖ Observation is conducted within a manufacturing
environment that is usually find out observation of job
location, examination of equipment and producers’
discussion with operators or managers is an evolvable
technique of gaining information on the job or process.
Observation of Behaviour
Behaviour observation is one of the most widely used
assessment strategies in school. Behavioural observation procedure
can be used to collect a range of data that provides helpful
information and are useful for making a variety of psycho-
educational decisions.

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Recording the Behaviour Observed
✓ During the observation period, it is very difficult for
observer to remember each and every element of
observation.
✓ Therefore, the observation should be recorded with all
important information as soon as the observation is
completed.
Analysis and Interpretation of Behaviour
✓ When the notes of behaviour that have observed are
completed, they are analysed objectively and scientifically
in order to interpret the behaviour patterns.
Generalisation
✓ On the basis of analysis and interpretation of the data
collected with the help of the observation method, it is
possible to make certain generalisation.
Types of Observation
1. Natural Observation: Natural observation is a technique used
in research and assessment, which is similarly to direct observation
where information regarding an individual or individuals is
gathered immediately, while the individual’s behaviour occurs
naturally in their everyday environment.
2. Participant Observation: Participant observation is a type of
data collection method by practice. Scholars typically use it as a
qualitative research and ethnography.
3. Non-Participant Observation: Non-participant observation is a
research technique whereby the researcher watches the subjects of
his or her study without taking an active part in the situation under

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scrutiny.
4. Structured Observation: Structured observation is a data
collection method in which researchers gather data without direct
involvement with the participants, and the collective technique is
structured in a well-defined and procedural manner.
5. Unstructured Observation: Unstructured observation refers to
the technique used in observation as a device to collect primarily
marked research data. A form of observation study where the
behaviour of interest and method of observation are not clearly
specified in advance to the study. Simply, the observer makes notes
on the behaviour that is being observed.
Interview Schedule

Interview is a conversation where questions are asked and


the corresponding answers are given. The schedule is used in the
interview which needs to fill the answers for the questions of the
actual interview.
❖ Interviews are given only a limited amount of time to ask
all their questions and get the answers.
❖ The setting and execution of the interview range from
casual to semi-formal to formal and it involves two parties:
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the interviewer and the interviewee.
❖ The interviewer's objective is to collect data and
information by asking questions and probing the answer
that are given by the interviewee.
❖ It may even be described as the interviewer’s script.
❖ An interview may be conducted one-on-one which has one
interviewer and one interviewee, or in groups.
❖ An interview schedule is basically a list containing a set of
structured questions that have been prepared to serve as a
guide for interviewer, researcher and investigator in
collecting information or data about a specific topic or
issues.
Advantages of Interview Schedule
✓ An interview schedule facilitates the content of an
interview, since the question has already been prepared
beforehand, it is easier to carry out and complete the
interview.
✓ It increases the likelihood of collecting accurate
information or data.
✓ It refers to the high flexibility and customisation.
✓ The rate and amount of response are higher.
✓ It allows interviewers and researchers to get more
information.
✓ It is a potent and indispensable tool for getting data that no
other research tool can do.
Limitations of Interview Schedule
▪ Interviewer’s biases, their likes and dislikes can affect their

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judgement.
▪ Single behaviour of candidate may affect the entire
judgement of the interviewers.
▪ Interview of previous candidate influences the interviewer.
▪ It implies tendency to assign high scores associated with
lack of confidence and interest in rating.
▪ It raises when an interviewer expects his or her own
knowledge and skills from the candidate.
Case Study

Case study is a research method to give a better


understanding of a subject or process. It involves in-depth research
into a given subject in order to understand its functionality and
success. Case studies can be produced by following a formal
research method. These studies are likely to appear in formal
research venues, as journals and professional conference. Case
studies involve both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
It provides the statistical framework for making inferences from
quantitative case-study data.
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Strengths and Limitations of Case Study
Strengths of Case Study
✓ Case study is a particularly appealing design for applied fields
of study, such as education, social work, administration, health
and so on.
✓ Provides detailed information of the data that has collected
normally a lot richer and greater depth than can be found
through other experimental designs.
✓ Results would be limited to describing the phenomenon rather
than predicting future behaviour.
✓ Case study is the best plan for answering the research questions.
✓ It offers insights and illuminates the meaning that expands to
the readers’ experience.
Limitations of Case Study
• The amount of description, analysis, or summary material
is up to the investigator.
• The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection
and analysis.
• Further limitations involve the issues of reliability, validity
and generalisation.
Understanding the Physical, Social and Moral Behavior of
Children and Adolescents
Age 6 to 9
Physical Development
❖ Children develop gross motor skills at first, but their
coordination and fine motor skills vary considerably. It
affects how they dress and how they perform other tasks.
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❖ Children like to be restless and always be active in the
certain motion.
❖ They have great differences in height and weight among
children since three years old.
❖ Large muscles are developed to allow for ease in activities,
such as running and throwing.
❖ Boys and girls enjoy to practise and master the physical
skills.
Cognitive Development
❖ The children learn more from preschools in the middle
childhood.
❖ They start to see themselves as more autonomous
individuals who are being capable to engage in basic
independent problem-solving.
❖ When they know right way to do things, they invest more
time and energy to complete tasks in an expected manner.
Emotional Development
❖ Children grow self-centred, more empathetic and see things
from other’s perspectives.
❖ They sulk, pout, and worry sometimes as they are still
figuring out that how to manage their emotions.
❖ They tend to have their feelings easily hurt.
Social Development
❖ Children compare themselves to others and try to fit as their
peers’ characters.
❖ School-age children choose their own friends and make
judgments about others.

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❖ They have a keener interest in differences among boys and
girls.
❖ School-age children often want to play only with friends of
the same gender. It tends to get gender identity.
❖ Children become aware of gender stereotypes, biases and
rejection based on their race, gender, age, weight, and other
factors particularly when they experience any bias.
Age 10 to 12
Physical Development
❖ Enter puberty, a time when hormones produced in the
pituitary gland trigger production of testosterone in males.
❖ Experience a growth spurt with significant weight gain,
muscle growth and genital maturation.
❖ Skin becomes oiler and has pimples.
❖ Sweating increases and youth has body odour.
❖ Hair grows under armpits and on pubis in females, and on
face and chest in males.
Cognitive Development
❖ Girls move ahead of boys in terms of cognitive
development.
❖ Events are understood in terms of direct experience.
❖ Move towards independence as they progress to middle
/junior/ high school.
❖ Begins to look at peers and media for information and
advices.

