19

The Endocrine System UNIT OUTLINE

Functional Anatomy
of the Endocrine System
Activity 1: Exploring the Organs
of the Endocrine System
Activity 2: Examining the Microscopic
Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland, Thyroid
Gland, Parathyroid Gland, Adrenal
Gland, and Pancreas

Endocrine System Physiology

Activity 3: Investigating Endocrine
Case Studies: Clinician’s Corner

T
Exercise 4:
™

he endocrine system consists of ductless endocrine glands that secrete Endocrine System Physiology
hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical signals that PEx Activity 1: Metabolism and Thyroid
regulate the functions of other cells as long as those cells have receptors for Hormone
PEx Activity 2: Plasma Glucose, Insulin,
the specific hormone. Some endocrine structures are composed of nervous tissue and Diabetes Mellitus
and are called neuroendocrine organs; their major function is the release of neuro- PEx Activity 3: Hormone Replacement
hormones, chemicals produced by nervous tissue that act as hormones. Together, Therapy

the endocrine and nervous systems maintain homeostasis by regulating physiologi- PEx Activity 4: Measuring Cortisol and
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
cal events throughout the body.
In this unit you will be studying the gross and microscopic anatomy of endo-
crine and neuroendocrine organs. As you explore the anatomy of each organ, you
will identify the major hormones produced by each. Additionally, you will describe
the specific source, target, and biological action of each hormone and then use this
knowledge to investigate some endocrine case studies.

T h i n k A b o u T i T Compare and contrast endocrine regulation and

nervous regulation of physiological events.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ ▪

389
PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENTS Pre-lab quizzes are also assignable
in 

To maximize learning, BEFORE your lab period carefully read this entire lab unit
and complete these pre-lab assignments using your textbook, lecture notes, and
prior knowledge.

P R E - L A B Activity 1: Exploring the Organs of the Endocrine System

1. Use the list of terms provided to label the accompanying illustration of the organs of the endocrine
system. Check off each term as you label it.
□ testes □ posterior pituitary gland □ thymus gland

□ adrenal cortex □ hypothalamus □ pineal gland

□ adrenal medulla □ pancreas □ ovaries

□ anterior pituitary gland □ thyroid gland □ parathyroid glands

Neuroendocrine organs Endocrine organs

d
b
e
c Anterior
view f

Posterior
view
g

2. Endocrine glands:
a. release substances onto internal and external body d. synthesize and secrete hormones.
surfaces. e. produce enzymes.
b. are also classified as exocrine glands.
c. contain ducts.

390
 UNIT 19   |  The Endocrine System  391

3. Which endocrine organ is regulated both hormonally 4. Which hormone is correctly matched with its source?
and neurally? a. luteinizing hormone – ovary
a. pituitary gland b. epinephrine – adrenal medulla
b. pancreas c. glucagon – liver
c. thyroid gland d. thyroid-stimulating hormone – thyroid gland
d. testis e. cortisol – pineal gland
e. ovary

P R E - L A B Activity 2: Examining the Microscopic Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland,

Thyroid Gland, Parathyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, and Pancreas
1. Which zone of the adrenal cortex is closest to the ­adrenal medulla?
a. zona glomerulosa
b. zona reticularis
c. zona fasciculata
2. Match each of the following endocrine glands with the correct hormone-secreting cell.
_____ a. thyroid gland 1. chromaffin cells
_____ b. parathyroid gland 2. follicular cells
_____ c. pancreas 3. islet cells
_____ d. adrenal gland 4. chief cells

P R E - L A B Activity 3: Investigating Endocrine Case Studies: Clinician’s Corner

1. Endocrine disorders result when a gland produces ______________________________________ of a
specific hormone—a situation called a hormone imbalance.
2. True or false?: Normally, if there is too much or too little of a given hormone, feedback mechanisms
within the endocrine system have difficulty correcting hormone levels _________________________.

