18CS71 M1 Updated

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (18CS71) Module 1
Module-1
Course Notes
18CS71
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
Syllabus: What is artificial intelligence? Problems, Problem Spaces and search, Heuristic Search
TextBook1: Ch 1, 2
1. E. Rich , K. Knight & S. B. Nair - Artificial Intelligence, 3/e, McGraw Hill.
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Dept of CSE, Vemana IT
Module 1 - Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

What is Artificial Intelligence?
Data: Raw facts, unformatted information.
Information: It is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in response to a

specific need. Information relates to the understanding of the problem domain.
Knowledge: It relates to the understanding of the solution domain – what to do?
Intelligence: It is the knowledge in operation towards the solution – how to do? How to apply
the solution?
Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence is the study of how make computers to do things
which people do better at the moment. It refers to the intelligence controlled by a computer
machine.
Overview of Artificial Intelligence

It was the ability of electronic machines to store large amounts of information and process it at
very high speeds that gave researchers the vision of building systems which could emulate (imitate)
some human abilities.
We will see the introduction of the systems which equal or exceed human abilities and see them
because an important part of most business and government operations as well as our daily
activities.
Definition of AI: Artificial Intelligence is a branch of computer science concerned with the study
and creation of computer systems that exhibit some form of intelligence such as systems that learn
new concepts and tasks, systems that can understand a natural language or perceive and
comprehend a visual scene, or systems that perform other types of feats that require human types
of intelligence.
To understand AI, we should understand
❑ Intelligence
❑ Knowledge
❑ Reasoning
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❑ Thought
❑ Cognition: gaining knowledge by thought or perception learning
The definitions of AI vary along two main dimensions: thought process and reasoning and
behavior.
AI is not the study and creation of conventional computer systems. The study of the mind, the body,
and the languages as customarily found in the fields of psychology, physiology, cognitive science,
or linguistics.
In AI, the goal is to develop working computer systems that are truly capable of performing tasks
that require high levels of intelligence.
One View of AI is
• About designing systems that are as intelligent as humans
• Computers can be acquired with abilities nearly equal to human intelligence
• How system arrives at a conclusion or reasoning behind selection of actions
• How system acts and performs not so much on reasoning process.
Why Artificial Intelligence?

❑ Making mistakes on real-time can be costly and dangerous.
❑ Time-constraints may limit the extent of learning in real world.
1.1 The AI Problem

There are some of the problems contained within AI.
1. Game Playing and theorem proving share the property that people who do them well are considered
to be displaying intelligence.
2. Another important foray into AI is focused on Commonsense Reasoning. It includes reasoning about
physical objects and their relationships to each other, as well as reasoning about actions and other
consequences.
3. To investigate this sort of reasoning Nowell Shaw and Simon built the General Problem Solver
(GPS) which they applied to several common sense tasks as well as the problem of performing
symbolic manipulations of logical expressions. But no attempt was made tocreate a program with a
large amount of knowledge about a particular problem domain.
4. The following are the figures showing some of the tasks that are the targets of work in AI:
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Only quite simple tasks were selected.

Perception of the world around us is crucial to our survival. Animals with much less intelligence
than people are capable of more sophisticated visual perception. Perception tasks are difficult
because they involve analog signals. A person who knows how to perform tasks from several of
the categories shown in figure learns the necessary skills in standard order.
First perceptual, linguistic and commonsense skills are learned. Later expert skills such as
engineering, medicine or finance are acquired.
It is important to discuss the following four questions:

1.What are our underlying assumptions about intelligence?
2.What kind of techniques will be useful for solving AI Problems?
3.At what level of detail, if at all, we are trying model human intelligence?
4.How will we know when we have succeeded in building an intelligent program?
1.2 The Underlying Assumption

Physical Symbol System Hypothesis
At the heart of research in artificial intelligence, the underlying assumptions about intelligence lie
in what Newell and Simon (1976) call the physical symbol system hypothesis. They define a
physical symbol system as follows:
1. Symbols
2. Expressions
3. Symbol Structure
4. System
A physical symbol system consists of a set of entities called symbols, which are physically patters
that can occur as components of another type of entity called an expression (or symbol structure).
A symbol structure is composed of a number of instances (or tokens) of symbols related in some
physical way. At any instance of the time the system will contain a collection of these symbol
structures. The system also contains a collection of processes that operate on expressions to
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produce other expressions: processes of creation, modification, reproduction anddestruction.
They state hypothesis as:

“A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means for general ‘intelligent
actions’.
This hypothesis is only a hypothesis there appears to be no way to prove or disprove it on logical
ground so, it must be subjected to empirical validation we find that it is false. We may find the bulk
of the evidence says that it is true but only way to determine its truth is by experimentation”.
Computers provide the perfect medium for this experimentation since they can be programmed to
simulate physical symbol system we like. The importance of the physical symbol system hypothesis
is twofold. It is a significant theory of the nature of human intelligence and so is of great interest to
psychologists.
1.3 What is an AI Technique?

Artificial Intelligence problems span a very broad spectrum. They appear to have very little in
common except that they are hard. There are techniques that are appropriate for the solution ofa
variety of these problems. The results of AI research tells that
Intelligence requires Knowledge. Knowledge possesses some less desirable properties including:
➢ It is voluminous
➢ It is hard to characterize accurately
➢ It is constantly changing
➢ It differs from data by being organized in a way that corresponds to the ways it willbe
used.
AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be represented in such a way
that:
• The knowledge captures generalizations. In other words, it is not necessary to represent
each individual situation. Instead situations that share important properties are grouped
together.
• It can be understood by people who must provide it. Most of the knowledge a program has
must ultimately be provided by people in terms they understand.
• It can be easily be modified to correct errors and to reflect changes in the world and in our
world view.
• It can be used in a great many situations even if it is not totally accurate or complete.
• It can be used to help overcome its own sheer bulk by helping to narrow therange of
possibilities that must usually be considered.
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It is possible to solve AI problems without using AI techniques. It is possible to apply AI

techniques to solutions of non-AI problems.
1.3.1 Strategies of Solving Tic-Tac-Toe Game Playing
Tic-Tac-Toe Game Playing:

