CE 326 HYDRAULICS

NON-UNIFORM FLOW
Uniform flow is approached closely in long flumes and conduits of uniform cross section and
straight grade but is difficult and sometimes impossible to secure in short flumes. Moreover, non-uniform
flow occurs where the stream enters and leaves the channel; at obstructions such as dams, weirs, or
bridge piers; and at changes in the form of cross section which may be necessitated by natural conditions
of soil and topography.

Changes in cross section in open channel flow may be either gradual or abrupt. Gradual changes in
which the flow is either accelerated or retarded may be analysed by means of the energy theorem in
conjunction with a formula for open channel flow. Abrupt changes, with the accompanying secondary
effects of vertical curvature of the stream lines when the flow is accelerated and excessive turbulence,
waves, and surface rollers when the flow is retarded are sometimes more difficult to analyse.

The variety of conditions encountered in open channel flow is greater than in pipe flow both
because of the existence of the free surface and also because of the two alternate stages of flow with
equal energy. Only a few of the most frequently occurring cases will be discussed.

BACKWATER
A common problem in non-uniform flow occurs where is backed up by a dam, weir or other
obstruction. Usually it is required to determine the amount that water surface will be raised at a certain
specified distances upstream from the obstruction.

( ) ( )

Where H = specific energy

L = length of reach
So = slope of channel bed
S1 and S2 = slope of the energy grade line at sections 1 and 2, respectively, computed using
Manning’s Formula

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CE 326 HYDRAULICS
HYDRAULIC JUMP
Hydraulic jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water. Flow at the jump changes
from a supercritical to a subcritical stage with an accompanying loss of kinetic energy.

A hydraulic jump is the only means by which the depth of flow can change from less than critical to
greater than critical to a uniform channel.

The change in stage from a depth less than the critical depth to one greater than the critical depth,
but due to loss of head in the jump, the total energy after the jump is less than the alternate stage before
the jump.

̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ ( )

To calculate the depth of flow before and after the jump, d1

and d2, the following expression is derived for rectangular sections:

( )

Illustrative Problems:

1. Uniform flow occurs in a 12-m-wide rectangular channel having a bed slope of 0.0021 and n=0.019 at
a depth of 1 m. If a partial closure of the gate near the exit raises the level at that by 0.5 m, how far
upstream is the point where the depth of flow is 1.25 m?
2. If the depth and velocity before the hydraulic jump is 1.8m and 6 m/sec what is the depth after the
jump?
3. Water is moving in a 5-m-wide rectangular channel at a depth of 1.0 m and a Froude number equal
to √10. If the water undergoes a jump, what is the (a) depth of flow after the jump and (b) Froude
number after the jump?

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CE 326 HYDRAULICS
CHANNEL FLOW MEASUREMENT
WEIR
Weirs are overflow structures which are built across an open channel for the purpose of measuring,
or controlling, the flow of liquids.

Classification of Weirs

According to shape, weirs may be rectangular,

triangular, trapezoidal, circular, parabolic, or of any other
regular form. According to the form of the crest, weirs may
be sharp-crested or broad-crested.

The flow over a weir may either be free or submerged.

If the water surface downstream from the weir is lower than
the crest, the flow is free, but if the downstream surface is
higher than the crest, the flow is submerged.

Definition of Terms

Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir

Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir with which the flowing liquid comes in contact

Contracted weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the nappe is contracted in width or having end
contractions, either one end or two ends

Suppressed weir or full-width weir – weirs having its length L being equal to the width of the cahnnel so
that the nappe suffers no end contractions

Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface before the weir

Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the weir measured before the drop-
down curve
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CE 326 HYDRAULICS
Rectangular Weir (Suppressed)

General Formula:

√ [( ) ]

[( ) ]

Where velocity head of approach

C = coefficient of discharge
= weir factor
Neglecting Va:

Francis Formula
(Cw = 1.84) S.I.
[( ) ]
Neglecting Va:

Cipolletti Weir

Triangular V-notch Weir

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CE 326 HYDRAULICS
Illustrative Problems:

1. A constructed rectangular sharp crested weir 2 m long discharges water under a head of 0.5 m.
Compute the discharge using Francis formula, neglecting velocity of approach in liters per second.
2. A sharp crested weir 0.9 m high extends across a rectangular channel 6 m wide where the depth of
water upstream from the weir is 1.2 m deep. Find the discharge through the weir considering the
velocity of approach.
3. Compute the length of Cipolleti weir having a discharge of 0.349 cu.m/s and under a head of 250
mm.

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