Functional Anatomy ­ ypothalamus produces a variety of releasing and inhibit-

h
ing hormones that regulate the release of hormones from
of the Endocrine System the ­anterior pituitary gland (Table 19-1). For example, the
hypothalamus synthesizes and releases gonadotropin-­
The major endocrine and neuroendocrine organs are illus- releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the ­release of
trated in Figure 19-1; we consider these structures in the sec- gonadotropins called follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
tions that follow. and ­luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior p ­ ituitary
gland. FSH and LH are gonadotropins because they t­ arget
the gonads (ovaries and testes). In ­addition to ­secreting
Hypothalamus releasing and inhibiting factors, the hypothalamus syn-
­
The hypothalamus (Figure 19-2), a component of the thesizes two other neurohormones, antidiuretic hormone
­diencephalon of the brain, is a major homeostatic organ (ADH) and oxytocin (OXY), which are stored in the poste-
that regulates blood pressure, hunger, thirst, body temper- rior ­pituitary gland.
ature, and some reproductive functions. Additionally, the
392 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

Endocrine organs: Neuroendocrine organs:

Hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary Pineal gland

gland
Posterior pituitary
gland

Thyroid gland
Anterior view
Parathyroid
glands

Thymus gland Posterior view

Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla

Pancreas

Ovaries
(female)
Testes
(male)

Figure 19-1 The major endocrine and neuroendocrine organs.

Table 19-1 Hypothalamic Hormones

Hormone Target Biological Action
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH).

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (dopamine) Anterior pituitary Inhibits release of prolactin (PRL).

Somatostatin Anterior pituitary Inhibits release of growth hormone (GH).

Growth hormone–releasing hormone Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of growth hormone (GH).
(GHRH)

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Kidney Stimulates water retention (or decreased urine output).

Oxytocin (OXY) Uterus and mammary glands Stimulates uterine smooth muscle contraction; stimulates
myoepithelial cells in mammary glands.
 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 393

Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Posterior pituitary gland Anterior pituitary gland

Sella turcica of
sphenoid bone
(a) Locations of hypothalamus and pituitary
gland in the brain

LM (400×)

Figure 19-3 Microscopic anatomy of the anterior and posterior

pituitary glands.

Optic chiasma Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland
Anterior pituitary Infundibulum
(adenohypophysis) The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) extends from the hypo-
thalamus via the stalk-like infundibulum (see Figure 19-2b).
It sits in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica (sphenoid
Posterior pituitary bone) and consists of two lobes: the anterior pituitary gland
(neurohypophysis) or adenohypophysis (adeno = gland) and the posterior pitu-
itary gland or neurohypophysis (neuro = relating to nervous
tissue). During development, the anterior pituitary gland arises
as an outpocketing of the roof of the mouth and is composed
(b) Structure of hypothalamus, and anterior and posterior
pituitary glands of epithelial tissue; as a result, its cells resemble glandular
epithelial tissue (Figure 19-3). The posterior pituitary gland, by
Figure 19-2 Structures of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. contrast, is derived embryologically from an outgrowth of the
diencephalon and consists of nervous tissue. Table 19-2 sum-
marizes the hormones produced by the pituitary gland.

Table 19-2 Pituitary Hormones

Hormone/Specific Source Target Biological Action
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Ovaries, testes Stimulates ovary to produce oocytes (eggs) and release
estrogen; indirectly stimulates sperm production in testis.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) Ovaries, testes Stimulates ovary to produce estrogen and progesterone;
stimulates testis to produce testosterone; stimulates
ovulation.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Thyroid gland Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones
(T3 and T4).

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Adrenal gland (adrenal cortex) Stimulates release of hormones such as cortisol and
aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.

Growth hormone (GH) Bone, muscle, adipose tissue, liver, cartilage Stimulates growth.

Prolactin (PRL) Mammary glands Stimulates milk production.