Tic-Tac-Toe is a simple and yet an interesting board game. Researchers have used various
approaches to study the Tic-Tac-Toe game. For example, Fok and Ong and Grim et al. have used
artificial neural network-based strategies to play it. Citrenbaum and Yakowitz discuss games like
Go-Moku, Hex and Bridge-It which share some similarities with Tic-Tac-Toe.
Fig 1.
A Formal Definition of the Game:
The board used to play the Tic-Tac-Toe game consists of 9 cells laid out in the form of a 3x3 matrix
(Fig. 1). The game is played by 2 players and either of them can start. Each of the two players is
assigned a unique symbol (generally 0 and X). Each player alternately gets a turn to make a move.
Making a move is compulsory and cannot be deferred. In each move a player places the symbol
assigned to him/her in a hitherto blank cell. Let a track be defined as any row, column or diagonal
on the board. Since the board is a square matrix with 9 cells, all rows, columns and diagonals have
exactly 3 cells. It can be easily observed that there are 3 rows, 3 columns and 2 diagonals, and
hence a total of 8 tracks on the board (Fig. 1). The goal of the game is to fill all the three cells of
any track on the board with the symbol assigned to one before the opponent does the same with the
symbol assigned to him/her. At any point of the game, if there exists a track whose all three cells
have been marked by the same symbol, then the player to whom that symbol have been assigned
wins and the game terminates. If there exist no track whose cells have been marked by the same
symbol when there is no more blank cell on the board then the game is drawn.
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Let the priority of a cell be defined as the number of tracks passing through it. The priorities of the
nine cells on the board according to this definition are tabulated in Table 1. Alternatively, let the
priority of a track be defined as the sum of the priorities of its three cells. The priorities of the eight
tracks on the board according to this definition are tabulated in Table 2. The prioritization of the
cells and the tracks lays the foundation of the heuristics to be used in this study. These heuristics
are somewhat similar to those proposed by Rich and Knight. Artificial Intelligence Page 17
Strategy 1:
Algorithm:
1. View the vector as a ternary number. Convert it to a decimal number.
2. Use the computed number as an index into Move-Table and access the vector stored there.
3. Set the new board to that vector.
Procedure:
1) Elements of vector:
0: Empty
1: X
2: O
→ the vector is a ternary number
2) Store inside the program a move-table (lookup table):
a) Elements in the table: 19683 (39)
b) Element = A vector which describes the most suitable move from the Data Structure
Comments:
1. A lot of space to store the Move-Table.
2. A lot of work to specify all the entries in the Move-Table.
3. Difficult to extend
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Explanation of Strategy 2 of solving Tic-tac-toe problem

Strategy 2:
Data Structure:
1) Use vector, called board, as Solution 1
2) However, elements of the vector:
2: Empty
3: X
5: O
3) Turn of move: indexed by integer 1,2,3, etc
Function Library:
1.Make2:
a) Return a location on a game-board.
IF (board[5] = 2)
RETURN 5; //the center cell.
ELSE
RETURN any cell that is not at the board’s corner;
// (cell: 2,4,6,8)
b) Let P represent for X or O
c) can_win(P) :
P has filled already at least two cells on a straight line (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal)
d) cannot_win(P) = NOT(can_win(P))
2. Posswin(P):
IF (cannot_win(P))
RETURN 0;
ELSE
RETURN index to the empty cell on the line of
can_win(P)
Let odd numbers are turns of X
Let even numbers are turns of O
3. Go(n): make a move
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Algorithm:
1. Turn = 1: (X moves)
Go(1) //make a move at the left-top cell
2. Turn = 2: (O moves)
IF board[5] is empty THEN
Go(5)
ELSE
Go(1)
IF board[9] is empty THEN
Go(9)
ELSE
Go(3).
4. Turn = 4: (O moves)
IF Posswin (X) <> 0 THEN
Go (Posswin (X))
//Prevent the opponent to win
ELSE Go (Make2)
IF Posswin(X) <> 0 THEN
Go(Posswin(X))
//Win for X.
ELSE IF Posswin(O) <> THEN
Go(Posswin(O))
//Prevent the opponent to win
ELSE IF board[7] is empty THEN
Go(7)
ELSE Go(3).
Comments:
1. Not efficient in time, as it has to check several conditions before making each move.
2. Easier to understand the program’s strategy.
3. Hard to generalize.
1.3.2 Question Answering

Let us consider Question Answering systems that accept input in English and provide answers
also in English. This problem is harder than the previous one as it is more difficult to specify the
problem properly.
Another area of difficulty concerns deciding whether the answer obtained is correct, or not, and
further what is meant by ‘correct’. For example, consider the following situation:
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Text
Rani went shopping for a new Coat. She found a red one she really liked.
When she got home, she found that it went perfectly with her favourite dress.
Question
1. What did Rani go shopping for?
2. What did Rani find that she liked?
3. Did Rani buy anything
Method 1
Data Structures
Question Pattens: A set of templates that match common questions and produce patterns used to
match against inputs.
Templates and patterns are used so that a template that matches a given question is associated
with the corresponding pattern to find the answer in the input text.
For example, the template who did x y generates x y z if a match occurs and z is the answer to the
question.
The given text and the question are both stored as strings.
Algorithm
Answering a question requires the following four steps to be followed:
· Compare the template against the questions and store all successful matches to produce a set of
text patterns.
· Pass each of these text patterns through a substitution process that generates alternative forms of
verbs so that for example, “go” in a question might match “went” in the text. This step generates
a new, an expanded set of text patterns.
• Apply each of these patterns to the text; collect all the answers
• Reply with the set of answers just collected.
Example
In question 1 we use the template WHAT DID X Y which generates Rani go shopping for z and
after substitution we get Rani goes shopping for z and Rani went shopping for z giving z
[equivalence] a new coat
In question 2 we need a very large number of templates and also a scheme to allow the insertion
of ‘find’ between it and the modifying phrase ‘that she liked’;
the insertion of ‘really’ in the text; and the substitution of ‘she’ for ‘Rani’ this question is not
answerable. If all of these variations are accounted for and the questions can be answered then
the response is ‘a red one’.
Question 3 cannot be answered.
Comments
This is a very primitive approach basically not matching the criteria we set for
intelligence and worse than that, used in the game.
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Method 2
This program first converts the input text into a structured internal form that attempts to capture
the meaning of the sentences. It also converts questions into that form. It finds answers by
matching structured forms against each other.
Data Structures
A structure called English consists of a dictionary, grammar and some semantics about the
vocabulary we are likely to come across.
This data structure provides the knowledge to convert English text into a storable internal form
and also to convert the response back into English. The structured representation of the text is a
processed form and defines the context of the input text by making explicit all references such as
pronouns.
There are three types of such knowledge representation systems: production rules of the form ‘if
x then y’, slot and filler systems and statements in mathematical logic. The system used here will be
the slot and filler system.
Take, for example sentence:

