ПРИЛОЗИ. Одд. за мед.

науки, XLII 1, 2021 МАНУ

CONTRIBUTIONS. Sec. of Med. Sci., XLII 1, 2021 MASA
10.2478/prilozi-2021-0010
ISSN 1857-9345
UDC: 616.379-008.64:612.395.6

EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION

AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES
Hira Shakoor1, Vasso Apostolopoulos2, Jack Feehan2, 3, Habiba Isse Ali1,
Leila Cheikh Ismail 4, 5, Ayesha Salem Obaid S. Al Dhaheri1, Lily Stojanovska1, 2
1
Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
2
Institute for Health and Sport,Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
3
Department of Medicine-Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, St. Albans, Australia
4
Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
5
Nuffield Department of Women’s & Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Corresponding author: Lily Stojanovska, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Medicine and Health
Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Email:lily.stojanovaska@
uaeu.ac.ae Phone: +971525308064

ABSTRACT
Type-2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic condition, generally regarded as an irreversible, that is among the top
10 causes of death globally. The hallmark of T2D is hyperglycemia, which results from disturbances in
insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. Several clinical and lifestyle
factors are involved in the progression of T2D, such as obesity and physical inactivity. A high-calorie
diet is the main contributor to the development of obesity, which results in T2D, as obesity or increased
intra-abdominal adipose tissue is related to insulin resistance. Technological advances have contributed to
individuals having a more sedentary lifestyle, leading to obesity and T2D. T2D can be treated with lifestyle
interventions, such as diet and exercise. Herein, we highlight the positive impact of a very low-calorie diet
(VLCD) and lifestyle modalities in the treatment and prevention of T2D. An inclusion of VLCD 400-800
kcal/day for 8 weeks and ≥ 150 minutes exercise 5 times a week as lifestyle interventions can decrease
glucose levels to normal, reduce HbA1c and improve insulin resistance and sensitivity. Therefore, a
potential mechanism in maintaining glucose homeostasis and remission of T2D by VLCD and exercise
reduces body weight.

Keywords: Hyperglycemia, very low-calorie diet, insulin sensitivity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes

INTRODUCTION

Type-2 Diabetes (T2D) is a complex meta- T2D, which is forecasted to increase to 693 mil-
bolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due lion by 2045 [3]. This increasing trend in diabetes
to an impairment in macronutrient metabolism. incidence is a significant economical burden, and
T2D is associated with a high risk of micro- and currently, about US $727 billion are being spent an-
macrovascular co-morbid disease [1]. The first nually on those suffering from T2D equating to one
known reference to T2D comes in Egyptian manu- in every eight dollars spent on healthcare [3]. T2D
scripts from 3000 years ago [2], and in the modern was first considered as one of the central compo-
era is amongst the top 10 causes of death world- nents of metabolic syndrome. However, it is now
wide. Globally, 425 million people are affected by recognized as a complex endocrine and metabolic
110 Hira Shakoor et al.

disorder that results in hyperglycemia secondary to durance Training” OR “Resistance Training” OR

advancing insulin resistance [4]. “Combined Training.” Although many articles
Calorie restriction and exercise are known are available that discuss the effects of dietary re-
to promote healthy aging and decrease hypergly- striction and exercise individually on diabetes, the
cemia; hence, it is central to the management of current review primarily focused on the combined
T2D [5]. Studies show that very low-calorie diets effect of the two on T2D outcomes. Studies that
(VLCD) for short durations are effective in man- focus on human studies were identified and those
aging T2D [6,7]. VLCDs cause significant weight articles containing relevant data were thoroughly
loss with reductions of 5-10% body weight im- reviewed (Fig. 1). The reviewing process consid-
proving blood glucose, lipid profile and blood ered the modification of lifestyle (calorie restric-
pressure [8]. However, adhering to chronic and tion and exercise) and how this modality reduces
extreme diets like VLCD is challenging for this the burden of T2D.
population, and has some negative consequences
on health [5]. This review focuses on the thera- PATHOGENESIS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES
peutic potential and challenges of VLCD and ex-
ercise for the management of T2D.

Diabetes is condition characterized by dis-

METHODOLOGY ruption in the balance between plasma glucose
levels and glucose uptake by the tissues, with re-
sultant hyperglycemia. High plasma glucose con-
A literature search was conducted using a centrations stimulate insulin secretion from the
Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, SCO- β-cells of the pancreas, which in turn stimulates
PUS, Springer and Google Scholar databases. glucose uptake by the peripheral tissues, most no-
Search terms included “Diabetes” OR “Type 2 tably the liver, muscle and fat tissue. Insulin also
Diabetes” OR “Hyperglycemia” OR “Hyperinsu- acts to suppress muscle glycogenolysis, adipose
linemia” OR “Insulin Resistance” AND “Patho- lipolysis and hepatic gluconeogenesis to main-
genesis” OR “Inflammation” OR “Cytokines” OR tain glucose homeostasis [9]. In diabetic patients,
“β-cells dysfunction” AND “Dietary Interven- chronic hyperglycemia, with resultant hyperin-
tion” OR “Calorie Restriction” OR “Low-Calorie sulinemia leads to progressive insulin resistance,
Diet” OR “Very Low-Calorie Diet” OR “Fasting” impairing glucose uptake. A positive cycle of in-
AND “Lifestyle Intervention” OR “Physical Ac- sulin resistance and hyperglycemia leads to per-
tivity” OR “Exercise” OR “Aerobic” OR “En- sistent hyperinsulinemia. Over time, the pancreatic