394 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

Pineal Gland and thyroxine (T4). The thyroid hormones regulate metabolic
rate and thermoregulation and promote growth and develop-
The pineal gland (see Figure 19-1) is a small cone-shaped ment. Between the follicles are parafollicular cells that secrete
organ located in the epithalamus along the roof of the third calcitonin, a hormone that decreases blood calcium levels.
ventricle in the brain. It secretes melatonin, a neurohor-
mone thought to control the daily sleep/wake cycle, although
its exact role in humans is still controversial. Parathyroid Glands
Embedded on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Thymus are three to five pea-shaped structures called parathyroid
glands (Figure 19-5a). These glands contain chief cells (see
The thymus gland (see Figure 19-1) is an irregularly shaped Figure 19-5b), which secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).
gland in the mediastinum just posterior to the sternum. It PTH elevates blood calcium levels by targeting bones, the
produces hormones called thymosin and thymopoietin, kidneys, and the small intestine. In bones, PTH stimulates
which stimulate the maturation of T lymphocytes, a type of osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the
leukocyte involved in the immune response. The thymus is blood; in the kidneys, PTH stimulates calcium reabsorption
relatively large in children but begins to atrophy at puberty; from the blood; and in the small intestine, PTH stimulates
eventually it is mostly replaced by adipose and fibrous con- the absorption of calcium from food.
nective tissues.
Adrenal Glands
Thyroid Gland The roughly pyramid-shaped adrenal glands (Figure 19-6)
The thyroid gland is a bi-lobed organ located anterior to the lie superior to the kidneys. Each adrenal gland is sur-
trachea and inferior to the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) of rounded by a dense irregular connective tissue capsule that
the larynx (Figure 19-4a). The two lobes are connected by a protects it and anchors it to the kidney. An adrenal gland is
narrow isthmus. Histologically, the thyroid gland consists of actually composed of two separate regions: an outer adrenal
abundant thyroid follicles that are filled with an iodine-rich cortex and an inner adrenal medulla (Figure 19-6a). The
gelatinous material called colloid and are lined with simple outer adrenal cortex is composed of typical glandular epi-
cuboidal epithelial cells called follicle cells (see Figure 19-4b). thelium arranged into three distinct zones—the zona glo-
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pitu- merulosa, the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis
itary gland stimulates the follicle cells to secrete thyroglobulin, (Figure 19-6b)—each of which produces steroid hormones
a precursor molecule that is then combined with iodine mole- derived from cholesterol.
cules to produce the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3)

Parafollicular
cells

Anterior view

Larynx Blood
vessel
Superior
thyroid
artery

Thyroid
gland
(right lobe)

Isthmus Follicle
cells
Trachea
Thyroid follicle
containing colloid LM (390×)
(a) Gross structure of thyroid gland (b) Thyroid follicles

Figure 19-4 Gross and microscopic anatomy of the thyroid gland.

 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 395

Posterior
pharnyx
(throat)

Posterior view
Thyroid gland
Thyroid Parathyroid gland Chief cells
Parathyroid gland
glands (right lobe)
LM (100×)
(b) Light micrograph of parathyroid gland
Esophagus

Trachea

(a) Anatomy of the parathyroid glands

Figure 19-5 Gross and microscopic anatomy of the parathyroid glands.

Adrenal
Adrenal
cortex:
gland
Capsule

Zona
glomerulosa

Kidney

Zona
fasciculata

Capsule
Adrenal
cortex
Adrenal
medulla
Zona
reticularis
(a) Gross structure of the adrenal gland

Adrenal
medulla

LM (160×)
(b) Histology of the adrenal gland: illustration (left) and light micrograph (right)

Figure 19-6 Gross and microscopic anatomy of the adrenal gland.