‘She found a red one she really liked’.
Event2 Event2
instance: finding instance: liking
tense: past tense: past
agent: Rani modifier: much
object: Thing1 object: Thing1
Thing1
instance: coat
colour: red
The question is stored in two forms: as input and in the above form
Algorithm
· Convert the question to a structured form using English know how, then use a marker to indicate
the substring (like ‘who’ or ‘what’) of the structure, that should be returned as an answer. If a slot
and filler system is used a special marker can be placed in more than one slot.
· The answer appears by matching this structured form against the structured text.
· The structured form is matched against the text and the requested segments of the question are
returned.
Examples
Both questions 1 and 2 generate answers via a new coat and a red coat respectively.
Question 3 cannot be answered, because there is no direct response.
Comments
This approach is more meaningful than the previous one and so is more effective. The extra power
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given must be paid for by additional search time in the knowledge bases.
The problems of handling pronouns are difficult.
For example:
Rani walked up to the salesperson: she asked where the toy department was.
Rani walked up to the salesperson: she asked her if she needed any help.
Whereas in the original text the linkage of ‘she’ to ‘Rani’ is easy, linkage of ‘she’ in each of the
above sentences to Rani and to the salesperson requires additional knowledge about the context
via the people in a shop.
Method 3
This program converts the input text into a structured form that contains the meanings of the
sentences in the text, and then it combines that form with other structured forms that describe
prior knowledge about the objects and situations involved in the text. It answers questions using
this augmented knowledge structure.
Data Structures
World model contains knowledge about objects, actions and situations that are described in the input
text.
This structure is used to create integrated text from input text.
The diagram shows how the system’s knowledge of shopping might be represented and stored. This
information is known as a script and in this case is a shopping script.
Algorithm
Convert the question to a structured form using both the knowledge contained in Method 2 and the
World model, generating even more possible structures, since even more knowledge is being used.
Sometimes filters are introduced to prune the possible answers.
To answer a question, the scheme followed is: Convert the question to a structured form as before
but use the world model to resolve any ambiguities that may occur. The structured form is matched
against the text and the requested segments of the question are returned.
Example
Both questions 1 and 2 generate answers, as in the previous program. Question 3 can now be
answered. The shopping script is instantiated and from the last sentence the path through step 14
is the one used to form the representation. ‘M’ is bound to the red coat-got home. ‘Rani buys a
red coat’ comes from step 10 and the integrated text generates that she bought a red coat.
Comments
This program is more powerful than both the previous programs because it has more knowledge.
Thus, like the last game program it is exploiting AI techniques.
However, we are not yet in a position to handle any English question. The major omission is that of
a general reasoning mechanism known as inference to be used when the required answer is not
explicitly given in the input text.
But this approach can handle, with some modifications, questions of the following form with the
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answer—Saturday morning Rani went shopping. Her brother tried to call her but she did not answer.
Question: Why couldn’t Rani’s brother reach her?
Answer: Because she was not in.
This answer is derived because we have supplied an additional fact that a person cannot be in two
places at once. This patch is not sufficiently general so as to work in all cases and does not provide
the type of solution we are really looking for.
1.3.3 Conclusion
Search: Provides a way of solving problems for which no more direct approach is available as
well as a framework into which any direct techniques that are available can be embedded.
Use of Knowledge: Provides a way of solving complex problems by exploiting the structures of
the objects that are involved.
Abstraction: Provides a way of separating important features and variations from the many
unimportant ones that would otherwise overwhelm any process
1.4 Level of The Model

‘What is our goal in trying to produce programs that do the intelligent things that people do?’
Are we trying to produce programs that do the tasks the same way that people do?
OR
Are we trying to produce programs that simply do the tasks the easiest way that is
possible?
Programs in the first class attempt to solve problems that a computer can easily solve and do not
usually use AI techniques.
AI techniques usually include a search, as no direct method is available, the use of knowledge
about the objects involved in the problem area and abstraction on which allows an element of
pruning to occur, and to enable a solution to be found in real time; otherwise, the data could
explode in size. Examples of these trivial problems in the first class, which are now of interest
only to psychologists are EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) which memorized
garbage syllables.
The second class of problems attempts to solve problems that are non-trivial for a computer and
use AI techniques. We wish to model human performance on these:
1. To test psychological theories of human performance. Ex. PARRY [Colby, 1975] – a program
to simulate the conversational behavior of a paranoid person.
2. To enable computers to understand human reasoning – for example, programs that answer
questions based upon newspaper articles indicating human behavior.
3. To enable people to understand computer reasoning. Some people are reluctant to accept
computer results unless they understand the mechanisms involved in arriving at the results.
4. To exploit the knowledge gained by people who are best at gathering information. This
persuaded the earlier workers to simulate human behavior in the SB part of AISB simulated
behavior. Examples of this type of approach led to GPS (General Problem Solver).
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1.5 Criteria for Success (Turing Test)

In 1950, Alan Turing proposed the method for determining whether a machine can think. His
method has since become known as the “Turing Test”. To conduct this test, we need two people
and the machine to be evaluated. Turing Test
provides a definition of intelligence in a machine
and compares the intelligent behavior of human being
with that of a computer.
One person A plays the role of the interrogator, who
is in a separate room from the computer and the other
person. The interrogator can ask set of questions to
both the computer Z and person X by
typing questions and receiving typed responses. The interrogator knows them only as Z and X and
aims to determine who the person is and who the machine is.
The goal of machine is to fool the interrogator into believing that it is the person. If the machine
succeeds, we conclude that the machine can think. The machine is allowed to do whatever it can
do to fool the interrogator.
For example, if asked the question “How much is 12,324 times 73,981?” The machine
could wait several minutes and then respond with wrong answer.
The interrogator receives two sets of responses, but does not know which set comes from
human and which from computer. After careful examination of responses, if interrogator cannot
definitely tell which set has come from the computer and which from human, then the computer
has passed the Turing Test. The more serious issue is the amount of knowledge that a machinewould need
to pass the Turing test.
2.Problem Spaces and Search
Problem:
A problem, which can be caused for different reasons, and, if solvable, can usually be
solved in a number of different ways, is defined in a number of different ways.
To build a system or to solve a particular problem we need to do four things.