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Emotional Development
❖ Boys and girls basically accept parental guidance, but seek
independence and begin to test adult authority.
❖ Self-esteem is developing. Some girls may be vulnerable to
lose confidence and become self-critical.
❖ Girls and boys may overly concern with weight and
physical appearance.
Social Development
❖ Become self-conscious and self-centred.
❖ Develop the capacity to understand the components of
loving and caring relationship.
❖ Develop romantic feelings and may begin dating.
❖ Want to blend in and not stand out from their peers by
anyway, particularly in gender roles and sexuality.
Age 13 to 15
Physical Development
❖ Body changes and sexual development are more evident in
both boys and girls.
❖ Boys and girls want to be competent and gain further
achievement.
❖ Boys begin their growth spurt by age 15, are generally
taller, heavier and more muscular than girls.
❖ Acne and body odour are concerning by teens.
Cognitive Development
❖ Boys and girls begin to understand metaphors, double
meaning and humour.

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❖ Focus is on the present, but there is a beginning of
awareness on the future life.
❖ Boys and girls do not always see the consequences of their
actions.
❖ They reject their parents’ values on the sense of morality.
❖ Goals for the future, including long term goals, are getting
importance.
❖ Thinking becomes more abstract, with better reasoning and
more intellectual curiosity.
❖ Youth are able to understand the hypothetical world as well
as the real world.
Emotional Development
❖ Boys and girls see themselves differently when they are
with peers compared to when they are with parents and
teachers.
❖ Boys and girls seek independence, but continue to find
security in structure and limit settings by parents and other
adults.
❖ Intense sensitivity and self-consciousness often result in
shyness, blushing or modesty and a greater need for
privacy.
❖ Boys and girls become critical or argumentative.
❖ They attempt to figure out who they are by trying on
different lifestyles and mannerisms.
Social Development
❖ Relationship deepens and becomes more mutual and trusted
one.

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❖ Friendship and romance are increasing to be important.
❖ Boys and girls are able to step out themselves and see
another perspective in a relationship.
❖ They identify themselves with the peer group. Social
acceptance is more important to get self -esteem.
Age 16 to 18
Physical Development
❖ 95% of adult height reached, physical changes are levelling
off and ending.
❖ Advanced growth of secondary sex characteristics, such as
facial and body hair in boys, and breasts in girls.
❖ Continued brain development until late adolescence.
❖ They have achieved their full height and other adult
physical milestones.
Cognitive Development
❖ Boys and girls are able to express their thoughts and ideas
more clearly.
❖ Well defined work habits and increased concern for the
future.
❖ Greater capacity for setting goals with self-regulation.
❖ Growth in abstract thought, there is a greater capacity to set
goals, think about one’s role in life and select career
options.
❖ Tend to be self-absorbed.
❖ Boys and girls are better able to make decisions, act
independently and rely on themselves.

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Social and Emotional Development
❖ Move towards independence gets increase and firmer sense
of self.
❖ Teens gain a more realistic sense of themselves and adults.
❖ They have developed a sense of humour, greater sense of
self-control and the ability to compromise.
❖ Experiment in risk taking behaviour to make important
decisions.
❖ Strong same-sex friendship continues to exist, but cross-
gender friendship become more common.
Moral behavior of Children and Adolescents
❖ Morality refers to the way that people choose to live their
lives according to a set of guidelines or principles that have
proven their decision about right versus wrong and good
versus evil.
❖ Teens must make moral judgments on a daily basis. When
children are younger, their family, culture and religion
greatly influence their moral decision-making.
❖ However, peer groups have a greater influence during early
adolescence period.
Discipline and Parenting Techniques
Children make many demands on their parents and
caregivers. The way parents and caregivers respond to their
children’s demand teaches children about the kind of world in
which they are living. Children learn to trust or mistrust, feel safe
or afraid, feel loved or unloved based on the way that people,
especially parents, respond to them.

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Developmental monitoring observes that how a child grows
and changes over time, and whether the child meets the typical
developmental milestones in playing, learning, speaking, behaving
and moving. Understanding child’s behaviour and formulating a
parenting strategy based on the understanding can set age-
appropriate rules and expectations. When parents understand their
children’s behavior and level of development, they can help them
to formulate their self-image, values and ideas by offering age-
appropriate guidance.

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UNIT -8
PLAY AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Play is prominent for optimising child development. It has


been recognised by the United Nations High Commission for
Human Rights as the primary right of every child. According to
Mary Reilly (1974), “Play is often overlooked as the key that helps
to unlock the door for learning.” Play is defined as to engage in a
sport or recreation.
In other words, it means to move aimlessly about or to toy
or fiddle around with something. It is a move to operate, in a lively,
irregular or intermittent manner and performing an activity for joy.
By playing any sport, children build their physical strength and
improve their cognitive skills, such as language skills, problem
solving, creativity and self-regulation.

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Play develops overall abilities of children to attain specific
growth and development. It lays foundation for higher order
thinking. Adults can participate in a play along with children to
have fun. It is an activity that is welcoming in schools for learners’
development. Indirectly, it is a teaching tool to children. Children
can learn these 6 C’s by playing games in an informal atmosphere.
They are:
❖ Collaboration,
❖ Communication,
❖ Content,
❖ Critical thinking,
❖ Creative innovation,
❖ Confidence.
Characteristics of Play

✓ Play is pleasurable which is an activity that enjoyed by


children.
✓ It is motivated intrinsically to perform for satisfaction.
✓ It is a process oriented and free to choose.
✓ It is spontaneous and voluntary.
✓ It is actively engaged in both physically and mentally.
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Categories of Play
Creative Play
Through this type of play, children get enjoyment, self-
expression, mastery of skills that particular to specific contexts,
development of motor skills and integration of concepts from
different fields. This stimulates creativity of children with new
experiences. i.e. Painting, Making and Manipulating materials.

Exploratory Play
Through this type of play, children get emotional
satisfaction, access to information and gain experience in complex
situations. It improves reasoning ability of children along with
fitness. i.e., Jumping, Swimming and Climbing.

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Master Play
Through this type of play, children gain understanding of
their relationship with the physical properties of the world around
them. It develops problem-solving skill, logical thinking and fine
motor skills. i.e. Digging holes in sand, Construction of Sand Castle
and setting things.

Object Play
Through this type of play, children learn about interesting
squences with hand-eye coordination by understanding everyday
obejcts. It leads to discoveries for the possibilites of the objects. It
improves flexibility in thinking, mono speech and mathematical
concepts. i.e. Stones, Puzzles and Toys.

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Communication Play
Through this type of play, children learn vocabulary,
sentence structure, sounds and other prominent linguistic skills. It
improves overall oral fluency and appreciation for poetry. i.e.
Singing, Mimicry, Reading and Speaking to toys.

Dramatic Play
Through this type of play, children express themselves,
learn reactions and adopt to new identities to express their talents
in the society. It improves language development, artistic skills,
narrative expressions and bodily performances. i.e. Drama, Miming
and Dancing.