396 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

The outer zona glomerulosa consists of balls of cells that or as neurotransmitters released into a synapse, increase
produce a class of hormones known as mineralocorticoids, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, and decrease
which regulate mineral balance. The major mineralocorticoid— digestive activity.
aldosterone—stimulates cells of the kidneys to reabsorb so-
dium ions; water follows the resorbed sodium ions via osmosis.
As a result, both blood volume and blood pressure increase as
Pancreas
urine volume decreases. The middle zona fasciculata consists The pancreas (Figure 19-7a), a club-shaped gland located
of bundles of cells that produce a class of hormones known as posterior to the stomach, is both an exocrine gland and an
glucocorticoids, which regulate glucose metabolism. The main endocrine gland. The exocrine cells are called acinar cells;
glucocorticoid—cortisol—targets liver, muscle, and adipose we will study the exocrine pancreas, which produces diges-
cells. Cortisol’s actions include gluconeogenesis (production of tive enzymes that reach the intestines via ducts, in Units 28
glucose from amino acids and fatty acids) in the liver, the break- and 29. We focus here on the endocrine pancreas.
down of muscle proteins to release amino acids into the blood- The hormone-producing portion of the pancreas, the
stream, and the breakdown of lipids to release fatty acids into pancreatic islets (see Figure 19-7b), contains several cell
the bloodstream. The deep zona reticularis consist of a net- types; the most abundant are alpha cells and beta cells, which
work of cells that predominantly produce androgens (male sex produce hormones that regulate blood glucose levels. The
hormones). alpha (α) cells secrete glucagon, which raises blood glu-
The chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla produce two cose levels by triggering the release of glucose from glycogen
catecholamines—epinephrine and norepinephrine—which stored in the liver. The beta (β) cells secrete insulin, which
are neurohormones that contribute to the fight-or-flight lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating body cells to take
response to stress. These chemical messengers, whether up glucose and liver cells to take up and convert glucose to
they act as neurohormones released into the bloodstream glycogen for storage. The delta (δ) cells secrete somatostatin.

Body of pancreas

Tail of
pancreas
Stomach

Pancreas
Pancreatic artery
Head of
pancreas

Duodenum
(a) Gross structure of the pancreas
Acinar cells

α Cell

β Cell Pancreatic
islet
δ Cell

Pancreatic
blood vessel
LM (285×)
(b) Histology of pancreatic islet and acinar cells: illustration (left) and light micrograph (right)

Figure 19-7 Gross and microscopic anatomy of the pancreas.

 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 397

Testes 2. Explain why the hypothalamus is a major homeostatic

The two major functions of the testes (male gonads) are gam- organ. ________________________________________
ete (sperm) production and testosterone production. The mi- _____________________________________________
croscopic anatomy of the testis is presented in Unit 32; here
we focus on the pathways involving the testis and the endo- _____________________________________________
crine system—designated the hypothalamic–hypophyseal– _____________________________________________
testicular axis. Recall that the hypothalamus produces
releasing factors that control the release of hormones from 3. Why is the hypothalamus classified as a neuroendocrine
the anterior pituitary gland. In this case, GnRH released organ? ________________________________________
into the bloodstream reaches the anterior pituitary gland,
where it stimulates the secretion of the gonadotropins FSH _____________________________________________
and LH, which target the testis. FSH aids in sperm develop- _____________________________________________
ment, whereas LH stimulates testosterone secretion. Testos-
terone stimulates spermatogenesis (sperm production) and is B. Pituitary Gland
responsible for such secondary sex characteristics as enlarge- 1. Identify the pituitary gland on an anatomical model.
ment of the larynx, increased muscle mass, and facial hair. Describe its location using at least three directional
terms. _______________________________________
Ovaries _____________________________________________
The two major functions of the ovaries (female gonads) are _____________________________________________
production of gametes (oocytes) and production of estrogen
and progesterone. As in males, GnRH stimulates the ante- 2. From which brain region does the pituitary gland
rior pituitary gland to produce FSH and LH. In females, FSH extend? ______________________________________
stimulates gamete formation and the secretion of estrogens
from developing follicles; LH stimulates the secretion of pro- 3. Do you agree that the pituitary gland could be consid-
gesterone and estrogens. Progesterone and estrogens regulate ered to be two separate endocrine glands? Why or why
the female reproductive cycle and are responsible for such not? _________________________________________
secondary sex characteristics as breast development and the
deposition of adipose tissue around the hips and thighs. _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1 _____________________________________________

Exploring the Organs C. Pineal Gland

of the Endocrine System 1. Identify the pineal gland on an anatomical model.
Describe its location using at least three directional
Learning Outcomes
terms. _______________________________________
1. Identify the major endocrine organs on anatomical models.
2. Name selected hormones produced by endocrine organs; for each _____________________________________________
hormone, locate its target organ(s) and describe its biological action(s).
_____________________________________________
3. Compare and contrast the mechanisms by which the release of
selected hormones is controlled. 2. In which specific brain region is the pineal gland found?