1. Define the problem precisely. This definition must include precise specification of whatthe initial
situation will be as well as what final situations constitute acceptable solutionsto the problem
2. Analyze the problem
3. Isolate and represent the task knowledge that is necessary to solve the problem
4. Choose the best solving technique and apply it to the particular problem.
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2.1 Defining the Problem as a State Space Search

Problem solving = Searching for a goal state
It is a structured method for solving an unstructured problem. This approach consists of number of
states. The starting of the problem is “Initial State” of the problem. The last point in the
problem is called a “Goal State” or “Final State” of the problem.
State space is a set of legal positions, starting at the initial state, using the set of rules to
move from one state to another and attempting to end up in a goal state.
Methodology of State Space Approach

1. To represent a problem in structured form using different states
2. Identify the initial state
3. Identify the goal state
4. Determine the operator for the changing state
5. Represent the knowledge present in the problem in a convenient form
6. Start from the initial state and search a path to goal state
To build a program that could “Play Chess”

➢ we have to first specify the starting position of the chess boardEach
position can be described by an 8-by-8 array. Initial position
is the game opening position.
➢ rules that define the legal moves
Legal moves can be described by a set of rules:
▪ Left sides are matched against the current state.
▪ Right sides describe the new resulting state.
➢ board positions that represent a win for one side or the other
Goal position is any position in which the opponent does not have a legal move
and his or her king is under attack.
➢ We must make explicit the preciously implicit goal of not only playing a legal game ofchess
but also winning the game, if possible.
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Chess Problem
Problem of playing chess can be defined as a problem of moving around in a state space where
each state represents a legal position of the chess board.
The game start with an initial state described as an 8x8 of each position contains symbol standing
for the appropriate place in the official chess opening position. A set of rules is used to move from
one state to another and attempting to end up on one of a set of final states which is described as
any board position in which the opponent does not have a legal move as his/her king is under
attacks.
The state space representation is natural for chess. Since each state corresponds to a board position
i.e., artificial well organized.
Initial State: Legal chess opening position

Goal State: Opponent does not have any legal move/king under attack
Production Rules:
These rules are used to move around the state space. They can be described easily as a set of
rules consisting of two parts:
1. Left side serves as a pattern to be matching against the current board position.
2. Right side that serves decides the chess to be made to the board position to reflect themove.
To describe these rules, it is convenient to introduce a notation for pattern and substitutions
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E.g.:
1. White pawn at
square (file e , rank2)
AND
Square (file e , rank3 ) Move pawn from
is empty Square (file e,rank 2)
AND to square(file e,rank 4)
Square (file e ,rank4)
is empty
PROBLEMS
Water-Jug Problem
Problem is “You are given two jugs, a 4-litre one and a 3-litre one. One neither has any measuring
markers on it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get exactly
2 litres of water into 4-litre jug?”
Solution:
The state space for the problem can be described as a set of states, where each staterepresents the
number of gallons in each state. The game start with the initial state described as a set of ordered
pairs of integers:
• State: (x, y)
– x = number of lts in 4 lts jug
– y = number of lts in 3 lts jug
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 y = 0, 1, 2, 3
• Start state: (0, 0) i.e., 4-litre and 3-litre jugs is empty initially.
• Goal state: (2, n) for any n that is 4-litre jug has 2 litres of water and 3-litre jug has anyvalue
from 0-3 since it is not specified.
• Attempting to end up in a goal state.
Production Rules: These rules are used as operators to solve the problem. They are represented as
rules whose left sides are used to describe new state that result from approaching the rule.
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The solution to the water-jug problem is:
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2.2 Production System

The entire procedure for getting a solution for AI problem can be viewed as “Production System”.
It provides the desired goal. It is a basic building block which describes the AI problem and also
describes the method of searching the goal. Its main components are:
❑ A Set of Rules, each consisting of a left side (a pattern) that determines the applicabilityof the rule
and right side that describes the operation to be performed if the rule is applied.
❑ Knowledge Base – It contains whatever information is appropriate for a particular task. Some parts
of the database may be permanent, while the parts of it may pertain only to the solution of the current
problem.
❑ Control Strategy – It specifies the order in which the rules will be compared to the database and the
way of resolving the conflicts that arise when several rules match at one.
o The first requirement of a goal control strategy is that it is cause motion; a control strategy
that does not cause motion will never lead to a solution.
o The second requirement of a good control strategy is that it should be systematic.
❑ A rule applier: Production rule is like below if(condition) then consequence oraction
Algorithm for Production System:
1. Represent the initial state of the problem
2. If the present state is the goal state, then go to step 5 else go to step 3
3. Choose one of the rules that satisfy the present state, apply it and change the state tonew state.
4. Go to Step 2
5. Print “Goal is reached” and indicate the search path from initial state to goal state
6. Stop
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2.2.1 Control Strategy

The question arises
"How to decide which rule to apply next during the process of searching for a solution to a problem?"
Requirements of a good search strategy:
1. It causes motion. It must reduce the difference between current state and goal state.
Otherwise, it will never lead to a solution.
2. It is systematic. Otherwise, it may use more steps than necessary.
3. It is efficient. Find a good, but not necessarily the best, answer.
Algorithm: Breadth-First Search

To solve the water jug problem systemically construct a tree with limited states as its root.
Generate all the offspring and their successors from the root according to the rules until some
rule produces a goal state. This process is called Breadth-First Search.
Algorithm:
1) Create a variable called NODE_LIST and set it to the initial state.
2) Until a goal state is found or NODE_LIST is empty do:
a. Remove the first element from NODE_LIST and call it E. If NODE_LIST was empty quit.
b. For each way that each rule can match the state described in E do:
i. Apply the rule to generate a new state
ii. If the new state is goal state, quit and return this state
iii. Otherwise add the new state to the end of NODE_LIST
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Algorithm: Depth First Search