Fig. 1. Search Methodology

EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES 111

β-cells cannot maintain insulin production, leading decrease in the uptake and utilization of glucose
to dysfunction [10].  Additionally, insulin is a pow- results in hyperglycemia 21. Additionally, obesity
erful inhibitor of lipolysis; even mild elevations of and intra-abdominal adipose tissue are also related
insulin in the plasma cause a remarkable reduction to insulin resistance, with evidence suggesting that
in free fatty acid levels [11]. in T2D it increases in parallel with adiposity [19].
When glucose homeostasis is disrupted, the Adipose tissue is sequestered in different locations
risk of T2D increases. The pathophysiology of throughout the body, with varied physiological im-
T2D centres on two main factors: progressive pe- pacts, with the primary two forms being subcuta-
ripheral resistance to insulin and pancreatic β-cell neous fat under the skin, and visceral fat surround-
dysfunction with their eventual failure. ing the abdominal organs. Subcutaneous fat is
considered to be less active, with lower adipokine
secretion and less macrophage infiltration [20].
Insulin resistance Visceral adipose tissue is a highly active secretory
Chronic hyperglycemia due to factors such organ, releasing adipokines (such as adiponectin,
as poor diet and obesity leads to ongoing insulin leptin, interleukin [IL-6] and tumor necrosis fac-
release, and eventually the tissues lose responsivity tor-α) directly into the portal circulation affecting
to the hormone. Resistance to insulin action leads to hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism. High levels
the impairment of insulin-mediated glucose uptake of adipokines induce a pro-inflammatory and oxi-
in peripheral tissues (particularly the muscle and dative state, further reducing insulin sensitivity and
fat); impairment of triglyceride uptake by the adi- exacerbating insulin resistance [21]. Together, in-
pose tissue and incomplete suppression of hepatic sulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction eventually
glucose output. To maintain glucose homeostasis lead to T2D (Fig. 2).
in these conditions, β-cells secrete more insulin,
leading to hyperinsulinemia [16]. Chronic hyper-
insulinemia causes a reduction in the sensitivity of Pancreatic β-cells
insulin, known as resistance. The main outcome of In T2D, the early stages of β-cell dysfunc-
insulin resistance is to reduce glucose uptake and tion are characterized by impairment of the secre-
utilization by most body cells, with the exception of tion of insulin and ultimately leads to the onset of
neuronal and endothelial cells. Consequently, this glucose intolerance [13]. In the first phase of the

Fig. 2. Pathophysiology of type-2 diabetes

112 Hira Shakoor et al.

progression of diabetes, insulin secretion is elevat- to microvascular complications in older people.

ed to maintain glucose homeostasis in the face of Generally, complications of T2D are divided into
insulin resistance and the resulting hyperglycemia two categories:
[14]. However, in the second phase, when the dis- 1. Acute metabolic complications, which
ease progresses, there is an impairment of newly are generally short term, such as ketoacidosis,
synthesized insulin. This condition is reversible hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia.
in some patients by ongoing glycemic control. 2. Late systemic complications, which are
On the other hand, if hyperglycemia persists, it long term chronic complications including poly-
will lead to the inhibition of glucose mediated neuropathy and cardiovascular disease. [22]
insulin release. Moreover, it can cause accumu-
lation of glycogen in the β-cells due to sustained
hyperglycemia, leading to a phenomenon known Microvascular complications are strongly
as β-cell glucotoxicity or desensitization [15]. related to hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), whereas
macrovascular complications may develop ear-
lier but do not correlate closely with HbA1c.
The complications of type-2 diabetes Glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity secondary to hy-
People living with T2D are at elevated perglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and β-cell dys-
risk of both micro- and macrovascular diseases. function, underlie the complications of T2D, and
Common macrovascular outcomes include pe- these early pathophysiologic events are at least
ripheral vascular disease, coronary heart disease partially reversible. However, the management
and stroke, and common microvascular compli- of hyperglycemia in the later stages of T2D is
cations include polyneuropathy, retinopathy and unlikely to reverse macrovascular damage and re-
nephropathy. There are also a number of diabetic sulting cardiovascular disease. This highlights the
outcomes related to both micro- and macrovas- impact of early intervention to improve hypergly-
cular damage such as diabetic foot (Fig. 3). The cemia and prevent/delay long-term microvascular
risk of mortality and morbidity is more closely and macrovascular complications [23].
related to macrovascular degeneration compared