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Role Play
Through this type of play, children learn about culture and
race. It improves social skills of them by allowing them to perform
in various environments. It socialises them to respond in different
situations. It increases their observation skills, imitation and group
working ability. i.e. Awareness programmes, Play in the situations
and Play for people.

Social Play
Through this type of play, children develop social skills,
share their toys with friends and play with them. They maintain
good friendship with others by social interaction. i.e. Board games,
Construction games and Conversations.

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Benefits of Play
➢ Play is the activity for stress relief.
➢ It improves brain’s function to think effectively.
➢ It stimulates mind by boosting it with creativity.
➢ It keeps children to be energetic.
➢ It refreshes both body and mind.
➢ It provides multi-dimensional perspectives.
➢ It improves relationships with the act of cooperation and
social skills.
➢ It can heal emotional wounds.
➢ It develops overall growth of children.
Functions of Play
Developing Physical Health - By playing running,
skipping and riding bicycle, children get stamina, physical fitness,
agility, coordination and balance. This promotes better eating and
sleeping habits.

Devolping Social Skills - By playing listening, paying


attention and sharing play experiences, children get self-discipline,

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express themselves and explore their own feelings. It leads to
collaborative works and respecting others. It socialises them along
with their peers.

Developing Mental Health - By playing puzzles, mazes


and board games, children learn to think, read and remember things
by playing games. It improves their minds to think creatively and
makes solutions to various problems. It develops their overall
communicative skills with linguistic traits. It lays foundation for
educational outcomes and encourages their imaginative ability.

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Developing Emotions - When children lose or win in a
play, they get frustration, happiness, empathy, worry and
understanding others’ emotions. Play acts as a stress reliever for
trauma, familial conflicts and other problems. It is the prominent
therapeutic benefit of the play.

Developing Morality - By listening stories and involving


in dramatic play, children learn the differences between good and
bad behaviour. They behave rightly with positive mindset and
helping tendency.

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UNIT -9
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDHOOD

Media play a significant role in our society by organising


public opinion. People learn information quickly with the use of
media. Newspapers, magazines, televisions, radio and mobile
phones rule the world of media. Mass media is wide range of
technology which is used for communication by ordinary and mass
audiences.
Media has great power to create as well as destroy societal
matters. It stands for spreading both positivity and negativity.
Media provide information, education, entertainment, advancement
and correlation of parts in the society. There are four prominent
types of media, they are:
➢ Print media – Newspaper, Magazines, Books, Banners,
Brochures and Flyers.
➢ Television media – Movies and News channels.
➢ Cell phones/Internet – Connect people and make a network.
➢ Podcast – Audio to listen on a computer or mobile phone.

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Impacts of Media on Early Childhood Experiences and
Development
Televisions, movies, video games, mobile phones, radios
and computers have prominent role in children’s life. Media has
profound effects on children’s social, moral, cognitive and
behavioural development. Children are highly exposure to the
media.
Television
Children learn various things by watching television.
Research shows that children spend fourteen hours each week in
front of television. They lean moral values, love, sexuality, gender
identity, violence, education, gender stereotypes and many other
things from television channels. The portrayal of violence,
sexuality, vulnerability and psychopathic values are more likely
shown in movies. It socialises children to learn and use abusive
language among people.
Health Issues
Overuse of media and screen may place children at a risk of
obesity, sleep problems, negative effect on school performance,
cyberbullying and risky behaviour. The Rideout (2004) Reports
stated that more than 13,000 children found evidence to 2%
increase in childhood obesity for each additional one hour of TV
viewing.
Education
Media has many educational resources to actively engage
children with necessary guidance. There are various online courses,
moral stories, e-books, radio stations, animation videos and m-

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learning apps (Byju, Dragon Box, Quick Maths, Alien Buddies,
Fun Brain, Brain Pop etc.,.) to educate children by enhancing their
creativity, learning capacity and cognitive level. Mass media play
significant role in acquiring cognitive ability in children’s life.
Children learn morality, spirituality, patriotism and human
values through media. In directly, children acquire social values
and virtues to establish a foundation for life. Children always eager
to learn new things. Media provide the knowledge of skill
developing ideas, concepts, thoughts and programmes for children.
With the use of these things, children improve the life-orientation
skills such as, dancing, singing, acting, art and craft, sports, etc.
Reality vs Fantasy
Video games, cartoon channels and comic books show the
rewarded behaviour of fantasy heroes. It inspires children to behave
as the characters in the supernatural fictions. Children unable to
differentiate the reality from the world of fantasy. It leads them to
be miserable in real life situations. Research shows that violent
video games are associated with children’s anti-social behaviour.

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Criminal Activity
Televisions show high rate of violence and it makes risk to
children’s life by changing their behaviour. More than 15,000
studies proved that exposure to heavy dose of TV violence
increases aggressive behaviour, particularly in boys. Other studies
show that publicity of suicides increase the suicide risk of the
audience. High exposure of violence in childhood leads to juvenile
crime, such as harassment, fraud, burglary, loitering, theft, etc.,
Social Media
The oxford dictionary defines social media is “Website and
application that enable user to create and share content or to
participate in social networking.” Social media provide various
tools to support the needs of users. It includes blogs, vlogs, wikis,
social networks, video and photo sharing sites, etc. The salient
features of social media are,
❖ Professional Networking (LinkedIn)
❖ Media Sharing (YouTube, Flicks)
❖ Aggregation, Information and Knowledge (Wikipedia)
❖ Content Production (Micro blogs, Twitter, Instagram,
Facebook)
❖ Blogs (Tumbler, Blogger, Instagram)
❖ Social Networking (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, ShareChat,
Snapchat, Helo, Hike, Messenger, Google, WhatsApp,
MySpace, Telegram, etc.)