There is another way of dealing the Water Jug Problem. One should construct a single branched tree
utility yields a solution or until a decision terminate when the path is reaching a dead end to the
previous state.
If the branch is larger than the pre-specified unit then backtracking occurs to the previous state so as
to create another path.
This is called Chronological Backtracking because the order in which steps are undone depends only
on the temporal sequence in which the steps were originally made. This procedure is called Depth-First
Search.
Algorithm:
1) If the initial state is the goal state, quit return success.
2) Otherwise, do the following until success or failure is signaled
a. Generate a successor E of the initial state, if there are no more successors,
signal failure
b. Call Depth-First Search with E as the initial state
c. If success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in this loop.
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Advantages of Breadth-First Search

• BFS will not get trapped exploring a blind alley.
– In case of DFS, it may follow a single path for a very long time until it has no
successor.
• If there is a solution for particular problem, the BFS is generated to find it. We canfind
minimal path if there are multiple solutions for the problem.
Advantages of Depth –First Search

• DFS requires less memory since only the nodes on the current path are stored.
• Sometimes we may find the solution without examining much.
Example: Travelling Salesman Problem

To solve the TSM problem we should construct a tree which is simple, motion causing and
systematic. It would explore all possible paths in the tree and return the one with the shortest
length. If there are N cities, then the number of different paths among them is 1.2...(N-1) or (N-
1)!
The time to examine a single path is proportional to N. So the total time required to perform this
search is proportional to N!
Another strategy is, begin generating complete paths, keeping track of the shorter path so far and
neglecting the paths where partial length is greater than the shortest found. This method is better
than the first but it is inadequate.
To solve this efficiently we have a search called HEURISTIC SEARCH.
The Problem is the salesman has a list of cities, each of which he must visit exactly once. There
22
are direct roads between each pair of cities on the list. Find the route the salesman should
follow for the shortest possible round trip that both states and finishes at any one of the cities.
Solution:
State Space: The state space for this problem represents states in which the cities traversed by
salesman and state described as salesman starting at any city in the given list of cities. A set of
rules is applied such that the salesman will not traverse a city traversed once. These rules are
resulted to be states with the salesman will complex the round trip and return to his starting
position.
Initial State
Salesman starting at any arbitrary city in the given list of cities
Goal State
Visiting all cities once and only and reaching his starting state
HEURISTIC SEARCH
– It is a "rule of thumb" used to help guide search

– It is a technique that improves the efficiency of search process, possibly bysacrificing claims of
completeness.
– It is involving or serving as an aid to learning, discovery, or problem-solving byexperimental and
especially trial-and-error methods.
Heuristic Function:
– It is a function applied to a state in a search space to indicate a likelihood of success if that
state is selected
– It is a function that maps from problem state descriptions to measures of desirability usually
represented by numbers – Heuristic function is problem specific.
The purpose of heuristic function is to guide the search process in the most profitable direction
by suggesting which path to follow first when more than one is available (best promising way).
We can find the TSM problem in less exponential items. On the average Heuristic improve the
quality of the paths that are explored. Following procedure is to solve TRS problem
– Select a Arbitrary City as a starting city
– To select the next city, look at all cities not yet visited, and select one closest tothe
current city
– Repeat steps until all cities have been visited
23
Heuristic search methods which are the general purpose control strategies for controlling searchis
often known as "weak methods" because of their generality and because they do not apply a great
deal of knowledge.
Some simple Heuristic Function
Chess The Material advantage of our side over the opponent

Traveling Salesman The sum of the distances so far
Tic-Tac-Toe 1 for each row in which we could win and in which we
already have one piece plus 2 for each such row in which we
have two pieces.
2.3 Problem Characteristics
In order to choose the most appropriate method (or a combination of methods) for a particular
problem, it is necessary to analyze the problem along several key dimensions:
• Is the problem decomposable?
• Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
• Is the universe predictable?
• Is a good solution absolute or relative?
• Is the solution a state or a path?
• What is the role of knowledge?
• Does the task require human-interaction?
• Problem Classification
Is the problem decomposable?
Decomposable problem can be solved easily. Suppose we want to solve the problem of
computing the expression.
We can solve this problem by breaking it down into these smaller problems, each of which we
can then solve by using a small collection of specific rules the following figure shows problem
tree that as it can be exploited by a simple recursive integration program that works as follows.
24
At each step it checks to see whether the problem it is working on is immediately solvable.
If so, then the answer is returned directly.
If the problem is not easily solvable, the integrator checks to see whether it can decompose the
problem into smaller problems.
It can create those problems and calls itself recursively on using this technique of problem
decomposition we can often solve very large problem easily.
Can solution steps be ignored or undone?

Suppose we are trying to prove a mathematical theorem. We proceed by first proving a lemma that we think
will be useful. A lemma that has been proved can be ignored for next steps as eventually we realize the
lemma is no help at all.
Now consider the 8-puzzle game. A sample game using the 8-puzzle is shown below:
In attempting to solve the 8 puzzles, we might make a stupid move for example; we slide the tile 5
into an empty space. We actually want to slide the tile 6 into empty space but we can back track
and undo the first move, sliding tile 5 back to where it was then we can know tile 6 so mistake and
still recovered from but not quit as easy as in the theorem moving problem. An additional step must
be performed to undo each incorrect step.
Now consider the problem of playing chess. Suppose a chess playing problem makes a stupid move
and realize a couple of moves later. But here solutions steps cannot be undone.
25
The above three problems illustrate difference between three important classes of problems:
1) Ignorable: in which solution steps can be ignored.
Example: Theorem Proving
2) Recoverable: in which solution steps can be undone.
Example: 8-Puzzle
3) Irrecoverable: in which solution steps cannot be undone.
Example: Chess
The recoverability of a problem plays an important role in determining the complexity of the
control structure necessary for problem solution.
Ignorable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that never backtracks.
Recoverable problems can be solved by slightly complicated control strategy that does sometimes
make mistakes using backtracking. Irrecoverable problems can be solved by recoverable style
methods via planning that expands a great deal of effort making each decision since the decision is
final.
Is the universe predictable?

