Ebook - CISSP - Domain - 03 - Security Architecture and Engineering

Certified Information Systems Security Professional
(CISSP) Certification Training Course
CISSP® is a registered trademark of (ISC)² ®

Domain 03: Security Architecture and Engineering
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Implement secure design principles such as fail safe or fail secure,

trust but verify, and zero trust
Compare different security models
Discuss privacy, cybersecurity, and risk frameworks
Examine the concepts of security architecture
Explain cloud computing, Internet of Things, microservices,

and edge and fog computing
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Summarize the concepts of Data Encryption Standard (DES)

and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
List the various advantages and disadvantages of symmetric and

asymmetric cryptography
Implement key management principles
Explain different environmental control methods

Introduction to Security Engineering
Security Architecture and Design: Case Study
Kevin Butler, Security Administrator in the Network Firewalls division

at Nutri Worldwide Inc. read the internal case study on security
architecture and design.
In the previous financial year, Nutri Worldwide Inc. expected a large

increase in IT infrastructure requirements. The management felt the
need to implement best practices for IT service management. Hilda
Jacob, the General Manager of IT security, was assigned the task of
selecting the best framework to help the organization identify, plan,
deliver, and support IT services. Hilda decided to select the ITIL
framework.
Security Engineering
Security engineering helps in:
• Building information systems and the related

architectures
• Delivering the required functionality to address

the threats of information systems
Building information systems and
the related security
• Incorporating architectures
controls, capabilities,
and behaviors into enterprise architecture and
information systems to address the security
principles of confidentiality, integrity, and
availability
Research, Implement, and Manage Engineering Processes Using
Secure Design Principles
Least Privilege
The principle of least privilege means

users should be granted the minimum
amount of access (authorization)
required to do their jobs.
Threat Modeling
Threat modeling is a process by which:

• Potential threats such as structural
vulnerabilities or the absence of
appropriate safeguards can be
identified and enumerated
• Mitigations can be prioritized
Policies, Procedures
and Awareness
Defense in Depth Physical
Defense in depth is a concept in Network

which multiple layers of security
Computer
controls are placed throughout an
information technology system.
Application
Device
Secure The default behavior of the system is to be secure. If you use 10% of the
Defaults features 90% of the time, the other features can be disabled.
• Separation of duties (also known as segregation of duties) is the concept

Separation of of having more than one person to complete a critical or sensitive task.
Duties (SoD):
• The goal of separation of duties is to prevent fraud and error.
Keep it simple is a design principle that states that most processes or

Keep It Simple systems work best if they are kept simple rather than made overly
complicated.
Fail Secure and Fail Safe
Failure is unavoidable and should be planned for. There are two possible failure modes:
fail secure and fail safe.
Fail Secure (Closed) Fail Safe (Open)
• Fail secure is a design feature that in • Fail safe is a design feature that in the
the event of a failure, it should fail to a event of a specific type of failure, it should
state that prevents further operations. cause minimal or no harm to other
equipment, the environment, or people.
• For example, a firewall must be
configured to fail securely. In the event • For example, if a building catches fire,
of an operational failure of the firewall, fail-safe systems would unlock doors to
all traffic is subsequently denied. ensure quick escape and allow firefighters
inside, while fail secure would lock doors
to prevent unauthorized access to the
building.
Trust but Verify
Trust but Verify (TbV) Organizations must Verification audits can

promotes the idea For example, even if
regularly perform risk be conducted to
that system the data source is
management and mitigate the negative
components should reliable, always verify
regulatory consequences of
not blindly trust each the data for accuracy
compliance high-risk processes or
other. and integrity.
investigations. product use.
Zero Trust
Zero trust is a security model based on the principle of

trust nothing and verify everything.
It is a holistic approach to network security wherein every person and device trying to
access resources on a private network must require strict identity verification, regardless
of whether they are inside or outside the network perimeter.
Zero Trust
While it is difficult to obtain access from

outside the network, everything inside the
organization’s network is trusted by default.
Every access request is fully