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Virtual Reality and Game Environment
Since 2005, participation of people in social media is
increased ultimately over 9 years. In US, the average use of social
media by adult has increased from 8% to 72%. Facebook and
Instagram users exceeded to one billion people in worldwide. More
than 100 million active users of Twitter send 75 million tweets and
three billion videos are viewed on YouTube.
Social media have important role in social reformation by
uniting people for a particular event or activity. Flew (2007) defines
new types of media as a form of communication that includes
quality of being compressible, digitalised, manipulated,
networking, interactive and dense. New media are video games,
Virtual Reality (VR), DVD, computer, Augmented Reality (AR),
etc.
The Kaiser Family Foundation (KFF) surveys stated 97%
of adult own videogames, 99% of adult own television, 86% of
adult own a computer, 80% of children own video game system,
82% of children own a computer, 82% have cable or satellite TV,
74% have internet access and 60% have instant messaging software
(KFF 2003, 2005).
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Impacts of Mass Media and Social Media on Adolescents’
Development
Positive Impacts of Media
✓ Media entertain adolescents by providing opportunity to
express themselves.
✓ It increases their self-esteem and self-confident.
✓ Social media like Facebook, Instagram and Twitter provide
the platform for adolescents to find people with similar
interest like them.
✓ It makes proper interaction among them across the globe.
✓ Adolescents who interest in current affairs and news use
media to get awareness of societal issues and health issues.
✓ They can interact with people without any hesitation
through video calling apps, such as Zoom Meet, Google
Meet, Duo, etc.
✓ Media improves communicative skills of adolescents with
interactive learning environment.
✓ It can teach human values, such as honesty, empathy,
acceptance and patriotism, to adolescents and regulate their
behaviour and lifestyle.
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Negative Impacts of Media
• Media telecast programmes that focus on beauty and “thin
and fair” body image.
• Because of this, adolescents buy chemical products to
improve face colour and body structure.
• Extending screen time results in poor academic
performance, visionary problems, neurological problems,
sleep deprivation, reduction in physical activity, social
interaction, solitude, increased laziness, and food
consumption problems.
• These cause problems of blood pressure, brain injury,
heartache, hypertension and metabolic syndrome.
• Social media are used by people to spread rumors and fake
news which can be believed by adolescents
• Movies tend adolescents to increase sexual behaviours, test
of alcohol and involve in violence.
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• Top video games, such as God of War and GTA San
Andreas, show sexual content without age restrictions. It
leads to child pornography and bullying.
• Unhealthy Lifestyle – Rideout (2004) pointed that TV ads
are the important reason for children’s obesity. Children
watch 40,000 ads annually. Most of the ads are related to
food items (Soda, Chips, Burger, Cheese, Pizza, Sandwich,
Cereals, Cool drinks, Snacks, Junk food and Alcohol).
• Media depict that a grown-up act to be happy when he or
she bunk classes, eat high-cost foods in luxurious hotels and
hang out in midnight. These things pave way to health
issues for the audience who behave as it is.
• Reports of Violence - “Violence in the media has been
increasing and reaching proportion that are dangerous” said
by Emanuel Tanay, MD, a retired clinical professor of
psychiatry at Wayne state university and a forensic
psychiatrist for more than 50 years.
• In 2004, the American Academy of pediatrics said
“Extension research evidence indicates that media violence
can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitisation to
violence, nightmares and fear of being harmed.”
• The US secret service and the US Department of Education
reported in 2002 which examined 37 incidents of targeted
school attacks and school shootings from 1974 to 2000 in
the country, found that 'over half of the attackers
demonstrated some interest in violence through video
games, books, movies and other media.
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Influences of Media Violence on the Behaviours of Children
and Adolescents
Media violence commission of the International Society for
Research on Aggression (ISRA) reported on media violence said
“Over the past 50 years, a large number of studies conducted around
the world have shown that watching violent television, watching
violent films or playing violent video games increase the livelihood
for aggressive behaviour.”
One of the greatest changes in our social environment in
21st century has been the modulation of our culture and society by
the mass media. There is no need to go outside and having bad
neighborhoods would lead to “bad” behaviour. A bad “virtual”
platform is now available to youths in their homes. Most of the
children are really forgotten their real world.
Effects of mass media have been found to be potentially
harmful in influencing health related behaviors of children and
adolescents.

Media and Behavioural Problems


Children are more active in their earlier ages. They can
easily observe and adopt to their environment. They can expose
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what they observe. Continuous exposure to media results in
behaviour changes, particularly in childhood. Exposure to media
violence results in aggressive behaviour, arousal, anger and
disrespect. Frequent exposure to violent video games and movies
affect children’s behaviour regularly. Parents should protect their
children from these violent media.
India reported that high exposure to violence through media
results in poor academic progress and it causes psychosocial
behavioral changes with character maladjustments. The research
shows that vivid display of violence through media cause stress and
mind upset in adolescents. Fear, anger, nightmares and tension of
children are the results of watching movies in the genre of thriller,
horror, psychopathic and adult content. It is found that watching
television and attempting suicides have strong relationships in
India.
Social Isolation
Watching television reduces the person’s time with people
who are his or her peers and family. It causes poor relationships,
social isolation, agoraphobia, antisocial behaviour, anxiety
disorder, aggression and gang violence.
Eating Disorder
Adolescents view unrealistic thin body image in mass
media daily. It results in promoting eating disorder. Media promote
white and thin body type to increase TRP (Television Rating Point)
and the audience want to have the same body type that they look in
television. Television channels advertise unhealthy food items,
drinks and beauty care products.

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Toxic Substances
Adolescents start to smoke cigarettes and weeds through
watching smoking scenes in movies. In research, 50% of children
aged 5 to 12 say that alcohol advertisements in media encourage
them to drink alcohols in real life. The girls who aged 13 to 15 say
that drinking wine is good for health which they see in television.
It makes them to be alcoholics soon.
Sexuality
Initiation of sexual activities in early adolescence is
associated with the risk of unwanted pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases. In the US, nearly 47% of high school students
have had sexual intercourse. Out of 47%, 7.4% of them reported
that they have sexual behaviour before the age of 13, and 14% of
them have had less than or equal to 4 sexual partners.
Regulating Healthy Media use for Professional Education
Mass media educate people with a lot of information on
health, foods, housing, sanitation, employment, agriculture,
industry, environmental science, technology, modernisation, etc. It
acts as a source of entertainment, knowledge and education. It
makes the perspectives of people with enormous changes.
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Similar to the positive aspects of media, there are many
negative effects also. Media make people as modern snobberies in
the artificial society. It affects children’s mental health, linguistic
skills, abusive use of language, isolation, broken relationships,
cyberbullying and suicides. Erick Qualman said, “We do not have
a choice on whether we do social media, the question is how well
we do it.”
For children under 2 years old, parents should spend time
with their children and not allow them to use gadgets. Human to
human interaction can increase children’s thinking capacity,
creativity, problem-solving, motor skills and reasoning ability.
Create educational platforms in mass media to teach good values
and education. Make sure that the devices cannot network with
illegitimate content that harms children’s behaviours.
To regulate healthy media use in a family, parents must visit
www.healthychildren.org to know the prominent ways for creating
a personalised family media use plan with values and lifestyles of
the family. The American Academic of Pediatrics (AAP) has
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developed an interactive tool that includes a time calendar to
monitor the media use with terms and conditions. These are some
guidelines to regulate media use:

✓ Limit screen time for children to entertain in one or two


hours a day.
✓ Avoid to have plug points for media devices in bedrooms.
✓ Establish platforms for children to read books rather than
surfing the internet.
✓ Use devices as rewards after completion of activities. i.e.
homework.
✓ Allow children to participate in sports and other outdoor
activities.
✓ Be a role model to children in limited use of mass media.
✓ Install parental care applications and software in electronic
devices to monitor children’s online activities.