There are certain outcomes every time we make a move, we will know what exactly happen. This
means it is possible to plan entire sequence of moves and be confident that we know what the
resulting state will be. Example is 8-Puzzle.
In the uncertain problems, this planning process may not be possible. Example: Bridge Game –
Playing Bridge. We cannot know exactly where all the cards are or what the other players will do
on their turns.
We can do fairly well since we have available accurate estimates of a probabilities of each of
the possible outcomes. A few examples of such problems are
➢ Controlling a robot arm: The outcome is uncertain for a variety of reasons. Someone might
move something into the path of the arm. The gears of the arm might stick.
➢ Helping a lawyer decide how to defend his client against a murder charge. Here we
probably cannot even list all the possible outcomes, which leads outcome to be uncertain.
26
❑ For certain-outcome problems, planning can used to generate a sequence of operators that
is guaranteed to lead to a solution.
❑ For uncertain-outcome problems, a sequence of generated operators can only have a good
probability of leading to a solution.
❑ Plan revision is made as the plan is carried out and the necessary feedback is provided.
Is a Good Solution Absolute or Relative?

Consider the problem of answering questions based on a database of simple facts, such as the
following:
1) Marcus was a man.
2) Marcus was a Pompeian.
3) Marcus was born in 40 A.D.
4) All men are mortal.
5) All Pompeian’s died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.
6) No mortal lives longer than 150 years. 7) It is now 1991 A.D.
Suppose we ask a question “Is Marcus alive?” By representing each of these facts in a formal
language such as predicate logic, and then using formal inference methods we can fairly easily
derive an answer to the question.
27
Since we are interested in the answer to the question, it does not matter which path we follow. Ifwe
do follow one path successfully to the answer, there is no reason to go back and see if some other
path might also lead to a solution. These types of problems are called as “Any path Problems”.
Now consider the Travelling Salesman Problem. Our goal is to find the shortest path route that
visits each city exactly once.
Suppose we find a path it may not be a solution to the problem. We also try all other paths. The
shortest path (best path) is called as a solution to the problem. These types of problems are
known as “Best path” problems. But path problems are computationally harder than any path
problems.
28
Is the solution a state or a path?

Consider the problem of finding a consistent interpretation for the sentence
The bank president ate a dish of pasta salad with the fork
There are several components of this sentence, each of which may have more than one
interpretation. Some of the sources of ambiguity in this sentence are the following:
➢ The word “Bank” may refer either to a financed institution or to a side of river. But onlyone of
these may have a President.
➢ The word “dish” is the object of the word “eat”. It is possible that a dish was eaten.
➢ But it is more likely that the pasta salad in the dish was eaten.
Because of the interaction among the interpretations of the constituents of the sentence some search
may be required to find a complete interpreter for the sentence. But to solve the problemof finding
the interpretation we need to produce only the interpretation itself. No record of the processing by
which the interpretation was found is necessary. But with the “water-jug” problem it is not
sufficient to report the final state we have to show the “path” also.
So the solution of natural language understanding problem is a state of the world. And the solution
of “Water jug” problem is a path to a state.
What is the role of knowledge?

Consider the problem of playing chess. The knowledge required for this problem is the rules for
determining legal move and some simple control mechanism that implements an appropriate
search procedure.
Now consider the problem of scanning daily newspapers to decide which are supporting ‘n’
party and which are supporting ‘y’ party. For this problems are required lot of knowledge.
The above two problems illustrate the difference between the problems for which a lot of
knowledge is important only to constrain the search for a solution and those for which a lot of
knowledge is required even to be able to recognize a solution
29
Does a task require interaction with the person?

Suppose that we are trying to prove some new very difficult theorem. We might demand a prove
that follows traditional patterns so that mathematician each read the prove and check to make sure
it is correct. Alternatively, finding a proof of the theorem might be sufficiently difficult that the
program does not know where to start. At the moment people are still better at doing the highest
level strategies required for a proof. So that the computer might like to be able to ask for advice.
For Example:
• Solitary problem, in which there is no intermediate communication and no demand for an
explanation of the reasoning process.
• Conversational problem, in which intermediate communication is to provide either additional
assistance to the computer or additional information to the user.
Problem Classification
When actual problems are examined from the point of view all of these questions it becomes
apparent that there are several broad classes into which the problem fall. The classes can be each
associated with a generic control strategy that is approached for solving the problem. There is a
variety of problem-solving methods, but there is no one single way of solving all problems. Not
all new problems should be considered as totally new. Solutions of similarproblems can be
exploited.
30
Problems:
8-Puzzle Problem
The Problem is 8-Puzzle is a square tray in which 8 square tiles are placed. The remaining 9th
square is uncovered. Each tile has a number on it. A file that is adjacent to the blank space can be
slide into that space. The goal is to transform the starting position into the goal position by sliding
the tiles around.
Solution:
State Space: The state space for the problem can be written as a set of states where each stateis
position of the tiles on the tray.
Initial State: Square tray having 3x3 cells and 8 tiles number on it that are shuffled
2 8 3
1 6 4
7 5
Goal State
1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5
Production Rules: These rules are used to move from initial state to goal state. These are also
defined as two parts left side pattern should match with current position and left side will be
resulting position after applying the rule.
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2. Tile in square (1,1)

AND Move tile from square (1,1) to (2,1)
Empty square (2,1)

AND Move tile from square (1,1) to (1,2) Empty
square (1,2)

AND Move tile from square (2,1) to (1,1)
Empty square (1,1)
1,1 1,2 1,3
2 3 2
2,1 2,2 2,3
3 4 3
3,1 3,2 3,3
2 3 2
No. of Production Rules: 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 2 = 24
Solution:
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Travelling Salesman Problem