Fig. 3. Complications of type-2 diabetes

EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES 113

INFLAMMATION AS A RISK FAC- to the activation of the innate immune system

TOR FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES underlying the increased secretion of cytokines
and associated inflammation. However in those
living with diabetes, the chronic inflammation
has important consequences. Inflammatory pro-
The innate immune system is the first line teins, CRP, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and TNF-α are
of defense against chemical, or physical injury, all known to exacerbate insulin resistance, T2D
and microbial invasion, which works to restore and metabolic syndrome. Additionally, high
homeostasis by eliminating threats and repair- IL-6 and TNF-α are also associated with obesi-
ing tissue damage. The systemic component of ty, T2D, heart disease and endothelial dysfunc-
the innate immune response is known as the tion [25]. Individuals with impaired glucose tol-
acute phase response which relies upon a di- erance or impaired fasting glucose show higher
verse range of inflammatory mediators known levels of IL-6 compared to healthy individuals
as cytokines. Cytokines are small proteins that [26], and others have noted that inflammatory
are involved in cell signaling pathways for in- markers are related to insulin resistance, but not
teraction and communication. Cytokines stimu- to insulin secretion [27]. Inhibiting IL-6 signal-
late the production of acute-phase proteins from ing through administration of anti-IL-6 recep-
the liver, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), tor monoclonal antibodies results in improved
serum amyloid A, alpha-1-acid glycoprotein, insulin sensitivity and decreased HbA1c levels
complement and fibrinogen. The level of these providing evidence for a therapeutic benefit in
acute-phase proteins, may increase or decrease countering chronic inflammation in T2D [28].
during injury and inflammation. Interestingly, However, it has also been shown that a com-
these inflammatory markers are also known to bination of calorie restriction to 500 kcal/day,
increase in metabolic syndrome as well as in sibutramine (appetite suppressant drug) and an
T2D [24]. In T2D, high CRP levels are related exercise program for 12 weeks in obese indi-
to advanced stages of atherosclerosis, particu- viduals leads to meaningful decrease in IL-6
larly in patients with elevated HbA1c levels and levels [29]. Calorie restriction and regular ex-
a high concentration of advanced glycation end ercise also improve insulin action, insulin sen-
products [25]. Additionally, in a range of chron- sitivity and fasting blood glucose levels by re-
ic conditions including T2D, tumor necrosis ducing body fat, macrophage accumulation and
factor (TNF)-α levels are known to increase. inflammatory cytokine concentrations, with
There are several factors including nutrition, broad anti-inflammatory effects [30] as illus-
physical inactivity and age which contribute trated in (Fig.4).

Fig. 4. Activation of innate immune system and progression of diabetes

114 Hira Shakoor et al.

OBESITY AS A RISK FACTOR FOR ly focus on reducing the intake of dietary fats,
TYPE 2 DIABETES particularly saturated and trans, cholesterol,
refined grains, sodium, and added sugar [39].
Physical activity and a balanced diet decrease
intra-abdominal fat, and reduce the impact of its
Obesity results from a chronic imbalance metabolic effects [40] thereby improving insulin
between energy intake and expenditure, with sensitivity and reducing the progression of T2D.
multifactorial contributions from genetic, epi- Studies have shown that a hypocaloric diet reduc-
genetic, physiological, behavioral, socio-cultural es body mass, BMI, body fat percentage, waist
and environmental factors [31]. Obesity is relat- to hip ratio, and leptin production [41]. A study
ed to a wide range of adverse effects on health, of 60 obese women who ate a very low-calorie
including increased risk of disease, disability and diet that included four phases (Intensive: 450–
death. Obesity has been recognized as a medical 680 kcal, transition: 800–880 kcal, maintenance:
disorder since the height of ancient Greece, and 1000–1400 kcal, stabilization: 1200 kcal). This
the Hindu physician Sushrut (500-400BC) iden- was delivered alongside an exercise interven-
tified that obesity is linked with other diseases tion of 60 minutes of moderate exercise, 20–30
including T2D [32]. Obesity is involved in an in- minutes of aerobic training, followed by 20–30
creased risk of various diseases, including meta- minutes of resistance exercise. They found an
bolic syndrome, nonalcoholic fatty liver, autoim- improvement in body composition, quality of
mune disorders, gout, osteoarthritis, obstructive life and cardiovascular risk factors [42]. Another
sleep apnea and cancer [33]. cohort of 191 obese, nondiabetic patients were
Obesity causes alterations to both the provided with 800-1000 kcal/day for 8 weeks.
metabolic and endocrine functions of adipose Transcriptome profiling of participant showed
tissue [34]. Increased macrophage accumulation improvements in genes related to weight, lipid
in adipose tissue causes metabolic complica- profile and glucose level [43].
tions of obesity including insulin resistance and
T2D [35]. Obesity leads to high levels of fatty
acids and hormones, low lipid turn-over and MANAGING TYPE 2 DIABETES
an increase in inflammatory macrophages that
cause activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines
(TNF-α, IL-6) [36]. This pro-inflammatory mi- Calorie restriction and weight reduction
lieu contributes to insulin resistance, T2D, car- Dietary interventions that provide ade-
diovascular disease, and other co-morbid disor- quate nutrition but are low in energy are known
ders [34], therefore, obesity is a known risk fac- as calorie restriction (CR). As there are a num-
tor that causes the development of T2D. ber of intrinsic links to calorie intake, glucose
Obesity is thought to contribute to approx- homeostasis and obesity, calorie restriction aids
imately 70% of diabetes cases [37]. In the last in the prevention and management of T2D. Evi-
decade, dietary patterns have shifted towards dence has shown that calorie restriction in obese
unhealthy food (junk and fast foods) worldwide individuals increases insulin sensitivity and de-
[38]. However, this is contrary to modern nutri- creases acute insulin response to glucose [44].
tional science, which emphasizes a varied diet In fact, calorie restriction improves insulin sen-
rich in fresh food. It is known that poor diet has a sitivity by as much as 40%, as well as assisting
widespread impact on cardiometabolic risk fac- in improved β-cell responsiveness of to glucose
tors that not only include obesity and dyslipid- [45]. Very low calorie diet (VLCD) treatment
emia but also blood pressure, glucose-insulin ho- for weight reduction consist of four phases: (1)
meostasis, lipoprotein concentrations and func- initial phase: patients consume a balanced LCD
tion, oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial of 1200 to 1500 kcal daily for 1 to 4 weeks;
health, hepatic function, adipocyte metabolism, (2) modified fast phase: consumption of VLCD
cardiac function, metabolic expenditure, path- only; (3) refeeding phase: reintroducing solid
ways of weight regulation, visceral adiposity, food; and (4) stabilization/ maintenance phase:
and the microbiome [39]. Therefore, a healthy which focuses on nutritional education and be-
diet and active lifestyle is suggested to decrease havior modification that help to sustain weight
the risk of life-threatening disease. For greater loss [1]. VLCD treatment can results in achiev-
health benefits, general dietary guidelines main-
EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES 115