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UNIT -10
URBANISATION AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT

1. Impact of Urban Culture

Every child learns to behave gradually from the


environment. Urban culture modifies the behaviour and attitude of
children who are living in urban and sub-urban areas. It influences
their lifestyle and other social interactions.
According to Neelmani Jaysawal and Sudeshna Saha, the
main features of Urbanisation are:
• Urbanisation can occur without industrialisation and strong
economic base.
• It is the product of demographic explosion and poverty that
induces rural-urban migration.
• It occurs due to rural push factors rather than urban pull
factors.

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Definition
In Merriam Webster Dictionary, Urbanisation means,
▪ The quality or state of being urbanised,
▪ The process of becoming urbanised,
▪ To impart an urban way of life,
▪ To take on urban characteristics.
According to Tombari Bodo (2019), Urbanisation is
defined as “The steady increase in the number of people living in
cities or urban centres. These occurrences result from the
continuous mass movement of people from the villages or rural
settlements to cities or urban areas.”
Causes of Urbanisation
Employment Opportunities
In rural areas, people depend on animal husbandry and
agriculture. They suffer very much due to minor changes in
monsoon that affect crops and cultivation for their earning. Coolies
in rural areas advance in the line of poverty when they face natural
hardships with low wages. So, they migrate to urban areas for the
employment opportunities to get a secured and high-income jobs.
Industrialisation
In urban areas, the capitalism gets its peak with the birth of
industrialisation. Industrialisation provides high wages when
comparing to the earnings in rural areas. It gives employment for
many people with less manual work. Because, the machinery makes
the works through automation process. Labours are appointing to
operate machines for its manufacturing process. So, rural people

144
have the opportunity to get high wages (output) for low manual
work (input).
Modernisation
In urban areas, almost all people can access technology
with high-speed networks. They live in better infrastructure when
comparing to rural areas. Medical facilities, transportations, malls,
restaurants and theaters are easily accessed by everyone with its
efficient services, i.e. order and delivery of food items. People who
live in urban areas feel very comfortable and have high confidence
in their professional development.
Social Factors
In urban areas, casteism and religious conflicts are less than
rural areas. People have equal enrollment in education and can use
public services. The superstitions of villages are being decreased in
cities. They can improve their standard of living and get reputation
among rural people easily. This motivates rural people for
migrating to urban areas.
Effect of Urbanisation
The urbanisation makes significant changes in the society.
The positive and negative effects of urbanisation can be seen below:
Positive Effects
1. Improvement in Literacy Rate: Providing quality education for
Children, Women, Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes can
improve the overall literacy rate that helps the growth of entire
country. Many education schemes are firstly introduced to urban
areas and the success of those schemes are allowing to establish in

145
rural areas. So, the urbanisation improves gradual progress in
education system.
2. Benefits in Employment Opportunities: There are various
growing industries and companies which need efficient employees.
So, job seekers can get job opportunities based on their level of
education and interests. In urban areas, workers are paid with high
salary and enjoying the well-developed working environment.
3. Transportations: The transportations in urban areas are
sophisticated and stimulating people to travel anywhere. People can
drive their own vehicles or hire a taxi to travel local areas. They can
get into the public transport systems, such as buses, trains, ships
and aeroplanes, for long journey.
4. Access to ICT: Information and Communication Technology
can be accessed by common people in urban areas. Children have
their own electronic gadgets, such as mobile phones and laptops for
entertainments. The use of ICT enhances the way to networking and
integrating human relationship by the help of technology.
5. Raise in Standard of Living: The urban areas have tall buildings
with rich atmosphere to live a blessed life. This gives people to feel
very comfortable and get intrinsic motivation to work hard for their
success. To be brief, urbanisation raises people’s standard of living
efficiently.
Negative Effects
1. Unemployment Problem: Not all people have the ability to
employ in high paying jobs at reputed companies. Most of the urban
people are working in low paying jobs and a few of them are

146
unemployed. Because, companies and industries are being less than
houses in urban areas.
2. Rapid Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation leads to the growth of
slum areas and poverty. It makes people to be homeless and
sleepless. This affects the psychological well-being of them that
paves the way to anxiety, depression and aggression. Moreover,
people are indirectly forced to live as nuclear family.
3. Inadequate Housing: Most of the urban areas are suffering from
lack of latrines, poor drinking water and other necessary sanitation
facilities. The inadequate social infrastructure with clean
atmosphere provides malnutrition and assaults on individual’s
immunity.
4. Increase in Crime rates: In urban areas, unemployment and
psychological trauma stimulate people to involve in crimes for
money as well as pleasure. They do rob banks, sex work, murder,
rape, acid attack, chain snatch and other violence against women as
well as children.
5. Pollutions: The frequent use of transportation and wastages from
industries pollute air and water resources. This makes people to get
various cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The electronic and
hospital wastes spoil the soil which causes the negative effect on
land water resources.
6. Stressful Lifestyle: Indian urbanisation provides stressful
lifestyle to people. People in urban areas are suffering from high
cost of living. In Mumbai and Bangalore, people work very hard to
live a decent life. Electricity and mosquitoes are considering as the
biggest problem of Indian urbanisation.

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Suggestions for Child Development in Urban Areas
• Provide awareness programmes on child-responsive urban
settings for the children who are living in urban and sub-
urban areas.
• Establishment of Public Health Care Centers (PHCC) for
maintaining the clean environment of urban infrastructure.
i.e. Hospitals, Medical, etc.
• Making of playgrounds for children to improve their
physical and emotional development by allowing them to
interact with their peers and the environment.
• Improvement in the safety and protection of children at
urban areas by giving proper security, early warning
systems and prevention programmes.
• Construct toilets in public places by considering the
accessibility and availability of them for Children With
Disability (CWD) and Transgender (the third gender).
• Provide necessary nutritional supports for children by
community-led food networks, such as, urban farming
areas, fresh markets, people’s restaurants, etc.
• Implement transportation system with special care on child
safety and development. Such as. individual protection,
walkability, awareness campaigns, speed management and
child motorcycle helmets, etc.
• Plan the utilisation of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
(WASH) with Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor
(WSUP) in urban areas.

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• Maintain a good Waste Management System (WMS) that
provides a safe and healthy lifestyle for all people live in
urban area. i.e., 3Rs - Reducing, Re-using and Recycling.
• Teach the basic citizenship skills and values for children in
urban places, such as, participation, accountability, social
cohesion, and civic trust.
• Make children to know the urban culture by telling the
standard of living, affordability, livelihoods and climate
adaptation.