The traditional IT authenticated, authorized,
network security model and encrypted before
is based on the castle- granting access.
and-moat concept.
Under this broken trust model, if an attacker

gains access to the network, they can easily
move across security layers and systems.
Privacy by Design
Privacy by Design is a design-thinking approach to proactively embed into the design and
operation of IT systems, networked infrastructure, and business practices, by default.
Seven principles of Privacy By Design:
1. Proactive not reactive or preventative not remedial: Anticipate, identify, and

prevent privacy-invasive events before they happen.
2. Privacy as default: Personal data is automatically protected in any given IT system
or business practice.
3. Privacy embedded into design: Privacy is a fully integrated component of the system
and not bolted on as an add-on.
4. Full functionality: Positive-sum, not zero-sum: employ a win-win approach to all
legitimate interests and objectives, without making any unnecessary trade-offs.
Source: https://privacy.ucsc.edu/resources/privacy-by-design---foundational-principles.pdf
Privacy by Design
Privacy by Design is a design-thinking approach to proactively embed into the design and
operation of IT systems, networked infrastructure, and business practices, by default.
Seven principles of Privacy By Design:
5. End-to-end security: Lifecycle protection: extend securely across the entire lifecycle
of the data from collection to retention to destruction at the end of the process.
6. Visibility and transparency: Assure stakeholders that business practices and
technologies are operating according to stated promises and objectives and subject to
independent verification.
7. Respect for user privacy: Keep things user-centric. Prioritize an individual's privacy
interests by offering such measures as strong privacy defaults, appropriate notice, and
user-friendly options.
Source: https://privacy.ucsc.edu/resources/privacy-by-design---foundational-principles.pdf
Shared Responsibility
• A shared responsibility model is a cloud security

framework that describes the security responsibilities
of the cloud provider and the cloud customer.
• The cloud provider is responsible for the security of

the underlying infrastructure that they lease to their
customers, while customers are responsible for the
security of the areas of the cloud infrastructure over
which they have control.
• Typically, the contract (SLA) between the cloud

customer and the cloud provider is used to clarify
their individual and shared responsibilities.
• Cloud customer is ultimately responsible for

compliance and data security.
Understand the Fundamental Concepts of Security Models
Security Models
It maps the desires of the

A model is a symbolic policymakers to a set of
representation of a policy. rules that a computer
system must follow.
It maps the abstract goals of the policy to

information system terms by specifying explicit
data structures and techniques necessary to
enforce the security policy.
Security Models
• It is usually represented in mathematics and

analytical ideas, which are mapped to system
specifications and then developed by
programmers through programming code.
• For example, if a security policy states that the
subjects need to be authorized to access
objects, the security model would provide the
mathematical relationships and formulas
explaining how x can access y only through the
outlined specific methods.
Security Models
A CISSP candidate should be aware of the general types of security models.
Some examples:
The goal How each new

addressed by model builds on
a model earlier models
State Machine Model
This is used to describe the behavior of a system to different inputs.

• It is based on the state of a system.
o State is the snapshot of the system at one moment in time.
o Current permissions and current instances of subjects accessing objects must be
captured.
• This model must identify all the initial states of the system and outline how these values will be
changed by various inputs so that it is always safe in the final state.
State Machine Model
• Once the system is in a secure state, the System Bootup Secure

state machine will ensure that every time the
system is accessed or changed, it will
transition only from one secure state to Any Activity Secure
another secure state.
Example: If any component in the OS or

firewall fails, it must fail to a secure state. System Failure Secure
State Machine Model Characteristics

Multilevel Lattice Models
• Multilevel security models describe strict

layers of subjects and objects.
• They are often described using lattices or
discrete layers.
• Subjects with different clearances use the
system and the system processes data at
different classification levels.
Example: A user with secret clearance can

view documents at confidential and
secret levels, however, not at a top-secret
level.
Access Control Matrix
An access control matrix is a table of subjects and objects that indicates the actions or functions
that each subject can perform on each object.
Subjects Document File Printer Network Folder Share

Bob Read No Access No Access
No Access
Mary No Access Read
Amanda Read, Write Print No Access
Mark Read, Write Print Read, Write
Kathryn Read, Write Print, Manage Print Queue Read, Write, Execute
Read, Write, Change Print, Manage Print Queue Read, Write, Execute
Colin
Permissions Change Permissions Change Permissions
Table 8.1 An access control matrix
Noninterference Model
• The goal of a noninterference model is to Non – Interference

ensure that high-level actions do not Model
determine what low-level users can see.
Ensures that
• The term non-interference means that actions at one
activities performed by a user with high security level
has no effect
clearance will not interfere with any activities
on objects on
performed by a user with low clearance. another
• It addresses two attacks: security level
o Covert channel attacks
o Inference attack
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7MHq3Kwt8k
Information Flow Model
• The information flow model focuses on the

flow of information rather than on access
control.
• The model is based on a state machine.
• It doesn't necessarily deal with only the

direction of the information flow.
• It can also address the type of flow.