ing an average weight loss of 1 to 2 kg/week for

women and 1.5 to 2.5 kg/week for men [2,3]. Effects of physical activity in the manage-
It was observed that rapid weight reduction ment of diabetes
could increase the risk of gallstones that results Physical inactivity is a significant risk fac-
in cholecystectomy [4]. Therefore, it is advised tor for T2D, thought to play a role in as many as
that the rate of weight loss should not exceed an 90% of cases [51]. According to World Health
average of 1.5 kg/week [5] to minimize the ad- Organization reports and recommendations,
verse effect of VLCD. Likewise, a study includ- exercise improves both physical and mental
ed seven obese patients with non-insulin-de- well-being and regular moderate-intensity ex-
pendent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) underwent ercise reduces cardiovascular disease, T2D and
four periods of low-calorie intake: (i) baseline cancer [52] making exercise imperative in the
weight maintenance diet for seven days, (ii) fol- management and prevention of diabetes. Phys-
lowed immediately by a calorie restriction diet ical activity as also a cost-effective therapeutic
(800 kcal/day) for seven days, (iii) followed approach with few known side effects, signifi-
by weight loss program for two months com- cantly improving life quality, immune function
prising of a very low-calorie diet (400 kcal/ and reducing the risk of various life-threatening
day) then four weeks of gradual refeeding and diseases [53]. Most of the clinical studies that
weight maintenance diet for seven days, (iv) have evaluated exercise interventions in T2D
a final week of calorie restriction of 800 kcal/ have used an exercise frequency of three times
day. This calorie restriction was associated with per week, [54,55] however current physical ac-
significant reductions in weight and BMI of the tivity guidelines recommend five sessions of
obese individuals, which decreased from 32.8 moderate activity weekly [56,57]. Aerobic exer-
±2 to 27.5 ±1.3 kg/m2. Even the short duration cise for 45 minutes, three times per week over
of calorie restriction (800 kcal/day) caused sub- eight weeks at 50-70% heart rate, demonstrated
stantial reductions in fasting plasma glucose, a reduction in insulin resistance [58]. However,
hepatic glucose production, fasting plasma tri- the effect of a single bout of exercise on insulin
glycerides, and increased insulin sensitivity and sensitivity lasts for 24-72 hours, depending upon
secretion. Additionally, the four different calo- the duration and intensity of the activity [59].
rie intake periods demonstrated that restriction Generally, the duration of insulin sensitivity is
had an important regulatory effect on the me- not more than 72 hours, and so this should guide
tabolism of obese patients with NIDDM which prescription or use, with no more than 72 hours
was independent of weight loss [46]. elapsing between successive exercise sessions
Interestingly, a systematic review and me- [60]. Four international diabetes associations,
ta-analysis identified six randomized control tri- Diabetes UK, the Canadian Diabetes Associa-
als where VLCDs showed greater weight reduc- tion, the American Diabetes Association, and
tion in the short term but similar weight loss in the European Association for the Study of Di-
the long term compared to LCD diets [47]. This abetes have reported training recommendations
is likely due to challenges in compliance on both for T2D and are summarized in Table 1. These
diets, but particularly VLCDs. VLCDs has been associations recommend a moderate to moderate
used over the past 40 years, and the management intensive activity for T2D patients.
of obesity and weight loss has been recognized
in various nutritional guidelines. A longitudi-
nal qualitative study of 18 participants showed Different types of training:
that very low energy diets of <800 kcal/day for а) Moderate intensity is generally classi-
8 weeks, reduced weight and led to diabetes re- fied as 55-69% of maximum heart rate (HRmax)
mission [48]. An early study also showed that and 55-69% of maximum oxygen consumption
insulin-treated T2D patients with on the VLCD (VO2 max); vigorous training exercise is defined
diet approach had significant weight reduction, as 70-85% HRmax, (70-85% of VO2 max); and
which leads to the cessation of insulin treatment intensive exercise is defined as having greater
in some patients [49]. However, have VLCD than 85% of HRmax, (>89% of VO2 max) [61].
shown some side effects such as dizziness, con- In one systematic review, 47 randomized trials
stipation, diarrhea, flatulence, sensitivity to cold, with over 8500 participants were selected to
fatigue, dry skin, halitosis, gallstones and hair determine the effect of physical activity on gly-
loss, with LCD better tolerated [50]. cemic control. It was noted that the exercise of
116 Hira Shakoor et al.