The Problem is the salesman has a list of cities, each of which he must visit exactly once. There
are direct roads between each pair of cities on the list. Find the route the salesman should
follow for the shortest possible round trip that both states and finishes at any one of the cities.
Solution:
State Space: The state space for this problem represents states in which the cities traversed by
salesman and state described as salesman starting at any city in the given list of cities. A set of
rules is applied such that the salesman will not traverse a city traversed once. These rules are
resulted to be states with the salesman will complex the round trip and return to his starting
position.
Initial State
➢ Salesman starting at any arbitrary city in the given list of citiesGoal
State
➢ Visiting all cities once and only and reaching his starting state
Production rules:
These rules are used as operators to move from one state to another. Since there is a path between
any pair of cities in the city list, we write the production rules for this problem as
• Visited(city[i]) AND Not Visited(city[j])
– Traverse(city[i],city[j])
• Visited(city[i],city[j]) AND Not Visited(city[k])
– Traverse(city[j],city[k])
• Visited(city[j],city[i]) AND Not Visited(city[k])
– Traverse(city[i],city[k])
• Visited(city[i],city[j],city[k]) AND Not Visited(Nil)
– Traverse(city[k],city[i])
Towers of Hanoi Problem

Problem is the state space for the problem can be described as each state representing positionof
the disk on each pole the position can be treated as a stack the length of the stack will be equal to
maximum number of disks each post can handle. The initial state of the problem will beany one of
the posts will the certain the number of disks and the other two will be empty.
33
Initial State:
➢ Full(T1) | Empty(T2)
Empty(T3)
Goal State:
➢ Empty(T1) | Full(T2) | Empty(T3)
Production Rules:
These are rules used to reach the Goal State. These rules use the following operations:
▪ POP(x) Remove top element x from the stack and update top
▪ PUSH(x,y) Push an element x into the stack and update top. [Push an element x on tothe y]
Now to solve the problem the production rules can be described as follows:
1. Top(T1)<Top(T2) PUSH(POP(T1),T2)
7. Empty(T1) PUSH(POP(T2),T1)
Solution: Example: 3 Disks, 3 Towers
1) T1 T2
2) T1 T3
3) T2 T3
4) T1 T2
5) T3 T1
6) T3 T2
7) T1 T2
Monkey and Bananas Problem
Problem: A hungry monkey finds himself in a room in which a branch of bananas is hanging
from the ceiling. The monkey unfortunately cannot reach the bananas however in the room
there are also a chair and a stick. The ceiling is just right high so that a monkey standing on a
chair could knock the bananas down with the stick. The monkey knows how to move round,
34
carry other things around reach for the bananas and wave the stick in the air. What is the best
sequence of actions for the monkey to acquire lunch?
Solution: The state space for this problem is a set of states representing the position of the monkey,
position of chair, position of the stick and two flags whether monkey on the chair & whether
monkey holds the stick so there is a 5-tuple representation.
(M, C, S, F1, F2)
– M: position of the monkey
– C: position of the chair
– S: position of the stick
– F1: 0 or 1 depends on the monkey on the chair or not
– F2: 0 or 1 depends on the monkey holding the stick or not
Initial State (M, C, S, 0, 0)

• The objects are at different places and obviously monkey is not on the chair and not holding the stick
Goal State (G, G, G, 1, 1)
• G is the position under bananas and all objects are under it, monkey is on the chair and holding stick
Production Rules:
These are the rules which have a path for searching the goal state here we assume that when
monkey hold a stick then it will swing it this assumption is necessary to simplify the representation.
Some of the production rules are:
1) (M,C,S,0,0) (A,C,S,0,0) {An arbitrary position A}
2) (M,C,S,0,0) (C,C,S,0,0) {monkey moves to chair position}
3) (M,C,S,0,0) (S,S,S,0,0) {monkey brings chair to stick position}
4) (C,C,S,0,0) (A,A,S,0,0) {push the chair to arbitrary position A}
5) (S,C,S,0,0) (A,C,A,0,1) {Taking the stick to arbitrary position}
6) (S,C,S,0,0) (C,C,S,0,0) {monkey moves from stick position to chair position}
7) (C,C,C,0,1) (C,C,C,1,1) {monkey and stick at the chair position, monkey on the
chair and holding stick}
8) (S,C,S,0,1) (C,C,C,0,1)
35
Solution:
1) (M,C,S,0,0)
2) (C,C,S,0,0)
3) (G,G,S,0,0)
4) (S,G,S,0,0)
5) (G,G,G,0,0)
6) (G,G,G,0,1)
7) (G,G,G,1,1)
Missionaries and Cannibals Problem

Problem is 3 missionaries and 3 cannibals find themselves one side of the river. They have agreed
that they would like to get the other side. But the missionaries are not sure what else thecannibals
have agreed to. So the missionaries want to manage the trip across the river on eitherside of the
river is never less than the number of cannibals who are on the same side. The only boat available
holds only two people at a time. How can everyone get across without missionaries risking hang
eager?
Solution:
The state space for the problem contains a set of states which represent the present number of
cannibals and missionaries on the either side of the bank of the river. (C,M,C1,M1,B)
– C and M are number of cannibals and missionaries on the starting bank
– C1 and M1 are number of cannibals and missionaries on the destination bank
– B is the position of the boat wither left bank (L) or right bank (R)
Initial State C=3,M=3,B=L so (3,3,0,0,L)

Goal State C1=3, M1=3, B=R so (0,0,3,3,R)
Production System: These are the operations used to move from one state to other state. Since at
any bank the number of cannibals must less than or equal to missionaries we can write two
production rules for this problem as follows:
• (C,M,C1,M1,L / C=3, M=3) (C-2,M,C1+2,M1,R)
• (C,M,C1,M1,L / C=3, M=3) (C-1,M-1,C1+1,M1+1,R)
• (C,M,C1,M1,L / C=3, M=3) (C-1,M,C1+1,M1,R)
• (C,M,C1,M1,R / C=1, M=3) (C+1,M,C1-1,M1,L)
• (C,M,C1,M1,R / C=0, M=3,C1=3,M1=0) (C+1,M,C1-1,M1,L)
The solution path is

LEFT BANK RIGHT BANK
36
C M BOAT POSITION C1 M1
3 3 0 0
1 3 2 0
2 3 1 0
0 3 3 0
1 3 2 0
1 1 2 2
2 2 1 1
2 0 1 3
3 0 0 3
1 0 2 3
2 0 1 3
0 0 3 3
Classification of Production System:

