Structural

Engineering
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Pablo Borbon Main II, Alangilan, Batangas City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS

Civil and Sanitary Engineering Department

CE 401 – Civil Engineering Orientation

Structural Engineering
Sub-discipline of Civil Engineering

Overview
Structural Engineering is a specialty inside the field of civil engineering which
centers on structural framework / systems, and on planning those structures in order to
withstand the pressure and/or stresses from their environment and to assure the security
and steadiness of the system all throughout its use. Thus, the structural engineers are
responsible for making sure of the durability of an infrastructure - buildings and
structures don’t fall down and bridges don’t collapse.
This engineering specialization involves the analysis and formation of different
structures such as buildings, dams, tunnels, towers, and other infrastructure. Structural
engineering serves as the base foundation for sustaining the built environment where the
structures are durable, secure and cost-effective.
Structural engineering is based on the concepts of physics and mathematics. It
requires the application of knowledge of physical laws as well as scientific studies into
the strength of various materials, as well as the required mathematics and measurements
needed to make the structure functional. Any key aspects in which structural engineering
influences projects include the construction of the structure and the study of the project.
This knowledge and its application are crucial because it specifically influences
the stability and longevity of buildings and systems. For example, structural engineering
facilitates precise measurement of safe weight limits on bridges, the storm force winds in
a factory or building can withstand, or the severity of tremors a skyscraper can endure
during an earthquake.
 Structural engineers are also responsible for ensuring that materials and
equipment are used effectively. For example, they must be able to evaluate the optimum
grade of material that guarantees protection and functionality without unduly rising costs.
Structural engineering must therefore be able to work within the architectural aesthetics
needed by the project. Thus, this field of work plays a key role by integrating aesthetic
appeal, functional purpose and financial capital in a manner that meets both needs.

History
Structural engineering has been applied since mankind commenced building of
structures. Structures are designed, with the aim to accomplish the desired functions of
creation, ensuring the visualization of all the loads that could be applied on the structures,
and adequate safety of structures.

Pre-Scientific Revolution (27th Century BC – Early 18th Century A.D.)

• 27th Century BC: Imhotep, the first-named architect in history, built the step
pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser.
• 26th Century BC: The Great Pyramid of Giza was built.
• 3rd Century BC: Archimedes invented the sciences of mechanics and
hydrostatics.
• 17th Century: The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid by
Galileo Galilei, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton.
• 1676: Robert Hooke provides a scientific understanding of elasticity of materials
and their behavior under load.
• 1687: Isaac Newton set out his Laws of Motion, providing for the first time an
understanding of the fundamental laws governing structures.
• 1750: Euler and Bernoulli developed the Euler–Bernoulli Beam Equation – the
fundamental theory underlying most structural engineering design.

18th and 19th Century

• 1804: The first fire-proof building was built in England (Belper North Mill)
• 1858: Henry Besseme successfully completed the conversion of cast iron into cast
steel.
 • 1885: Home Insurance Building or the first metal-framed building in the world
was built in Chicago.
• 1983: The Soviet Union successfully built seven massive skyscrapers known as
the “Seven Sisters of Moscow”
• 1956: The paper Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures was published by
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences.

Information Age
• 1965: The United States government developed the NASA Structure Analysis or
NASTRAN in favor of its aerospace industry – NASA.
• 1969: The first generation of finite element analysis (FEA software) was initiated
by MacNeal-Schwendler Corporation which was labeled as MSC NASTRAN.
• 1973: The remarkable landmark, Sydney Opera House was completely
constructed which is considered as the first milestone for structural engineers to
have saved almost 10 years of work.
• 1982: The most widely used CAD program was introduced by Autodesk Co.
named AutoCAD.
• 2002: The Autodesk Co. released a white paper entitled, “Building Information
Modeling” that made it popular after a decade of existence.

The Major Areas

Oftentimes, people do think a career in structural engineering means a life
overseeing aspects of building construction and while that may be true of many in the
profession; structural engineers can end up working in a range of varied and exciting
disciplines.
Here are just a handful of the wide-ranging professional fields a structural
engineering career can bring:

• Buildings
This is the most obvious, structural engineers help design and construct
buildings so they stay standing after the scaffolding has been taken away; but
 buildings come in many forms. A new home might require a structural engineer’s
input, but so will a skyscraper, a new opera house or football stadium.