Materials Needed _____________________________________________

□ Torso model or other anatomical models 3. Which hormone does the pineal gland produce?
□ Anatomical charts
_____________________________________________
Instructions D. Thymus
A. Hypothalamus 1. Identify the thymus on an anatomical model. Describe
1. Identify the hypothalamus on an anatomical model. its location using at least three directional terms.
Describe its location using at least three directional _____________________________________________
terms. _______________________________________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
398 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

2. Name two hormones produced by the thymus. H. Pancreas

_____________________________________________ 1. Identify the pancreas on an anatomical model. Describe
its location using at least three directional terms.
3. What do these hormones regulate? _________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
E. Thyroid Gland
_____________________________________________
1. Identify the thyroid gland on an anatomical model.
Describe its location using at least three directional 2. Why is the pancreas both an endocrine gland and an
terms. ________________________________________ exocrine gland? ________________________________
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
2. What is the isthmus of the thyroid gland? ____________ 3. Name the pancreatic hormones that regulate blood
_____________________________________________ glucose levels. __________________________________
3. Which hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland? Why are these hormones considered an antagonistic pair?
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
F. Parathyroid Glands _____________________________________________
1. Identify the parathyroid glands on an anatomical model. 4. How is the release of these two hormones regulated?
Describe their location using at least three directional
_____________________________________________
terms. ________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
I. Testes
_____________________________________________
1. Identify the testes on an anatomical model. Describe
2. Which hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands? their location using at least three directional terms.
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
3. Name three target organs of this hormone. ____________ _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
G. Adrenal Glands 2. To which two organ systems do the testes belong?
1. Identify the adrenal glands on an anatomical model. _____________________________________________
Describe their location using at least three directional
3. Name the hormone produced by the testes.
terms. ________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
J. Ovaries
_____________________________________________
1. Identify the ovaries on an anatomical model. Describe
2. The adrenal __________________ makes up the their location using at least three directional terms.
external portion of the adrenal gland; the adrenal
_____________________________________________
__________________ makes up the internal portion
_____________________________________________
of the adrenal gland.
_____________________________________________
3. How is hormone release from the adrenal cortex
2. To which two organ systems do the ovaries belong?
controlled? _____________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
3. Name two hormones produced by the ovaries.
4. How is hormone release from the adrenal medulla
_____________________________________________
controlled? _____________________________________
_____________________________________________
 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 399

K. Making Connections biological action(s); then write some “connections” to things

CHART For each of the hormones in the following Mak- you have already learned in lecture, assigned reading, and
ing Connections chart, write its source, target organ(s), and lab. Some entries have been provided for you.

Making Connections: Hormones

Connections to Things I Have
Hormone Source Target(s) Biological Action(s) Already Learned
Gonadotropin-releasing Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of FSH and LH from FSH and LH are gonadotropins; they
hormone (GnRH) the anterior pituitary. target the gonads (testes and ovaries).

Oxytocin   Uterus and mammary    

glands

Luteinizing hormone     Stimulates ovary to produce estrogen  

(LH) and progesterone; stimulates testis to
produce testosterone.

Growth hormone (GH)   Bone, muscle, adipose    

tissue, liver, cartilage

Triiodothyronine (T3 )        
and thyroxine (T4 )

Calcitonin Thyroid gland      

Parathyroid hormone        
(PTH)

Aldosterone     Stimulates cells of the kidneys to  

reabsorb sodium ions.

