CULTURE:

WHAT IS CULTURE? CULTURE IS A PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR SHARED BY A SOCIETY OR GROUP OF

In Anthropology, Culture evolved into three stages:

1. PALEOLITHIC AGE

OLD STONE AGE- LASTED 2.6 MILLION YEARS AGO

NOMADS – PEOPLE THAT DWELLS IN CAVES, HOMO HABILIS DWELLING IN CAVES

LIFE SPAN: 20-25 YEARS

CREATED TOOLS BY “CHIPPING”

FIRE WAS FIRST DISCOVERED FOR WARMTH, COOKING AND DEFENSE

2. MESOLITHIC AGE

MIDDLE STONE AGE

STARTED DURING UPPER PALEOLITHIC YEARS AND CONSIDERED TO HAVE BEGUN 280 000 YEARS AGO
AND ENDED 50 – 25 000 YEARS AGO

DRASTIC THAWING OF ICE HAPPENED

FISHING, RAFT-MAKING AND BASKETRY WERE LEARNED

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS FOR FOOD BEGAN

3. NEOLITHIC AGE

NEW STONE AGE – STARTED 45 000 BC TO 1200 BC

PEOPLE BEGAN TO LIVE AS COMMUNITIES (SEDENTARY)

AGRICULTURE WAS CREATED

POTTERY WAS FAMOUS

DISCOVERED SKILLS AND NEW OCCUPATIONS (FARMERS AND ARTISANS)

METALS WERE DISCOVERED

I. Five Features of A Civilization

Last week, we've discussed how a man's physical body and culture changed due to its environment.
Our survival was caused by our unique ability to adapt to our environment and use tools for our
benefit. As man developed, its society developed too!

But is the Neolithic Tribe considered to be a civilization already? Well, not yet. To be a civilization,
there is what we call as pre-requisites or features that differentiate a tribe from a civilization.

Civilization is defined as any advanced and sophisticated form of culture.

Civilization came from the Latin word “Civitas” which means a “City”.

A City is defined as the “center of trade.”

The city is composed of a thriving population. As farmers settled in the fertile river valley, they began
to grow surplus or extra food. This extra food increased the population of the settlement that led to
the formation of cities due to migration.

People migrated and lived where there are food and abundance of their need

2. Specialized Workers

Food surplus provided for the need for specialized skills from workers. Specialization is the
development of skills in a specific kind of work. Since farmers need to occupy waiting time before
harvest, they discovered other skills too.

What work would you have in ancient times?

3. Complex Institutions

The growing population of cities made government or a system of rules necessary. Leaders emerged
to maintain order and establish laws.

There is an institution that regulates laws, an institution that regulates beliefs and religion,
businesses, and even knowledge.

Different Institutions regulate the society

4. Recording System

Writing -: to trace or form (characters, letters, words, etc.) on the surface of some material, as with a
pen, pencil, or other instruments

There is a need to record everything (Taxes, Laws, Calendars)

Cuneiform, the oldest form of writing

5. Technology

New tools and techniques are always needed to solve the problems that emerge when large groups of
people live together

The wheels on the cart go round and round

To help us remember the five Features of a Civilization, just think of CARTS

C - Complex Institutions

A - Advanced Cities

R - Recording System

T - Technology

S - Specialized Workers

II. The First Ancient Civilization

Ancient Mesopotamia emerged in the middle east where the rivers Tigris and Euphrates are found.
The people of this civilization first settled near the banks of these two rivers. Hence the name
Mesopotamia -The land between two rivers- from the two Greek words Meso meaning between and
Potamos meaning river.

The area where the different Mesopotamian civilizations settled along the two rivers is known as the
Fertile Crescent. It is called as such because the area where the land was very fertile for agriculture
formed a crescent shape, as you can see on the map on the right side.

This area made it ideal for people to settle since it provided fresh water which is important for
agriculture, fishing, and raising livestock - animals like, Sheep, Goat, Pig, and Cow.

The Fertile Crescent is located in the Middle East where present-day countries of Kuwait, Iraq, Syria,
Israel, Lebanon, Palestine, and a small part of Iran's western side. As you can see on the map on the
side, it is located west of the Persian Gulf, and east of the Mediterranean Sea.