• Aeronautical
Aircraft, satellites, and even space vessels need to be developed. The role of a
structural engineer is fundamental in this process. Not only do they have to create
a structure that can withstand the rigors of its environment, but also one that
operates consistently under those conditions. Aeroplanes don’t just get you from
A to B, they’re also places of comfort and safety, and much of this is down to
how their structures have been designed.

• Oil and gas

A career in the oil and gas industry can see a structural engineer work on a range
of projects. Whether it’s a pipeline, a rig, or a gas or oil field, the one thing that’s
common across exploration of this kind is that the structures are vast. So be
prepared to work on massive projects whether you end up designing, testing, or
inspecting the equipment.

• Nautical
Passenger vessels, cargo ships, and boats of all other kinds might form the bulk of
the engineering done at sea, but a structural engineer who works in the nautical
field could as easily develop and maintain other, non-moving structures - like
wind turbines - or even those to support oceanography.

• Bridges
Whether it’s a footbridge over a stream, a rail bridge over a gorge, or a road
bridge spanning an expanse of ocean, each project will require a structural
engineer to work on the design so the bridge both works with its environment.
The engineer’s designs will help ensure the bridge carries its load as safely on
days when the conditions are extraordinary as it does when things are run-of-the-
mill.
Broad Benefits of Structural Engineering
Structural engineering, an eminent part of civil engineering, has appeared as a
penetrating part of the construction process. During the 19th and 20th centuries, when
steel was used on a wide scale to construct huge structures, structural engineering started
to become central to construction activities.

Day by day the technology advances and CAD has been introduced for design and
final analysis. Therefore, structural engineering has become a part and parcel of
construction procedure for both building and non-building structures. Accurate design,
risk analysis, effective cost and material estimation make such companies the ultimate
resource to make creative use of structural elements.

The major factors on which the importance of structural engineering for building
structures and foundations bases are as follows:

• Structure Design Support

A skilled structural engineer has the capability to offer detailed information
regarding foundations, floors, type of roofs, beams, quantity of steel needed,
alignments directing to durability, retaining walls, suspension of bridges and
more. In designing individual elements and the structure as a whole- structural
engineering plays a key role.
• Structural Analysis
Use of complex designs and amalgamated materials in modern structures require
effectual structural analysis for design reliability, safety, strength, material
specification and stress design focused on experiential and practical basis. Skilled
structural engineers detail capabilities of structures concerning support and
performance satisfying building design codes, tasteful features, specifications and
customer needs.
• Safety Evaluation

Credentialed structural engineers assist in predicting safety and assess capacity

and stability of a structure against static and dynamic loading. Thus, the process
 of planning the design and building the structure keeping in view the safety and
security of workers, visitors and customers become hassle-free and less
dangerous.
• Assessment

Proper structural estimation guides builders to test design efficacy, chalk out
material required, and assess costs while aiding creative and effective utilization
of resources.

In one-word, proficient structural engineers achieve dynamic results by enjoining

the science of mathematics and physics to analyze structures and work out the
best possible design solutions.

Essential Qualities of a Structural Engineer

Structural engineering involves analysis and design of structures that can
withstand any operating and environmental loading conditions. Structural engineers work
closely with other professionals in the construction industry. They engage in every phase
of the project; from the onset to its completion. To be a great structural engineer, one
must have these qualities:

• Creative
Structural engineers use their skills and knowledge to design structures that are
strong and flexible to withstand pressures. Their input ensures that structures do
not bend or collapse and put people at risk. Creativity is a key quality in creating
structures that are safe, functional and cost-effective.

• Team Player
A structural engineer works alongside a team of other construction professionals
such as architects, civil engineers and other discipline engineers. These
professionals must work together and have cordial relations from the beginning of
the project to the end. A great engineer should be able to blend in the team to
ensure that the project is successful and completed in time.
 • Problem Solver
There are various conditions that an engineer might come across in the course of
any given project. Some of these conditions, unfavorable site conditions,
constraints from existing structures and unique design conditions. In some cases,
structural engineers are called upon to make sure that old buildings can withstand
forces that weren’t put into consideration during their construction. Qualified
engineers should be able to come up with quick solutions to these problems.

• Meticulous
The slightest error in the designing or construction of a structure may cause it to
collapse. An experienced structural engineer should pay attention to details. Key
considerations should be observed especially in designing the framework of a
structure.

In conclusion, with these qualities and the right educational qualification,

there is no doubt that structural engineers will exploit their talents and endeavor in
their career. In addition, experience gained in the initial stages of the profession
will also lead to growth in the profession.