2. Population Density on Child Development Effects


Population density is the problem which is depending on
the people who are living in a particular area. It is functioning as
environmental barrier that ruins the important roles of child
development indirectly by affecting the parental care, parents’
workplace and the laws of government.
According to Elaf Dawodieh, Population Density is defined
as “A physical state involving potential inconveniences (loss of
control, stimulus, lack of behavioral freedom, resources or privacy)
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which may or may not be prominent to a person in the situation
prominence of the conditions depends on individual differences
between people, situational conditions and social condition.”
(Dawodieh, 2017).
Researchers from Calhoun’s laboratory made experiments
on population density. They found aggressive and sexual behaviour
increase infants’ mortality rate that is affecting total community in
social life. It is technically called as ‘behavioural sink’.
Biologically, high population density increases people’s pulse rate
and blood pressure suddenly. So, they are more likely to be affected
by pathogens as well as pandemics.
Impact of Population Density

Slum
Slum is the worst outcome of population density, because
not all the people in urban areas have well-built houses to live in.
The lack of buildings for poor people to live forces them to live in
slums. People who are living in slums are called as slum dwellers
and who are the owner of the slum houses are called as slum lords.
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Slum dwellers pay money to slum lords as rent and feel
insecurity to make any healthy changes in the houses. It is estimated
that 40 percent of people in mega-cities such as Calcutta, Mumbai
and Delhi are living in slums due to their financial burdens. Living
in slums cause tuberculosis, pneumonia and dengue fever, because
of the storage of litters, sewage problems, industrial and hospital
wastes.

Traffic Problems
Population density increases the transportation facilities.
Increase in transportation makes a stressful environment when
people are travelling from one place to another. The high use of
vehicles causes transportation problems, such as traffic jams, road
accidents, noise and air pollution. It affects the children’s
independence, because they need adults’ help for walking in streets
to avoid getting accidents. In addition, the consumption of
petroleum products for vehicles tend to damage the ozone layer and
risk people’s health by the effects of global warming.

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Lack of Urban Services
The urban areas which are possessing basic urban facilities
with low quality, but in high quantity to attract people is literally
termed as ‘urban illusion’. The population density increases
consumers more than manufactured products, so people need to use
more products as routine. This stimulates demand and price of
products to reach its peak. It paves way to economic burden for
people and affects their life directly which deviates them to live
away from the satisfied life.
Most of the cities have water pipes everywhere, but there
are no water resources to provide a healthy living atmosphere for
people. Many educational institutions do not have fundamental
health facilities as well as recreational facilities. A large number of
people consume only less water and get low quality education,
except upper class people in urban areas.
Health Issues
Population density affects the health of people who are
living in urban areas. It causes respiratory problems, such as
wheezing problems, asthma, tuberculosis and Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS). It affects the mental health of children by
delaying their cognitive development. They are behaving
aggressively if they have limited personal space only.
Wells interviewed women about their housing before and
after marriage. He proved that women before marriage had enough
freedom in housing and activities when they were living with their
parents. It made positive progress in their mental health. After
marriage, women have many restrictions in housing and activities

152
when they are living with their spouse. It shows negative impact in
their mental health. It is the evident of women have psychological
problems by the population density.
Honton and Hunt made General Health Questionnaire
(GHQ) which can be used to assess the mental health of people. It
showed that both children and adults were being the victims of high
population density.
3. Migration of Family
Migration plays a vital role in the conversion of rural areas
to urban areas. It is depending on the economic wealth of the
migrants as well as the migrated place. It need money, such as,
travel expense, resettlement and unearned income. It varies from
cities to cites and seasonal migration versus permanent migration.
Migration of group of people to a specific place can reclassify the
place with increase or decrease its position in the society.
Effects of Migration of Family
Education
Most of the migrated families cannot provide education to
children. Because, they spent a lot of money during the process of
migration. So, they stop the education of at least a child in the
family or the education of all their children at some age. This
reduces the overall literacy of the country and provides low
educational achievements. Another reason for them to step out from
education is racism and exploitation in the migrated place.
Economic Burdens
Without the necessary money to resettle in the migrated
place, the family suffer from economic crisis. So, every member of

153
the family should work on the uplift the family. It increases child
labour in the migrated places. These children work long hours in
heavy manual works for low wages. They are working in
construction and agricultural lands with no proper safety measures.
When the father is absent, this can be associated with
burden for the mother, such as emotional distress, higher demands
with regard to parenting, care, and support of children, as well as
economic difficulties (Orth, 2018). It is the most vulnerable group
among all the victims of migration. The children are forced to do
hazardous jobs for saving their lives as well as families.

Health
Health of people depends on the place in which they live.
The climate, seasons and other geographical factors are the main
reasons of human development. The migration of a family provides
new experience to the body of individuals in the family. New food
items and drinks can affect the body condition with less nutritional
support. Those changes may not be welcome by the body. It affects
the skin of migrants by decreasing their immunity and other
necessary aspects of the body.
154
Psycho-social effects
Migration of a family causes various psycho-social effects
by affecting the social and psychoanalytic skills of the members of
the family. It includes lack of parental care, violence, harassment,
bullying, discrimination and increase of crime rate. A father may
be absent for diverse reasons such as divorce and separation, death,
illness, work abroad, or because the mother was never in a
committed relationship with him (Orth, 2018).
The lack of parental care and disturbed parent-child
interactions affect the child’s self-esteem by making the child to
feel insecurity. Cross-sectional data suggest that the absence of the
father correlates with lower self-esteem among children and
adolescents (Orth, 2018). This may cause them to fear as vulnerable
to sexual violence. Research suggests that low socioeconomic
status accounts for small but significant differences in people’s self-
esteem (Orth, 2018).
4. Environmental Effect (Air, Water, Noise)
Environment is the prominent thing which can alter
physiological and psychological being of humans. Louise Chawla
(2012) stated, “A profound application of psychoanalytic theory to
the role of the natural environment in normal human development,
with extensive reflections on infancy, childhood, and adolescence,
as well as the significance of the environment in mental illness.
Research shows that contact with nature and with animals benefit
children’s social, cognitive, and emotional development in a
number of ways.”

155
Environmental barriers are the primary reasons for several
diseases as well as uncomfortable mood of children. It causes
diarrhea, psychological stress, inadequate nutrition, reduction of
vaccine’s performance and newborn health issues. The common
outcomes of environmental barriers in children are poor hygiene
management, lack of school attendance and increase in violence.
Majorly, there are three kinds of environmental pollutions. They are
elaborated below:
Air pollution is the most dangerous pollution which affects
all the living things. Burning of solid fuels for household cooking
and gases from vehicles cause the maximum air pollution. Indoor
air pollution is a kind of environmental pollution which holds the
hazardous air within a room or a factory that has no way to exit for
the gases. It may kill the living things which inhale the air with high
chemical agents. Air pollution causes allergies, cough and other
respiratory diseases for people in common.
Water is the necessary source for human lives and it is the
essential thing which need to be safe for achieving Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Handwashing with soap (HWWS)
has a significant effect on health and reduced diarrhoea (Esteves
Mills & Cumming, 2016). Water pollution is the reason for
epidemic of waterborne diseases, cholera, malnutrition, intestinal
infections and effect of diarrhea.
Poor handwashing, use of unsafe drinking water in food
preparation, inadequate water and sanitation affect young children
and infants on the developmental stages. Hookworm and
roundworm can also cause maternal anaemia and low birthweight