In Conclusion

The Mesopotamian Civilization proved itself to be a civilization by completing the 5 features to be

Mesopotamia was not settled by just one civilization but rather several civilizations. Each civilization
was unique in its contributions to the development of mankind. Here are two of Mesopotamia's
civilization whose contributions still affect us today.

Sumerians (3000 B.C.E. - 2340 B.C.E.)

The Sumerians were one of the first civilizations to settle and end their nomadic life. They were the
first to create settlements that later on would become city-states.

Written Records

The earliest form of writing was discovered in Mesopotamia developed by the Sumerians. It was
called the Cuneiform (see photo below). It was written on a clay tablet and would contain records of
transactions and trade. It would later be used to record literature.

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Photo source: https://www.spurlock.illinois.edu/collections/search-collection/details.php?

inanna-painting.jpg

Photo source: https://interestingliterature.com/2018/05/the-first-epic-poem-the-descent-of-inanna/

Religion

The people of Sumeria were polytheistic. This means that they believed in many gods. The Sumerians
built shrines and temples called Ziggurats - stepped pyramid, to honor their gods.

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Photo source: https://thoughtcatalog.com/jeremy-london/2019/06/great-ziggurat-of-ur/ (Links to an

Mathematics and Science

The effects of the innovations and discovery of the Sumerians in math and science still resonate
today. They first developed the wheel to use in pottery, but then they realized its potential for use in
transportation. Soon they began to use it in carts and chariots for ease of transportation.

Today, the concept of the wheel is still being used in almost if not all forms of transportation.

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Photo source: https://www.historyly.com/mesopotamia/mesopotamia-achievements-and-inventions/

The Babylonian Empire emerged after the fall of the city of Ur around 2000 B.C.E. Like most early
civilizations, Babylon showcased many public buildings as well as a palace.

Gilgamesh portrait.jpg Photo credit: Sid Meier's Civilization VI

Literature

Many written records from the Babylonian empire survived until today. it may not be in its original
form, but the content of these writings was preserved including our version of the story of Gilgamesh.

Gilgamesh was the king of the city of Uruk around 2800 B.C.E. His story has been passed on from
people to people and pretty soon it became a legend. The Babylonians wrote the epic in the form
that we now know today.

The story of Gilgamesh is the oldest example of a classical literary genre, the epic. An epic is a book-
length narrative poem about an epic hero.

Law

Hammurabi was king of Babylon around 1792 B.C.E. He is famous for creating one of the earliest
codes of law. This was known as Hammurabi's Code. Archeologists who found fragments of the code
found that the code sets forth punishments for various offenses. The most known of these rules is "an
eye for an eye."

Mathematics

The Babylonians were highly advance in math and astronomy for their time. They perfected the
Sumerian system of measuring circles using a 360-degree measurement and time using 60 as a base.
This is known as the Sexagesimal system. We still use this system today.

They also invented the sundial, a way of measuring time using the sun and a shadow.

The Egyptian Civilization

Ancient Egypt was the birthplace of one of the World’s greatest civilizations. It was far more advanced
than European tribes of the same time period, who were still in the Stone Age.

We always attribute World History with Egyptian Civilization.

As a matter of fact, almost all of the World History book covers have either the picture of an Egyptian
pyramid or the famous golden boy, King Tut. We cannot deny it, that Egyptian Civilization is famous.

And to really understand this popular civilization, let's discern the facts!

Geography and Literature Overview

Egypt is known to be the “Gift of the Nile”. Because without the Nile, Egypt would be just a barren
wasteland in the Desert. It is in the Nile river where communities settled to fish and do agriculture.

We got a good look at Egypt's history from its two recording systems.
Hieroglyphs - pictographs used in Rituals. These images are usually seen in temples and pyramids as a
site of religious importance.

Demotic Scriptures - this form of Scripts used in official documents. Transactions and trades.

The Nile River is known to be the longest river in the world. With a length of not less than 6,650 km.

The Merging of Lower and Upper Egypt

It is quite weird why Egyptologists and Ancient Egyptians call the southern part of Egypt as Upper
Egypt and the northern part of Lower Egypt. But why is this Sir Paul? Actually, early Egyptians have
less knowledge of geographical directions, what they based it was from the flow of water that
originates from the south and goes down to the Mediterranean Sea in the north.

Early Egyptians lived in villages like in the Mesopotamia. “Nomes” also known as Independent
Communities ruled by “ Nomarchs”. These independent Nomes began to merge through conquests'
of Nomarchs for stable food supply and varied agricultural products.