Cortisol        

(Continued )
400 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

Making Connections: Hormones (Continued)

Connections to Things I Have
Hormone Source Target(s) Biological Action(s) Already Learned
Epinephrine and        
norepinephrine

Insulin        

Glucagon        

Testosterone     Spermatogenesis and development of  

male sex characteristics

Estrogen Ovary      

Progesterone        

Optional Activity
Practice labeling endocrine structures on human cadavers
™
at > > Study Area > Practice Anatomy
Lab > Human Cadaver > Endocrine System

3. Observe chief cells in a histological section of the parathyroid gland.

ACTIVITY 2 4. Differentiate among the three layers of the adrenal cortex and the
Examining the Microscopic Anatomy adrenal medulla in a histological section.
5. Differentiate between the exocrine pancreas (acinar cells) and the
of the Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, endocrine pancreas (pancreatic islets) in a histological section.
Parathyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland,
Materials Needed
and Pancreas □ Microscope and slides (or photomicrographs) of pituitary
Learning Outcomes gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, and
1. Differentiate between the anterior pituitary and posterior pancreas
pituitary in a histological section.
2. Differentiate among follicle cells, colloid, and parafollicular cells
in a histological section of the thyroid gland.
 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 401

Instructions What is the function of follicular cells? _______________

1. Observe a histological slide of the pituitary gland _____________________________________________
(or a photomicrograph) under low power.
What is the function of colloid? ____________________
a. Sketch and label the anterior pituitary gland and the
posterior pituitary gland. _____________________________________________
What are the cells surrounding the follicles called?
_____________________________________________
Which hormone do these cells secrete? _______________
3. Observe a histological section (or a photomicrograph)
of the parathyroid gland under low power. Sketch a
histological view of the parathyroid gland and label the
chief cells.

Total magnification: _____ ×

b. Switch to the high-power objective

(or view a photomicrograph).
How do the cells of the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary differ in appearance?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________ Total magnification: _____ ×
_____________________________________________
Describe the appearance of the chief cells. _____________
Suggest a reason for this difference. __________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Which hormone is produced by the chief cells?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. Observe a histological slide (or a photomicrograph) of
the thyroid gland under low power. Sketch a histological 4. Observe a histological slide (or a photomicrograph)
view of the thyroid gland and label the follicle, follicular of the adrenal gland under low power.
cells, colloid, and parafollicular cells. a. Sketch the adrenal gland and label the adrenal
capsule, adrenal cortex, and adrenal medulla.

Total magnification: _____ ×

Total magnification: _____ ×
402 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

b. Sketch the adrenal gland under high power and label Describe the appearance of the cells in each layer and
the adrenal capsule, adrenal cortex, zona glomeru- name the major hormone secreted by each layer.
losa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, and adrenal
Zona glomerulosa ______________________________
medulla.
_____________________________________________
Zona fasciculata ________________________________
_____________________________________________
Zona reticularis ________________________________
_____________________________________________
Describe the appearance of the cells in the adrenal
medulla. ______________________________________
_____________________________________________
Name the hormones produced in the adrenal
medulla.______________________________________
Total magnification: _____ × _____________________________________________

LabbooST
Microscopic Anatomy of the Adrenal Cortex The contains a net-like arrangement of cells. You learned about
microscopic anatomy of the adrenal cortex contains terms reticular connective tissue in Unit 6 when you studied differ-
that you have encountered in previous units and one that you ent types of connective tissue. Reticular fibers form a support
will encounter in Unit 30 when you study the urinary system. network on which cells of connective tissue sit. In Unit 30,
The zona fasciculata contains cord-like rows (bundles) of you will learn that the kidney contains specialized “balls” of
cells. The term fascicle means “bundle” and you learned about capillaries called glomeruli. These glomeruli appear similar in
bundles of muscle fibers (Unit 11) and bundles of nerve fibers shape to the clusters of cells in the zona glomerulosa of the
(Unit 14), both of which are called fascicles. The zona reticularis adrenal cortex.

Muscle
fibers Reticular Glomeruli
fibers

(a) Fascicle = bundle of muscle fibers (b) Reticular tissue = net-like (c) Glomeruli = balls of capillaries
appearance of fibers and cells
 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 403

5. Observe a histological section (or a photomicrograph)

of the pancreas under low power and distinguish be-
ACTIVITY 3
tween the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas and the Investigating Endocrine Case Studies:
pancreatic islets of the endocrine pancreas. Clinician’s Corner
a. Sketch the pancreas under low power and label the Learning Outcomes
acinar cells and pancreatic islets. 1. Evaluate clinical scenarios and interpret the data presented.
2. Explain the role of negative feedback mechanisms in endocrine
control.