Table 1. Exercise recommendations for type 2 diabetes by international associations

Training Frequency Duration (min/

Associations Intensity
type (per week) week)

American Diabetes
ET, RT, CT ≥5 ≥ 150 Moderate intensity
Association (ADA)

Canadian Diabetes Moderate to

ET, RT, CT ≥5 ≥ 150
Association (CDA) moderate intensive

European Association
Moderate to
for the Study of ET, RT, CT – ≥ 150
moderate intensive
Diabetes (EASD)

15–60 min/
Diabetes UK ET 3–5 Moderate
session

Endurance training (ET), Resistance training (RT), Combined training (CT)

more than 150 min/week was effective for car- Combination of very-low-calorie diet and
diovascular health and improved T2D outcomes exercise in improving the biomarkers of type-2
[62]. Therefore, it is recommended to have 150 diabetes
min/week of moderate activity or 75 min/week Insulin resistance is related to the etiolo-
of vigorous activity. gy of T2D in both aging and obesity. However,
b) Strength training is an effective form the exact causes for the development of insu-
of exercise for building bones, muscle strength, lin resistance are still unclear but it is thought
burning fat and increasing general metabolism. that overnutrition, overweight and obesity are
Evidence shows that physical activity during the major contributing factors [70]. Sedentary
menopause prevents weight gain and reduces the lifestyle, and alterations in glucose metabo-
risk of heart disease, T2D and cancer [63,64]. lism due to aging and mitochondrial function
Aerobic exercise has been reported to result in are also believed to cause insulin resistance
a greater reduction in HbA1c when compared to [71]. Combination of both calorie restriction
resistance training. However, combined resis- and exercise have been shown to significantly
tance and aerobic exercise training was signifi- decrease insulin levels in the plasma and im-
cantly better than only aerobic exercise. Simi- prove insulin sensitivity in middle-aged obese
larly, some long term endurance training inter- and elderly overweight individuals [72]. The
vention studies showed a significant reduction in insulin-dependent glucose transporters are as-
HbA1c, which indicates that endurance training sociated with specific classes of skeletal mus-
is associated with reducing T2D risk [65,66]. cle oxidative metabolism. Skeletal muscle is of
In a systematic review and meta-analysis, two types: low oxidative skeletal muscle (type
it was shown that 3,600 Metabolic Equivalent 1 slow-twitch), the main fuel source are tri-
(MET) minutes/week reduced the risk of T2D glycerides, fatigue slowly and use aerobic res-
by 19% [67]. Another study of 98 participants, piration; fast oxidative skeletal muscle (type 2
receiving lifestyle intervention of 5-6 aerobic fast-twitch), in which the main fuel source is
and combined aerobic and strength training ses- glycogen, break down ATP quickly, contraction
sions for 30‐60 minutes a week for 12 months force is greater and while also using aerobic
found remission of diabetes in 23% of partici- respiration. Low oxidative type skeletal muscle
pants [68]. Similarly, 98 participants with T2D tissue has less glucose transporters 4 (GLUT4);
who performed 5 to 6 aerobic training sessions and hence, shows a decrease in insulin sensi-
of 30-60 minutes per week alongside 2 to 3 of tivity compared to high oxidative fibers [73].
resistance training showed reductions in HbA1c, Exercise helps increase both mitochondrial and
glycemic control and need for glucose-lowering GLUT4 content in skeletal muscle, improving
medications [69]. glucose transport and utilisation in the muscle.
EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES 117