Differences arose between different Nomes in Upper and Lower Egypt. Until in 3100 BCE, Menes a
leader from Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and made Memphis as his capital.

He was known to be the first Egyptian Pharaoh.

Narmer also known as Menes, the legendary first Pharoah of Egypt

Egypt's Three Dynastic Periods

1. The Old Kingdom 2,700-2,200 B.C.E.

Egypt

The Old Kingdom was known as the Pyramid Age.

The creation of Pyramids for Pharaohs started to serve as their Final Resting Place.

There were at least an estimated 80 Pyramid Sites that once were built, but some of them no longer
stand, perished, and lost in the sand. Who knows, you might still discover one if you'll become a full-
fledge Egyptologist.

It is in the Old Kingdom where we have Pharoah Pepi II is the last pharaoh of the Old Kingdom. He was
believed to have ruled by the age of 6 and died at the age of 100, also known as the Longest Reign in
the world.

2. The Middle Kingdom 2,050-1,800 B.C.E.

Hyksos:

Let's teach the Egyptians they said.

They wont attack us they said.

The Middle Kingdom was known as the Foreign Period.

It was during this era when Egypt was ruled by foreign powers, the Hyksos (not the seafood place
behind SM) from Asia. “Hyksos” means “Princes from a foreign land”

These foreigners taught the Egyptians military skills, even the use of Chariots for war.

Later on the Egyptians drove the Hyksos using the military skills they’ve learned from the foreigners.
2. The New Kingdom 1,550-1,100 B.C.E.

And lastly, the New Kingdom as known as the Empire Age. The Egyptians developed a mindset of
expanding their territories before other nations would attack them. The expansion of territories
reached out to Nubia(Sudan) and Mesopotamia.

And of course! The conquest begins with the Serpent of the Nile, the Pharoah themselves.

Queen Hatshepsut

First Female Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaton

Pharoah who shifted to Monotheism, worshipping the Sun god “Aten” Tutankhamon

Son of Akhenaton married his sister Ankhesenamun and died at the early age of 18.

Rameses II (the Great)

Practices of the Egyptians

Egyptians practice a lot of peculiar things that make their Civilization unique from Mesopotamia and
other ancient civilizations.

1. Egyptians observe Endogamy

This is an I love you family on another level. Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific
social group. In the case of the Egyptians, they marry their siblings or cousins.

Egyptian Endogamy

2. Polytheism

Like the Mesopotamians, Egyptians observe polytheism with the belief of many gods. These gods and
goddesses are attributed mostly to a human body but with an animal, head commonly found along
the Nile.

For all ancient people, the world was filled with mystery. Much of what they experienced in the world
around them was unknowable and frightening. The ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses represented
aspects of the Egyptians’ natural and “supernatural” surroundings and helped them understand its
many aspects.

Meow! Egyptians revered cats as divine animals. There's even a Cat goddess named “Bastet”.

I wonder what the Jackal Death God of Egypt, Anubis be telling the mummy.

3. Mathematical Contributions

Use of Inches as a form of standard measurement.

And the Division of the year in 365 days and a day in 24 hours.

What's the length of it? Try measuring in Inches

4. Mummification

Thinking that humans after death still can unite with their body, Egyptians put importance on the
preservation of the human body.

Mummification is a process in which the skin and flesh of a corpse can be preserved.

Egyptians preserve the human body by draining it, covering it with salt and nitron, and wrapping it in
a linen-covered in tar.
They remove all of the human organs, except the heart, where they believed to be the center of
knowledge and human emotion.

How is he even alive?

In Conclusion

Just as life arose from the waters, the seeds of civilization were first sown along the banks of the Nile.
This mighty river, which flows north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea, nourished the
growth of the pharaonic kingdom.

One might ask, is it really the Nile River who made Egypt? Or the people? A good reminder for us that
no matter how barren the location is, people will still find life in it like the Egyptians of Northern
Africa.

Other Kingdoms in Africa

Although not as prominent as the civilization in Egypt, there were other civilizations that were
established in other parts of Africa.

If Egypt dominated North-east Africa, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay dominated the West African side.

Sadly, Wakanda is not real. But Chadwick is a real African hero.