Materials Needed
□ Your class notes, lab manual, and textbook

Instructions
Endocrine disorders often result when a gland produces
too much or too little of a specific hormone, producing a
hormone imbalance. Sometimes such imbalances can result
from a medication or synthetic hormone. Normally, if there
is too much or too little of a given hormone in the body,
feedback mechanisms within the endocrine system correct
hormone levels. Hormone imbalances can also occur if the
feedback system cannot correctly regulate hormone levels in
Total magnification: _____ × the blood or if the body cannot properly clear the blood of
hormones.
b. Now, increase the magnification to high power. Read each of the following clinical scenarios and answer
Describe the appearance of the acinar cells. the accompanying question set:

_____________________________________________ 1. Chad is an active, muscular 28-year-old man with a

3-year history of infertility. Upon physical examination,
Describe the appearance of the pancreatic islets. his body temperature is 98.8oF, blood pressure is 122/82,
_____________________________________________ and pulse is 58 beats/min. Chad reports no family his-
tory of any endocrine disorder and no medical prob-
Which hormone is produced by alpha cells? ___________ lems, although he has extensive acne. He is physically
Which hormone is produced by beta cells? ____________ fit and exhibits a strong libido. Blood analysis indicates
abnormally low levels of FSH and LH; a semen sample
reveals a low sperm count. Upon further questioning,
6. Optional Activity Chad admits to long-term use of anabolic steroids.
View and label histology slides of the endocrine system at > a. Describe the normal hypothalamic–hypophyseal–
™
> Study Area > Practice Anatomy Lab > testicular axis. _______________________________
Histology > Endocrine System
___________________________________________
___________________________________________

Endocrine System Physiology ___________________________________________

b. How do anabolic steroids disrupt this normal axis?
As you have seen, endocrine glands secrete a wide variety of
hormones that function with the nervous system to regulate ___________________________________________
numerous aspects of homeostasis in the body. However, even ___________________________________________
slight changes in the balance of hormones can lead to endo-
crine disorders, which we explore next.
404 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

c. How can anabolic steroid abuse lead to infertility? c. Identify different causes of this disorder.
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________

___________________________________________ d. How is this disorder treated? ____________________

d. Can Chad’s infertility be reversed? If so, how? ___________________________________________

___________________________________________
___________________________________________ EXERCISE 4
2. Molly, a 31-year-old mother of three children, has been Endocrine System Physiology
working out with a trainer and following a moderate,
balanced diet for approximately a year. Despite her The PhysioEx 9.1 Laboratory Simulations in Physiology are
disciplined approach to diet and exercise, Molly has easy-to-use laboratory simulations that can be used as an al-
experienced significant weight gain during the past ternative to or as a supplement to wet lab activities in this
4 months. Especially noticeable are the fat that has ac- unit. Each simulation allows you to investigate important
cumulated between her shoulder blades and excess hair physiological concepts, repeat labs as often as you like, and
growth on her face, neck, and chest. Cuts take a long conduct experiments that are difficult to perform in a wet
time to heal and she bruises easily. Her menstrual cycles lab environment because of time, cost, or safety concerns.
have become very irregular and she feels anxious and
stressed most of the time.
Access the simulations in these activities at
a. What is your diagnosis? _______________________ > Study Area > PhysioEx 9.1

b. What causes this endocrine disorder? _____________

___________________________________________
c. How can this endocrine disorder be treated?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
3. Ellen is a 45-year-old woman complaining of severe
fatigue and weight gain. She reports that her skin is very
dry and that her hair has been falling out. Addition-
ally, she has been experiencing bouts of irritability and
depression. Blood analysis reveals the following:

Hormone Results Normal Values

TSH 8.0 milliunit/L 0.3–3.0 milliunit/L
There you will find the following activities:
T3 50 mg/dL 100–200 ng/dL
PEx Activity 1: Metabolism and Thyroid Hormone
T4 3.88 mcg/dL 4.5–11.2 mcg/dL PEx Activity 2: Plasma Glucose, Insulin, and Diabetes
Mellitus
a. What is your diagnosis? _______________________ PEx Activity 3: Hormone Replacement Therapy
PEx Activity 4: Measuring Cortisol and Adrenocorticotropic
b. Explain why TSH levels are elevated and T3/T4 levels
Hormone
are low. _____________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
 Post-lab quizzes are also assignable POST-LAB ASSIGNMENTS
in