Structural Engineers and their…

i. Roles and Responsibilities

The role of the structural engineer is a key component within the construction
process. It is a part of the broader discipline of civil engineering, structural
engineering cares with the planning and in physical integrity of buildings and
other large structures, like tunnels and bridges. Structural engineers have a wide
selection of responsibilities - not least a duty to guarantee the security and
sturdiness of the project on which they're working.

Structural engineers must have a robust grasp of physics, three-dimensional

conceptual skills and artistic problem solving. Outside of a capability to use
 principles of mechanics, mathematics and physics to construct safe and
sustainable buildings, the roles and responsibilities of structural engineers include:

a) Design: Many structural engineers deal primarily within the design of structures -
calculating the loads and stresses the construction will need to withstand the
pressures brought by the environment. Structural engineers should be ready to
think about the various qualities and strengths delivered by a variety of building
materials, and understand the way to incorporate support beams, columns and
foundations.
b) Investigation: Before work can begin, structural engineers are involved within
the investigation and survey of build sites to work out the suitability of the world
for the wants of the upcoming projects.
c) Communication: Structural engineers are going to be required to co-ordinate and
consult other associates of their projects, including engineers, environmental
scientists, architects and landscape architects. They'll even be required to help and
assist government bodies in their own inspections concerning the project.
d) Management: Structural engineers are often liable for the organization and
delivery of materials and equipment needed in developing a project. The
supervision and management of on-site labor can also be a necessity.

ii. Qualifications and Trainings

Graduates will need a degree in civil or structural engineering accredited by the

Institution of Structural Engineers. You can then obtain one among two
recognized professional qualifications with the Institution of Structural Engineers.
You can apply for Incorporated Engineer (IEng) status with a BEng (Bachelor
of Engineering);
• Incorporated engineers maintain and manage applications of current and
developing technology, and may undertake engineering design, development,
manufacture, construction and operation.
 You can apply for Chartered Engineer (CEng) status if you graduated with a
BEng-plus-a-masters or an MEng.

• Chartered engineers (CEng) develop solutions to engineering problems using

new or existing technologies through innovation, creation and alter and that they
may have technical accountability for complex systems with significant levels of
risk.

Both titles will help career prospects, but chartered engineers are often of greater
value to employers. You then get to complete a period of vocational education
with an accredited employer, also as a knowledgeable review, before you'll obtain
either of those titles.

iii. Key skills for Structural Engineers

• Creativity and Originality
• Commercially viable
• Team Working and communication skills
• Excellent mathematical, information technology and analytical skills
• Keen attention to detail
• Project and budget management skills.

A good working knowledge of construction methods, materials and legal regulations is vital.

Number 1 Structural Engineer in the world according to an article entitled “Genius

Skyscraper Engineers You've Probably Never Heard Of”

Fazlur Rahman Khan was the world's most important of all skyscraper engineers, born
on 3rd of April 1929 in East Bengal in undivided India. Khan received his Bachelor of
Engineering for world's most important of all skyscraper engineers at the University of Dhaka in
1950; he taught for two years in Dhaka and then went to the University of Illinois on master’s
degrees, one in theoretical and applied mechanics and the other in structural engineering. In
1955, he did his doctorate in structural engineering under the supervision of Professor C.P. Seis.

Tools and Equipments

Structural engineers design, plan and oversee the construction of new buildings and
bridges, or alterations and extensions to existing properties or other structures. They use
different kinds of tools and equipment to aid their work. Structural engineers are also
responsible for ensuring that materials and equipment are used effectively.

Common Software used by Structural Engineers

As structural engineers are responsible for planning, designing and constructing the
overall structure, they have these tools to create, organize, and utilize their plan, and
design.

1. AUTOCAD. This is the most popular software in the world of

civil engineering. Designed by Autodesk, it helps in creating 2D and 3D
designs, drafting, modeling workflows, architectural drawing, and more.
It allows you to evaluate and understand the project performance,
responds quickly to changes, and maintains data and processes
consistently.

Some of the important features it includes are:

● A powerful set of intuitive design and documentation tools to explore and
visualize 3D concepts
● A user friendly interface that works across a range of integrated devices including
desktop, mobile and cloud
● Eliminates the need of manual drafting to boost accuracy
● Provides the ability to share your work through TrustedDWG™ technology
 2. STAAD PRO. This is a structural design and analysis tool
developed by Research Engineers which was later acquired by
Bentley Systems, a CAD/CAM software company based in
Pennsylvania. STAAD Pro is considered as the best structural
analysis software and adopted by over a million structural
engineers around the globe. It features ease of use and an array of
essential tools required for accomplishing an analytical process on different structures.
STAAD Pro further integrates with a number of other Bentley products. The models
created using STAAD Pro can be imported to OpenSTAAD so as to make the models
transferrable to other third-party tools.