Evidence shows that exercise increases mito- T2D [78]. Recent evidence has also reported that
chondrial content and electron transport chain low-calorie diet and lifestyle interventions re-
activity, whereas calorie restriction improves sulted in a significant improvement and T2D re-
insulin sensitivity in overweight older adults mission [79]. For, instance, An open-label clus-
[74]. Weight reduction secondary to calorie re- ter-randomized primary care trial, (the DiRECT
striction also improves tyrosine kinase activi- study), of 49 primary care practices in Scotland
ty, the enzyme responsible for the transfer of and the Tyneside region of England, demon-
a phosphate group from the ATP molecule to a strated the impact of a low energy diet (LED)
protein in skeletal muscle insulin receptors [75], for T2D remission. This study followed the par-
thus increasing the concentration and function ticipants for 12 months, and it was shown that
of GLUT4 receptors, however it is unable to 24% of the LED intervention group achieved 15
activate muscle glycogen synthase by insulin. kg weight loss, with nearly half (56%) achieving
Different mechanisms, such as the depletion of full remission [79]. Similarly, evidence showed
muscle glycogen, are involved in improving in- that calorie restriction combined with exercise
sulin sensitivity with calorie restriction, how- improved blood pressure, glucose level, lipid
ever the undelying mechanisms require further profile, inflammatory cytokines, reduce insulin
investigation [46]. Thus, taken together the ev- resistance, HbA1c, circulating level of leptin,
idence suggests that the combination of VLCD weight and waist circumference [80,81].
and physical activity results in weight loss and
a decrease in T2D risk. A systematic review of VLCD treatment Safety and Precautions
studies showed that aerobic activity and diet
combination resulted in greater reductions in VLCD therapy is safe for BMI >30 kg/
weight and fasting glucose level [76]. Likewise, m2 along with regular medical supervision but
the long-term effect of exercise and VLCD for for overweight individuals with BMI of 27-30
16 weeks in twenty-seven obese, insulin-depen- kg/m2, VLCD should only reserved to those
dent T2D participants was observed. Patients who have any weight-related medical problems
followed a combination of VLCD, consisting of [94, 96]. BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 is a risk factor for
450 kcal/day, with a weekly exercise program cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, there-
of 30 min aerobic exercise for four months at fore substantial weight reduction is necessary
70% of maximum heart rate. Bodyweight and to improve quality of life [100]. Generally, Na-
the glucoregulatory parameters significant- tional Institute of Health (NIH) recommends
ly improved after the four-month intervention to reduce energy intake by 500 kcal/day to
period compared to the baseline value. Body those who have class I obesity [101]. Individ-
weight (kg) in this group decreased from 114 uals with class II and class III obesity should
± 5 to 86 ± 4 and HbA1c (%) from 7.8 ± 0.4 to restrict to 500–1000 kcal/day reduction. By re-
6.3 ± 0.4 [77]. Studies that report a reduction ducing 500 kcal/day energy intake, a person can
in the risk of T2D through the combination of a achieve 0.5 kg/week weight loss [102].
low calorie diet and physical activity have been However, VLCD treatment is not advis-
summarized in Table 2. able for childern and adolescents. VLCD can
T2D and excess adiposity are linked with effect normal body growth, protein intake and
one another. Recent evidence shows that weight increase nitrogen loss [103,104]. Also VLCD
reduction through medical interventions or bar- terapy is not considered safe for adults older
iatric surgery can cause remission in T2D in than 50 years. Older people are at higher risk
young people and in those with recent onset of of negative nitrogen balance with weight loss
disease [78]. The Diabetes Intervention Accen- as they have already depleted lean body mass
tuating Diet and Enhancing Metabolism (DIA- and low immune response [105]. Similarly,
DEM-I) study is a current, non-blinded, prag- VLCD is not appropriate for pregnant and lac-
matic, randomized, controlled, parallel-group tating women as they have increased nutritional
trial. It includes 138 subjects, younger adults requirements [106]. Furthermore, other people
with T2D, in the early stage of diabetes (≤ 3 year that should be excluded from VLCD treatment
duration) who have undergone intensive lifestyle are those suffering from cardiac disease, he-
intervention changes (i.e., 800 kcal/day intake patic disease, renal disease, infectious disease,
and 150 min/week exercise for 12 weeks) and psychiatric disease (bulimia nervosa or anorex-
results are hoped to identify a path to reversal of
 118 Hira Shakoor et al.

Table 2. Studies showing the effect of very low calorie diet, low calorie diet and exercise on type-2 diabetes

Characteristics of
Diet and lifestyle modification Duration Primary outcomes Results
participants

11 participants with type 2 600 kcal/day and habitual level of Normalization of both beta cell Normalized Fasting plasma glucose and
8 weeks
diabetes physical activity function improve hepatic insulin sensitivity [99]

8 weeks HbA1c fell significantly from 7.1 ± 0.3

Very low calories diet 624–700
30 individuals with T2D with weight loss in 40% of repondent to 5.8 ± 0.2% in responders and plasma
kcal/day
VLDL glucose of <7 mmol/L [82].

Very low calorie diet 800kcal/day Leptin to adiponectin ratio improve

Body weight and body fat
10 participants with obesity divided into 4-5 meal per day and 12 weeks which is a biomarker for the insulin
significantly decreased
45min/week exercise sensitivity [83].