Name: ______________________________________________________________ Date: ______________________ Lab Section: __________

PART I. Check Your Understanding

Activity 1: Exploring the Organs of the Endocrine System

1. Identify the structures of the endocrine organs in the accompanying diagrams:

a. ________________________________ e. ________________________________
b. ________________________________ f. ________________________________
c. ________________________________ g. ________________________________
d. ________________________________

f
c
d
g

Posterior view

2. Match each of the following endocrine organs to the hormone(s) that it produces:
__________________ a. thyroid gland 1. estrogen 10. T3
__________________ b. pituitary gland 2. oxytocin 11. epinephrine
__________________ c. hypothalamus 3. glucagon 12. prolactin
__________________ d. pineal gland 4. parathyroid hormone 13. T4
__________________ e. pancreas 5. calcitonin 14. cortisol
__________________ f. parathyroid gland 6. thyroid-releasing hormone 15. growth hormone
__________________ g. adrenal gland 7. testosterone
__________________ h. ovary 8. aldosterone
__________________ i. testis 9. melatonin

405
406   U N I T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

3. Indicate whether the release of each of the following hormones is controlled neurally, humorally, or
hormonally.
__________________ a. Epinephrine
__________________ b. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
__________________ c. Insulin
__________________ d. Antidiuretic hormone
__________________ e. Parathyroid hormone

Activity 2: Examining the Microscopic Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland,
Parathyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, and Pancreas

1. Identify the structures in the accompanying micrographs of endocrine tissue:

a. ________________________________
b. ________________________________
c. ________________________________ a
d. ________________________________
b
e. ________________________________
f. ________________________________ c

g. ________________________________
h. ________________________________
LM (100×)

g
d
h

LM (1000×)

LM (100×)

2. Match each of the following cell types to the hormone(s) that it produces.
_____ a. beta cells 1. parathyroid hormone
_____ b. follicle cells 2. epinephrine
_____ c. parafollicular cells 3. insulin
_____ d. chief cells 4. calcitonin
_____ e. neuroendocrine cells 5. oxytocin
_____ f. chromaffin cells 6. thyroid hormones
 UNIT 19 | The Endocrine System 407

Activity 3: Investigating Endocrine Case Studies: Clinician’s Corner

1. For each of the following pairs of endocrine disorders, list the gland(s) and hormone(s) involved,
and then indicate one difference between the disorders.
a. Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
b. Cushing syndrome and Addison disease _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
c. Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism __________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

PART II. Putting It All Together

A. Review Questions
Answer the following questions using your lecture notes, your textbook, and your lab notes.

1. How are the adrenal gland and the pituitary gland similar? ____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

2. Complete the following chart:

Hormone Specific Source Control of Release

Oxytocin Neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitary Nerve impulses traveling from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary

Insulin    

T3 and T4  

Epinephrine  

Prolactin  

Aldosterone  
408 U NI T 1 9 | The Endocrine System

3. Explain how anabolic steroid abuse can lead to infertility. ___________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

4. Explain why hypothyroidism is often associated with elevated TSH levels. _____________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

B. Concept Mapping

1. Fill in the blanks to complete this concept map outlining the regulation of reproductive
hormone function.

anterior pituitary gland gonadotropins hypothalamus testis testosterone

Releases

GnRH

Which
targets
FSH
Classified
And stimulates as
release of

LH

Which
targets
And stimulates
release of

2. Construct a unit concept map to show the relationships among the following set of
terms. Include all of the terms in your diagram. Your instructor may choose to assign
additional terms.

adrenal cortex chromaffin cells endocrine exocrine gonadotropins

hypothalamus melatonin neurosecretory cells ovary pancreas

parafollicular cells parathyroid gland thymus gland thyroid hormones zona glomerulosa