Based on the direction they can be
1. Forward Production System
▪ Moving from Initial State to Goal State
▪ When there are number of goal states and only one initial state, it is
advantage to use forward production system.
2. Backward Production System
▪ Moving from Goal State to Initial State
▪ If there is only one goal state and many initial states, it is advantage touse
backward production system.
Production System Characteristics

Production system is a good way to describe the operations that can be performed in a search for
solution of the problem.
Two questions we might reasonably ask at this point are:
▪ Can production systems, like problems, be described by a set of characteristics that shedsome light on
how they can easily be implemented?
▪ If so, what relationships are there between problem types and the types of production
systems best suited to solving the problems?
37
The answer for the first question can be considered with the following definitions of classes of production
systems:
A monotonic production system is a production system in which the applications of a rule never
prevents the later application of another rule that could also have been applied at the time the first
rule was selected.
A non-monotonic production system is one which this is not true.
A partially commutative production system is a production system with the property that if the
application of a particular sequence of rules transforms state X into state Y, then any permutation
of those rules that is allowable also transforms state X into state Y.
A commutative production system is a production system that is both monotonic and partially
commutative.
In a formal sense, there is no relationship between kinds of problems and kinds of production of
systems, since all problems can be solved by all kinds of systems. But in practical sense, there
definitely is such a relationship between kinds of problems and the kinds of systems that led
themselves naturally to describing those problems.
The following figure shows the four categories of production systems produced by the two
dichotomies, monotonic versus non-monotonic and partially commutative versus non-partially
commutative along with some problems that can be naturally be solved by each type of system.
Monotonic Non-monotonic
Partially commutative Theorem proving Robot Navigation
Chemical
Not Partially commutative Bridge
Synthesis
38
The four categories of Production Systems
❑ Partially commutative, monotonic production systems are useful for solving ignorable
problems that involves creating new things rather than changing old ones generally
ignorable. Theorem proving is one example of such a creative process partially
commutative, monotonic production system are important for a implementation stand point
because they can be implemented without the ability to backtrack to previous states when
it is discovered that an incorrect path has been followed.
❑ Non-monotonic, partially commutative production systems are useful for problems

in which changes occur but can be reversed and in which order of operations is not
critical. This is usually the case in physical manipulation problems such as “Robot
navigation ona flat plane”. The 8-puzzle and blocks world problem can be considered
partiallycommutative production systems are significant from an implementation point
of viewbecause they tend to read too much duplication of individual states during the
searchprocess.
❑ Production systems that are not partially commutative are useful for many problems in
which changes occur. For example, “Chemical Synthesis”
❑ Non-partially commutative production system less likely to produce the same node many
times in the search process.
39
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1) Define Intelligence, Artificial Intelligence.
2) List four things to build a system to solve a problem.
3) What is Production System?
4) Explain water Jug problem as a state space search.
5) Explain production system characteristics.
6) Explain A* algorithm with example.
7) What is Means-Ends Analysis? Explain with an example.
8) What do you mean by heuristic?
9) Write a heuristic function for travelling salesman problem.
10) What is heuristic search?
11) Explain problem characteristics.
12) Write AO* algorithm and explain the steps in it.
13) What is constraint satisfaction problem? Explain it.
14) Explain annealing schedule.
15) Explain Breadth-first search and depth-first search. List down the
advantages anddisadvantages of both?
16) What do you mean by an AI technique?
17) Discuss the tic-tac-toe problem in detail and explain how it can be solved
using AItechniques.
18) What are the advantages of Heuristic Search?
19) Explain Turing Test as Criteria for success.
20) Explain Hill Climbing and give its disadvantages.
21) Define Control Strategy and requirements for good search strategy.
22) Define State Space Search. Write algorithm for state space.

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Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (18CS71) Module 1

1. E. Rich , K. Knight & S. B. Nair - Artificial Intelligence, 3/e, McGraw Hill.

Module 1 - Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Data: Raw facts, unformatted information.

Information: It is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in response to a

Knowledge: It relates to the understanding of the solution domain – what to do?

Overview of Artificial Intelligence

Why Artificial Intelligence?

1.1 The AI Problem

Only quite simple tasks were selected.

It is important to discuss the following four questions:

1.2 The Underlying Assumption

They state hypothesis as:

1.3 What is an AI Technique?

It is possible to solve AI problems without using AI techniques. It is possible to apply AI

1.3.1 Strategies of Solving Tic-Tac-Toe Game Playing

Tic-Tac-Toe Game Playing:

Explanation of Strategy 2 of solving Tic-tac-toe problem

1.3.2 Question Answering

Take, for example sentence:

1.4 Level of The Model

1.5 Criteria for Success (Turing Test)

2.Problem Spaces and Search

To build a system or to solve a particular problem we need to do four things.

2.1 Defining the Problem as a State Space Search

Methodology of State Space Approach

To build a program that could “Play Chess”

Initial State: Legal chess opening position

The solution to the water-jug problem is:

2.2 Production System

2.2.1 Control Strategy

Algorithm: Breadth-First Search

Algorithm: Depth First Search

Advantages of Breadth-First Search

Advantages of Depth –First Search

Example: Travelling Salesman Problem

To solve this efficiently we have a search called HEURISTIC SEARCH.

– It is a "rule of thumb" used to help guide search

Chess The Material advantage of our side over the opponent

2.3 Problem Characteristics

Can solution steps be ignored or undone?

Is the universe predictable?

Is a Good Solution Absolute or Relative?

Is the solution a state or a path?

What is the role of knowledge?

Does a task require interaction with the person?

2. Tile in square (1,1)

3. Tile in square (1,1)

4. Tile in square (2,1)

No. of Production Rules: 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 2 = 24

Travelling Salesman Problem

Towers of Hanoi Problem

Initial State (M, C, S, 0, 0)

2) (M,C,S,0,0) (C,C,S,0,0) {monkey moves to chair position}

3) (M,C,S,0,0) (S,S,S,0,0) {monkey brings chair to stick position}

4) (C,C,S,0,0) (A,A,S,0,0) {push the chair to arbitrary position A}

5) (S,C,S,0,0) (A,C,A,0,1) {Taking the stick to arbitrary position}

6) (S,C,S,0,0) (C,C,S,0,0) {monkey moves from stick position to chair position}

chair and holding stick}

Missionaries and Cannibals Problem