3. SAFE. This software is mostly used in designing

foundation slab systems and concrete floors. SAFE is a
comprehensive package that combines all the aspects of the
engineering design process – from creating layout to detail
drawing production in a single, intuitive environment. It
enables highly advanced local assessment of foundation systems within larger structures
and imports files from CAD, ETABS, and SAP2000.
Some of the other benefits it offers are:

● Wide-ranging templates to quickly initiate a model

● Post-tensioning
● Support conditions and loadings

4. RISA. This is another popular 3D analysis and design

tool for creating general structures such as buildings, bridges,
arenas, industrial structures, crane rails, and more. It is fast,
productive and accurate. It has an intuitive interface that
integrates with many other products like RISAFloor and RISA
 Foundation. It comes packed with the latest steel, cold-formed steel, concrete, aluminum,
masonry and timber design codes. This, in turn, provides the tools you need to manage
the multi-material projects with ease.

5. NAVISWORKS. This is a comprehensive project

review solution mainly used by design, engineering and
construction management professionals to gain detailed
insight into the project and enhance productivity and
quality. It is developed and marketed by Autodesk and allows users to open, combine,
review and share Detailed 3D Design Models in various file formats. It lets you import all
file formats and merge all the files to create a model.

The time when it took several years to construct a building is long gone. With the
help of the structural analysis software tools, construction firms are now speeding up
their design, analysis and construction processes.

Common Tools used by Structural Engineers

1. PPE – Personal Protective Equipment (Boots, Hard Hat, Safety Glasses, Ear Plugs,
and Safety Vest). There is not much to say here that is not abundantly obvious. Having all
of this equipment is standard on construction sites. Make yourself visible and make
yourself safe. Construction sites can be dangerous places. Engineers are used to following
codes. Follow OSHA rules and set a good example.

2. Gloves. Helpful in the cold weather, they are also good to keep your hands clean and
safe. You may be asked to go into old basements that may have had oil spills, sewage
backups, mold, or other nasty items.

3. Flashlight/Head Lamp. You can’t do much in the dark. Smartphone flashlight apps
speed through your battery life very quickly. We prefer the headlamp. It’s lightweight,
always pointed in the direction you need it, and you can put it in your pocket when you’re
done.
4. Tape Measure. We use this one on virtually every site visit we make. Good for
checking rebar size and spacing. Measuring floor joist depths or spans. Get a good one
that can cantilever a long distance without someone holding the other end. You’ll be by
yourself more than you think.

5. Cameras and Photo Reference Card. Take more photos than you think you will
need. Data storage is cheap. Driving back out to a jobsite for a missed photo is far more
expensive. Start with overall photos. You might wish you had taken a photo of something
specific on the outside of a building. Overall photos might give you the opportunity to
zoom in on that item after the fact. Use a reference card to establish scale. You will open
some photos back in your office only to find that you cannot tell if you’re looking at a 1”
wide or ¼” wide crack. A photo reference card, ruler, or even a well-known object
(pencil) will help establish scale

6. Notepad and Pencil. Pencils work in any weather. Take good notes. Document people
that are present at your visit, the type of work going on, the time you arrived and the time
you left.

7. Small Sledgehammer. A small sledgehammer is great for checking the quality of a lot
of materials. A light tap against concrete or masonry can tell you if it is sound material or
if there is a void lurking beneath. You will not need it on every job site. Mostly, leave it
in the car. However, they are invaluable when you do need them.

8. Probe. (screwdriver/steel rod/rebar/Leatherman). We use a screwdriver to check the

soundness of wet wood, quality of mortar joints, the depth of holes, etc.

9. Safety Harness. Get a good harness that is adjustable, but fits you comfortably. You
will not use it often, but when you do, you’ll likely be wearing it for a long period of
time. Careful of using others that may be worn or dirty. Also, remember to keep yours
clean and dry. The harness should be the ‘fall-arrest’ type with a lanyard. There are many
different models depending on the type of work you’re doing. For man-lifts, you just
need one lanyard with a locking carabiner.
 References

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McFadden, C. (2018). “Genius Skyscraper Engineers You've Probably Never Heard Of”.
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