800-1000 kcal/day
70 participants with 12 week aerobic interval training 8-10 Lower, total cholesterol, triglycerides,
Weight and central body fat loss
coronary artery disease 3 times/week followed by 40 weeks and inflammation [84]
weeks AIT 2 times a week 

1200 to 1800 kcal per day,

145 overweight or obese Reduce HbA1c and cardiovascular risk
175 minutes of moderate intensity 1 year Reduce weight
patients with T2D factors [85]
physical activity every week

Reduction in body weight. Some

3–5 Remission of T2D in 46% of participants
306 individuals with T2D 825–853 kcal/day formula diet patients complaint about the biliary
months [79].
colic and abdominal pain

810 kcal/day Improve the risk of cardio-metabolic

278 obese adults 12 weeks weight change at 12 months
formula diet disease [86].

First 2 weeks of VLDL improve

 19 patients with diabetes Reduce weight, insulin resistance and glycemic control. 8th and 12th weeks of
600 kcal/day 8 weeks
and obesity increase beta cell function VLDL leads to diabetes remission in
79% participants [87].

383 obese but non diabetic Reduced weight and improve Improve long term metabolic outcomes
800-100kcal/day 8 weeks
patients glycemic control and prevent T2D [88]

433 obese but non diabetic

800 kcal/day 8 weeks - Improve insulin sensitivity [89]
patients

Reduce fat free mass, hip Following calorie restricted diet cause
2224 individuals 810 kcal/day 8 weeks circumference, pulse pressure, and normal glycemia in 35% of participants
insulin resistance. [90]

Alternate Days Calories Restriction

Characteristics of Results
Alternate day calorie restriction Habitual diet days Duration
participants

63 overweight or obese HbA1c and percent body weight reduced

2 days severe energy restriction (1670-2500 kJ/ 5 days of habitual
participants with T2D 12 weeks −0.7 ± 0.9% and −5.9 ± 4%, (< 0.001)
day) eating
respectively [91]

VLCD for 5 consecutive days (2 weeks)

Standard behavioral
followed by either intermittent VLCD (400-
54 individuals with type 2 therapy (SBT) with VLCD cause reduction of weight and
600kcal) for 1 day/week (15 weeks) or 20 week
diabetes a 1500−1800 kcal/ attained a normal HbA1c [92].
1500−1800 kcal/day diet at other times for 5
day diet
consecutive days every 5 weeks (5-day)

35 overweight or obese
but healthy adults into 4 ADCR and exercise induce beneficial
VLCD (400–500 kcal)
groups: Alternate days Received ad libitum changes in body weight, body
Exercise session: 1) 5 min warm up; 2) 40
calorie restriction(ADCR) on the remaining 4 8 weeks composition, glucose, insulin,
minutes resistance training; 3) 20 minutes
(n=13), exercise (n=10), days of the week insulin resistance and triglyceride in
aerobic exercise; 4) 5 minutes cool-down
exercise plus ADCR (n= overweight and obese adults [93].
12), and control (n = 10)

VLCD= Very Low Calorie Diet, LCD=Low Calorie Diet, ADCR= Alternate Day Calorie Restriction
EFFECT OF CALORIE RESTRICTION AND EXERCISE ON TYPE 2 DIABETES 119