156
(Esteves Mills & Cumming, 2016). Another problem is,
“Inadequate sanitation is important for the transmission of STH.
The majority of worm infections are transmitted through contact
with soil contaminated with worm eggs coming from the faeces of
infected humans. They enter the human host either through
penetration of the skin (hookworm) or ingestion from contaminated
hands or agricultural produce (roundworm and whipworm).
Adequate sanitation prevents release of faces into the environment,
thereby preventing transmission” (Esteves Mills & Cumming,
2016).
Noise pollution is the rise of vocal or non-vocal noises to
its high frequency and wavelength. It affects both auditory and non-
auditory organs by annoying them either permanently or
temporarily. It causes low hearing ability, psycho-physiological
disorders, sleep disturbance, cognitive effects, loss of working
efficiency, blood pressure, hypertension and cardiovascular
diseases. Research shows that road traffic noises are the most
common reason for road accidents.
5. Effects of Liberalisation
Definition
According to Britannica, “Liberalisation is the loosening of
government controls. Although sometimes associated with the
relaxation of laws relating to social matters such as abortion and
divorce. It is most often used as an economic term. In particular, it
refers to reductions in restrictions on international trade and
capital.”

157
According to Indiacsr (2019), “Liberalisation refers to a
relaxation of government restrictions in the areas of social, political
and economic policies. In the context of economic policy,
liberalisation refers to lessening of government regulations and
restrictions for greater participation by private entities.”
According to Toppr, the common objectives of
liberalisation policy are to increase competition among domestic
industries, to encourage foreign trade with other countries in both
exports and imports, to enhance foreign capital and technology, to
expand global market frontiers of the country, and to diminish the
debt of burden of the country.
Effects
Liberalisation influences child development through trade
and education. It supports free trade of goods and services with less
rules for exports and imports. It motivates the foreign exchange of
products with the spread of brand marketing. It stands against
extreme rigidity and lack of flexibility in both educational and
trading sectors. It improves the economic growth rate of the country
with its liberal perspective.
Indian brands are widely used by people in all over the
world. i.e., Titan Wrist Watches are being sold in a large amount at
America. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA, 1973) had
stated recommendations on transactions of foreign currency.
Children buy foreign products and use them in their real lives. It
changes the lifestyle of children by affecting their cognitive,
behavioural and social development.

158
In education system, liberalisation plays an active role in
shaping children. Right to Education Act (RTE, 2009) of the
Parliament of India emphasised the implementation of compulsory
education for children between the age of 6 to 14 years. Sarva
Shiksha Abiyan (SSA) had launched on 2001 to provide elementary
education. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abiyan (RMSA) had
launched on 2009 to provide secondary education. These two
important educational policies offer an operational framework for
universalising education.
These allow children to get compulsory formal education
which can enhance their overall development. Children become
students who adapt to the changes in the process of life-long
learning. Schools teach children to maintain hygiene, develop good
habits, midday meal practices and behave properly. Building
libraries, providing sports equipment and playing materials for
children encourage them to be both physically and mentally
progressive when they are learning in schools. Maintaining proper
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) can strengthen the teacher-student
relationship and increase the learning outcomes with necessary
attention.
159
Article 25 of Companies Registration Act of India says that
every educational institute should set up only by trusts, societies
and charitable companies. The profits of the educational institutions
must not be taken out and should be reinvested for the development
of the process and outcomes of education. The allocation of funds
for research in education can uplift the quality of standard education
and its methodologies. British Council provides short courses for
English language development in a low fee structure through
liberalisation. The demerits of liberalisation are the use of education
as a business and pave way for corruption.
6. Effects of Privatisation
Definition
According to Investopedia, “Privatisation occurs when a
government-owned business, operation, or property becomes
owned by a private, non-government party. It also describes the
transition of a company from being publicly traded to becoming
privately held. This is referred to as corporate privatisation.”
According to Cambridge Dictionary, “Privatisation is the
act of selling an industry, company or service that was owned and
controlled by the government, so it becomes privately owned and
controlled.” According to Merriam Webster (1828), “Privatisation
is the change from public to private control or ownership.”
Effects
There are four types of educational institutions:
✓ Public School or Government School – It is funded and
administrated by the government.

160
✓ Aided School – It is funded by government and
administrated by the private management.
✓ Approved School – It is funded and administrated by
private management, but it has a valid approval from the
government.
✓ Private School – It is funded and administrated by private
management and it do not have any approval from
government.
Privatisation is a boon that lessens the economic burdens of
the government and takes complete responsibility of its own by
strengthening the private sectors. Privatisation in education
influences child development. A child who is studying at a private
school is entirely different in knowledge and behaviour from the
child who is studying at a government school.

Private schools provide education through technology


along with enjoyment. Privatisation concentrates on improving
education, constructing infrastructure and the use of equipment
with no financial burdens for the government. It steps into the use
of efficient manual labour, quality of textbooks, installation of
modern technology, teach with accountability and innovative
161
techniques. The benefits of privatisation in education are the
absence of political interference, corruption and outdated
technology for teaching learning process.
Privatisation supports management and employees by
increasing opportunities for admission, high service period,
increased output and work efficiently during weekdays to enjoy in
weekends with modern work culture, office party and tours. The
demerits of privatisation are lack of job security, unequal
distribution of income, exploitation of manual labour and abuse of
powers by executives.
In educating children, kindergarten teachers should have
bachelor’s degree and their salaries should be same as those for
primary and secondary school teachers. Upgrading laboratories
colourfully is a way to gain students’ attention for engaging them
in most of the tasks. The shaping of curriculum to global, national
and local needs can improve children’s community-based
development. Taking initiatives in educational reforms, evaluation,
quality education and training for making availability and better
maintenance of resources.
7. Effects of Globalisation
Globalisation is the main thing which connects the world as
a single wide community. It improves the interdependence of the
countries to strive for the global unity. United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA) had adopted the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) on September 2015. The prominent goals that are
showed here in the picture was stated by United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

162
According to Moumita Dey (2017), there are four major
and two minor parameters which can impact globalisation:
The major parameters are,
❖ Food – Golabalisation can affect the food habits of people
in different regions. i.e. The arrival of Chinese food items
in India.
❖ Dress – Dresses can be varied from regions, but the
availability of foreign dresses can affect the local or
regional dressing activity. i.e. Pants and T-shirts are the
dresses of English countries which spread to all over the
world.
❖ Consumer approach – People become the consumer of
goods and services. Globalisation can be seen in the
consumer rights of various sectors.
❖ Recreation pattern – Recreation is the celebration of the
society that connects one generation to another generation.
i.e. tours and parties are commonly celebrating in all over
the world.
163
The minor parameters are,
❖ Religious activity – Religion is a part of the society and
globalisation affects religious beliefs and ceremonies. i.e.
Diwali becomes the festival of lights in various regions with
less religious beliefs.
❖ Gender concept – Gender relations and roles are different
in various countries. Some countries are working with
masculine traditions and some of them are having feminine
traditions. i.e. England and Greece.
Definition
Globalisation is a term that tries to capture the rapid social
change that is occurring simultaneously across a number of
dimensions, including the economy, politics communications and
culture. According to youmatter, “Globalisation means the speedup
of movements and exchanges (of human beings, goods, and
services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the
planet. One of the effects of globalisation is that it promotes and
increases interactions between different regions and population
around the globe.”
According to World Health Organisation, “Globalisation,
or the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of people
and countries, is generally understood to include two inter-related
elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast
flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes
in institutions and policies at national and international levels that
facilitate or promote such flows.”