1. The Kingdom of Ghana

Some have called the Kingdom of Ghana the “land of gold, ” an excellent description since it was
abounding in gold. The gold trade was largely responsible for the development of Ghana into a
powerful, centralized kingdom.

In addition to the gold trade, historians have pointed to a second important factor in the
development of these West African Kingdoms. This was the use of iron. The use of iron to make tools
and weapons helped some people to expand their control over neighboring people. These changes
called for new forms of social organization, contributing to the development of centralized, powerful
empires. Historians also say that the use of the horse and camel, along with iron, were important
factors in how rulers were able to incorporate small farmers and herders into their empires.

The Ghanaian kings controlled the gold that was mined in their kingdom and implemented a system
of taxation for their people. Around 1054, the Almoravid rulers came south to conquer the Kingdom
of Ghana and convert the people to Islam. The authority of the king eventually diminished, which
opened the way for the Kingdom of Mali to begin to gain power. The trade that had begun, however,
continued to prosper.

2. The Kingdom of Mali

Take another look at the map on the right showing Africa’s kingdoms and empires. Notice the
relationship between Ghana and Mali. What do you see? The Kingdom of Mali includes all of Ghana
plus a lot more territory! During its time, Mali was the second-largest empire in the world only after
the Mongolian empire in Asia. The dates that historians have designated for the Kingdom of Mali are
from the 13th to 15th centuries CE.

The Kingdom of Mali came to control the gold trade that the Kingdom of Ghana had controlled before
it, but it also expanded its trading in many ways. The Kingdom of Mali controlled the salt trade in the
north and many caravan trade routes. Additionally, it traded extensively with Egypt and the copper
mine areas to the east.

The founder and first ruler of the Kingdom of Mali was Sundiata Keita. We know about him through
the writings of a 14th century North African historian named Ibn Khaldun. Sundiata expanded the
kingdom to include the Kingdom of Ghana and West African goldfields.

The most celebrated king of Mali was Mansa Musa. He greatly extended Mali’s territory and power
during his reign. He made a name for himself in distant regions throughout the Muslim world through
his pilgrimage to Mecca, which is in present-day Saudi Arabia. Sixty thousand people and eighty
camels carrying 300 lbs. of gold each accompanied him to Mecca.

Several great centers of Islamic learning were also established during the Kingdom of Mali. Among
them were the legendary Timbuktu, Djenne, and Gao. Scholars came from all over the Muslim world
to study at these places, which have a long and rich history of learning in religion, mathematics,
music, law, and literature. Although many people in Mali maintained their indigenous religions during
this time, Islam was becoming well established throughout the kingdom.

According to the story, Musa went on pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. On the pilgrimage, he brought as
much as 72,000 pounds of gold to give to the poor. At today's prices, that would be worth an
astounding 1.5 billion dollars.

3. The Kingdom of Songhay

Now take a look back again at the map of Africa’s empires and kingdoms. You will see that the
Kingdom of Songhay encompassed part of the Kingdom of Mali, as well as the land beyond to the east
and north. The dates for the Kingdom of Songhay partly overlap those of Mali, although the
information that follows will reveal at what point Songhay gained control over certain portions of the
old Kingdom of Mali. The dates for the Kingdom of Songhay are between 1350 and 1600 CE.

The first of two great rulers in the Kingdom of Songhay was Sonni Ali. He came to power in 1464 CE
and made the Songhay perhaps the most powerful state in western/central Africa at the time. He
seized Timbuktu and Djenne, which had been parts of the Kingdom of Mali. These, as well as the
capital city of Gao, continued to be important centers of learning and commerce. Sonni Ali was not a
devout Muslim himself but was sympathetic to indigenous religious practices. Most of all, he was
concerned about his own ambitions to build a great empire.

His successor was Mohammed Askia, who came to power in 1493 CE. He expanded the kingdom even
further and set up an even more advanced and strongly centralized government. He developed a new
system of laws, expanded the military, and encouraged scholarship and learning. Unlike Sonni Ali, he
was a devout Muslim, who used the combination of Islam and commerce to build his kingdom. He
brought peace and stability to the kingdom during his reign.

The Kingdom of Songhay came to an end when the Moroccans invaded and conquered them. By 1600
CE, the days of the great kingdoms of West Africa were over.

In Conclusion

The three kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai utilized both commerce and religion to use power. It
is proved that people would follow through an established institution such as religion and be a driving
force for conquest.