ia nervosa) and type 1 diabetes because of se- ly, Astrup and Rossner illustrated that the larger
vere ketosis or hypoglycemia [94]. initial weight loss induced by VLCD is related
The VLCD is known to reduce weight to greater long‐term weight reduction [115], Al-
while preserve lean body mass, achieved by pro- though, long term weight loss with VLCD can be
viding greater amount of dietary protein 0.8 to obtained when combined with behavioral thera-
1.5 g protein/kg ideal body weight [107]. Pro- py and regular exercise. Considerably, exercise
tein can be provided in form of milk, soy, or will not increase the weight reduction, but it is
egg‐based powder (mixed with water). Vitamins helpful in maintaining weight loss [116]. Be-
and mineral supplements should be given to ful- havioral therapy (food diaries, shopping strate-
fill body needs [96,108]. To maintain electrolyte gies, dietary preference) and exercise can help to
balance, 3 to 5 g of sodium chloride, and 3 g of maintain weight loss for 1- 3 years after VLCD.
potassium will be given and patients should be However, VLDL diets results in increasing psy-
asked to drink 1.5 to 2 L of noncaloric fluid per chological stress and hormone level such as cor-
day[109]. Maintaining proper hydration is very tisol that can eventually induce negative effects
important during VLCD treatment to prevent or- on insulin resistance and lower dietary success
thostatic hypotension [110].   [117]. Therefore, psychological counselling is
Patients receiving VLCD should be mon- very important for patients receiving VLCD.
itored during first 2 weeks of rapid weight loss Consequently, total duration VLCD intervention
as the side effects from VLCD therapy are com- consist of 4-6 months that includes introduction
mon during the first 2 weeks of treatment [111]. of VLCD for 8 weeks, refeeding and stability
It is difficult to maintain weight loss in a long phase, is helpful to reduce weight without any
term after VLCD treatment. Maintenance of further complications. After VLCD treatment
weight loss can be achieved by active follow (4-6 months), patients should gradually intro-
up with behavioral therapy, nutrition education duce to LCD along with behavioral modification
and exercise [108]. Unsupervised VLCD can and exercise to sustain body weight.
results in serious complications including death
of patient [108]. Evidence showed that VLCD CONCLUSION
for longer duration can even lead to cardiac
complication and hence death. No death rate
was observed when VLCD has been taken for 8
weeks or less [112]. The number of cases of T2D is increas-
ing rapidly worldwide and contributes to
enormous social and personal suffering and
Weight reduction maintenance with VLCD economic burden. Patients present with hy-
VLCD is known to be superior treatment as perglycemia due to the progressive deterio-
compared to LCD to achieve short term weight ration of glucose metabolism over the years.
loss but achieving long term weight loss main- High-calorie diets and physical inactivity are
tenance is difficult. The National Heart, Lung, major contributors to the causes and initiation
and Blood Institute (NHLBI) expert panel rec- of T2D. There is a strong evidence that phys-
ommended LCD (1000 to 1500 kcal/day) over ical activity and dietary modalities reduce the
VLCD. The panel’s decision was based on data risk of morbidity and mortality in individuals
from randomized trials that reported no differ- with T2D. Strategies that deal with this global
ences in long‐term weight losses between VL- problem of increased rates of T2D and its com-
CDs and LCDs; in fact, greater weight regain plications should focus on physical activity
was observed after VLCD treatment [113]. How- and how to reverse the condition at the popu-
ever, despite this expert panel’s conclusion, the lation level. Moreover, calorie restriction diets
majority of individual randomized trials report- also prove to be beneficial in the management
ed greater long‐term weight losses after VLCDs. of T2D. Therefore, future research is required
For instance, in a meta‐analysis of long‐term to include long-term lifestyle interventions
studies, demonstrated that VLCD treatment has including very low-calorie diets and exercise
been association in achieving greater long‐term and to analyzed the remission outcomes of pa-
weight loss as compared to LCD [114]. Similar- tients with T2D.
120 Hira Shakoor et al.

Acknowledgements type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 1481–6.

Authors would like to acknowledge the https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-2415.
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DeFronzo R. Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes
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Резиме

ЕФЕКТОТ НА ОГРАНИЧУВАЊЕТО НА КАЛОРИИТЕ

И ВЕЖБАЊЕТО ВРЗ ДИЈАБЕТЕС ТИП 2

Хира Шакор1, Васо Апостолопулос2, Џек Фихан2, 3, Хабиба Исе Али1,

Лајла Чеик Исмаил4, 5, Ајша Салем Обаид С. ал Дахери1, Лили Стојановска1, 2

1
Оддел за исхрана и здравје, Колеџ за медицина и здравствени науки, Обединети Арапски
Емирати, Ал Аин, Обединети Арапски Емирати
2
Институт за здравје и спорт, Универзитет Викторија, Мелбурн, Австралија
3
Оддел за западна медицина, Медицинска школа во Мелбурн, Универзитет во Мелбурн, Сент
Албанс, Австралија
4
Оддел за клиничка исхрана и диететика, Колеџ за здравствени науки, Универзитет во Шарџа,
Шарџа, Обединети Арапски Емирати
5
Оддел Nuffield за здравјето на жените и репродуктивното здравје, Универзитет во Оксфорд,
Оксфорд, Велика Британија

Дијабетес тип 2 (T2D) е хронична состојба, општо се смета за неповратна и е меѓу првите
10 причини за смрт на глобално ниво. Карактеристика на Т2D е хипергликемијата, што произ-
легува од нарушувања на чувствителноста на инсулин, секрецијата на инсулин, дисфункцијата
на β-клетките и инсулинска резистенција. Неколку клинички фактори и фактори на живот се
вклучени во прогресијата на Т2D, како што се дебелината и физичката неактивност. Високо-
калоричната диета најмногу придонесува за развојот на дебелината, што резултира со Т2D,
бидејќи дебелината или зголеменото интраабдоминално масно ткиво е поврзано со инсулин-
ската резистенција. Технолошкиот напредок придонесе поединци да имаат повеќе седентарен
начин на живот, што доведува до дебелина и Т2D. Т2D може да се третира со интервенции во
животниот стил, како што се диета и вежбање. Овде го потенцираме позитивното влијание на
многу нискокалоричната диета (VLCD) и модалитетите на животниот стил во третманот и пре-
венцијата на T2D. Вклучување на VLCD 400–800 kcal/ден за време од 8 недели и ≥ 150 минути
вежбање петпати неделно – бидејќи интервенциите во животниот стил може да ги намалат ни-
воата на глукоза до нормала, да го намалат HbA1c и да ја подобрат инсулинската резистенција
и чувствителност. Затоа, потенцијалниот механизам за одржување на хомеостазата на глукозата
и ремисијата на T2D со VLCD и вежбање ја намалува телесната тежина.

Клучни зборови: хипергликемија, нискокалорична диета, чувствителност на инсулин,

инсулинска резистенција, дијабетес тип 2