164
According to Cambridge Dictionary, “Globalisation is the
increase of trade around the world, especially by large companies
producing and trading goods in many different countries. It is a
situation in which available goods and services, or social and
cultural influences, gradually become similar in all parts of the
world.”
Effects
Globalisation influences Indian family pattern by
segregating a joint family as scattered nuclear families. It affects
the education system by changing ancient Indian education
systems, such as Gurukul and Spiritual system, into school-based
education system. It modifies the healthy herbal diet of Indians into
the consumers of fast foods. It impacts Indian traditions by
spreading the converted and hybrid traditions. It has both positive
and negative influences in the lives of individuals.
According to Moumita Dey (2017), “Globalisation has
changed their lifestyle, food habits, dressing sense, recreation
medium, and consumer approach. This scenario is very common in
urban and suburban India. Globalisation has totally changed the
meaning of childhood. Children have become more advanced and
technologically sound with the help of this process.”
Globalisation makes fraternity among various countries and
internet is the best medium for implementing globalisation. It
increases the international trade and production by the integration
of national goods and services with common terms and conditions.
It enhances the technological development. Appreciation of

165
consumerism, dominance of privatisation and adoption of
liberalisation are the aspects of globalisation.

It teaches the multicultural world with a global perspective


of national growth and international integration along with Non-
Governmental Organisations. It provides new responsibilities, good
salary, flexible working hours, constant training in new teaching
methods and classroom management in the field of education. It
results the standard outcomes in teaching learning process.
Gobalisation affects children’s lifestyle and development
from the age of infancy to their entire lives. “68% of children prefer
to wear western dresses. In case of selection of dress, boys and girls
are same in opinion. Girls and boys mainly prefer to wear t-shirts
and jeans. 2% of girls prefer to wear traditional dresses like Ghagra
and only one boy prefer to wear Punjabi” (Dey, 2017). They are
influenced by the television and streaming of cartoon characters. In
Indian serials, characters wear western dresses and it stimulates
viewers to follow western culture.

166
Children play international games, such as cricket and
football. They watch international TV channels. i.e. Star Sports,
Star Movies, Pogo and Sony Pix. There is no availability of cartoon
channels in most of the regional languages. In local television
channels, advertisements show international products and food
items. i.e. Noodles, Pasta, Cookies and Barbie dolls. So, children’s
behaviour and language development depend on this global media
consumption.
Government takes many initiatives to conduct programmes
for spreading globalisation among school children. It includes the
centralised system of public education by providing school supplies
and the costs of examinations with required fees. United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
supports this programme by giving legal certificates for students’
participation. World Health Organisation (WHO) established
special clinics to reduce infant mortality rate in all over the world.
According to UNICEF (2018), there are various global city
initiatives which can make the poor cities into,
▪ Healthy cities,
▪ Safe and Resilient cities,
▪ Inclusive cities,
▪ Green and Sustainable cities,
▪ Prosperous and Smart cities.
Economic change on Child Development with Special
Reference to India
Economic change has several impacts on child
development. Environment shapes the individuals and economic

167
development. In India, economic development is very low when
comparing to America and other European countries. In this
technological world, children’s needs are going beyond mere foods,
shelters and toys. Their four major needs are,
• Access to Services (Health and Education),
• Safety and Protection (Child labour and Crimes),
• Social Inclusion (Discrimination),
• Environmental Stability (Garbage recycling and Saving
energy).
Economic development is the main source to fulfill almost
all the needs of children. It paves the way to new rights for them.
Children should have the following rights to perform well in this
society,
✓ Survival and Development Rights,
✓ Protection Rights,
✓ Participation Rights.
According to Boyden and Dercon (2012), “Human
development is multidimensional in character and conventionally
divided into distinct functional domains or pathways (physical-
motor, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social, and moral), each of
which is composed of an array of states and competencies.”
UNESCO had made Education For All (EFA), a global movement
on the year of 2000, to fulfill the education needs of all children,
youth and adults by 2015.
The arrival of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) increases the access to education through e-learning and m-
learning platforms. It motivates learners to learn at their own pace
168
with selective learning strategies. Learners get prestigious
certificates from various universities by enrolling in both literary
and vocational courses with low cost of fees. They may get stipend
and it improves the literacy rate of the country as well as give rise
to economic development.
To learn at private schools through mainstream education,
children have to spend more money for their education than for the
online education. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation
(LPG) is the umbrella term which has the important factors for
economic development. According to Boyden and Dercon (2012),
“Children are more likely to flourish if they have a positive sense
of self and their place in the world, and that these competencies are
an essential support to health and development.”
Economic development has the connection with health
status of children. Because, medical services need money from the
patients to provide medical supports and supplies. People who have
a wealthy lifestyle can live a healthy life by using sophisticated
medical services. Improve in medical facilities can increase the
economy of the country. In India, there are many good hospitals
which provide best medical services for Indian and foreign people.
Society and economics are integrated as socioeconomic
development. It sharpens the perspectives of individuals to improve
the standard of living. Socially backwards people can live a happy
life with the increases of economic development. Reversely,
poverty is transferring the sufferings of socially backward people
from a generation to next generations. It is the primary social
disadvantage that needs to be handled with care and respect.

169
Children who are living in a poor family with constrains of
resources cannot get access to essential home appliances. This type
of economic burden gives less opportunities for children by
segregating their lives from middle class people. It harms their
innate potentialities and necessary cognitive development
regarding to their age. People should know that investing in
children can lay foundation for the blooming future of the country.
They must provide good-quality services for children to fulfill their
different learning needs.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) listed
out Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 which had
adopted for India on September 2000 from United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA). Here is the list of MDGs:

170
1. Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
2. Achieve Universal Primary Education
3. Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
4. Reduce Child Mortality
5. Improve Maternal Health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases
7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability
8. Develop a Global Partnership For Development

171
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