• The models are designed to prevent

unauthorized, insecure, or restricted
information flow, often between different
levels of security.
• These are often referred to as a multilevel

models.
• Information flow can be between subjects

and objects at the same classification level as
well as between subjects and objects at
different classification levels.
Purchase Order, P.O. Acknowledge, Manifest, Invoice
Manufacturer Purchase Order, P.O. Change, Receiving Distributer

Acknowledgement
Point of Sale
Examples of Security Models: Bell–LaPadula Confidentiality Model
Bell–LaPadula
• It focuses on maintaining the confidentiality of

objects.
Top Secret
• It is the first mathematical model of a multilevel
security policy that defines a secure state of the
No write down
system.
No read up
Secret
• It’s a framework for computer systems that store
and process sensitive information.
Confidential
• Matrix and security levels are used to determine
if a subject can access an object.
Unclassified
• It uses subjects, objects, access operations, and
security labels.
Examples of Security Models: Bell–LaPadula Confidentiality Model
• The simple security rule: A subject cannot read data at a higher

security level (no read up).
Rules and • The *-property rule: A subject cannot write data to an object at a
properties: lower security level (no write down).
• The strong star property rule: A subject can perform read and write
functions only to objects at its same security level.
• It addresses only the confidentiality of data.

• It does not address integrity or availability because it was designed in
the 1970s.
Drawbacks: • It does not support many operations that are common today, such as
file sharing and networking.
• It also assumes secure transitions between security layers and does
not address covert channels.
Examples of Security Models: BIBA Integrity Model
The BIBA Integrity Model protects the integrity of the information and the activities that
take place within a system. The following are the axioms of the BIBA Integrity Model:
The Simple Integrity Axiom The Star Integrity Axiom
• It states that a subject • It states that a subject cannot

cannot read data at a lower modify an object in a higher
integrity level integrity level.
• It means that a subject • This is called no write-up, or
cannot read documents NWU.
below its level. This is called
a no read down, or NRD.
Examples of Security Models: BIBA Integrity Model
Drawbacks: Top Secret Write
• It addresses only integrity, not confidentiality

or availability.
• It focuses on protecting objects from Secret

external threats; it assumes that internal
threats are handled programmatically.
• It does not prevent covert channels. Confidential Read

Examples of Security Models: Clark–Wilson Integrity Model
• It is an integrity model developed after the BIBA model.

• It is used commercially.
• It addresses all the goals of the integrity model:
o Prevents unauthorized users from making modifications (BIBA model)
o Prevents authorized users from making improper modifications
o Maintains internal and external consistency
Access triple,
separation of duties is
enforced.
Subjects can access

objects only through Goals of Auditing is required.
authorized programs. Integrity
Examples of Security Models: Clark–Wilson Integrity Model
It focuses on well-formed transactions and separation of duties.
Well-formed Transaction Access Triple
A series of operations that The model uses a three-part

transform a data item from relationship of a subject,
one consistent state to another program, or object (where a
is a well-formed transaction. program is interchangeable
with a transaction), known
as a triple or an access
control triple.
Clark–Wilson Integrity Model
Clark-Wilson model defines the following items and procedures:
Constrained data item (CDI) Unconstrained data item (UDI)
It is a data item whose integrity It is a data item that is not

is protected by the security controlled by the security model.
model. Any input or output that hasn’t
been validated would be
considered an unconstrained
data item.
Unconstrained data item (UDI)

Integrity verification procedure

Transformation procedures (TPs)
(IVP)
It is a procedure that scans data • They are the only procedures

items and confirms their integrity. that are allowed to modify a
CDI.
• The limited access to CDIs

through TPs forms the
backbone of the Clark Wilson
Integrity model.
Clark Wilson model is illustrated below:
Users
Internal and external

Integrity verification
procedureconsistency
(IVP) of CDIs
CDIs
UDIs
Brewer and Nash Model
• It is also called the Chinese wall model.

• Information flow model provides access
control mechanism that can change
dynamically depending on a user’s
authorization.
• Previous actions are designed to provide
controls that mitigate conflict of interest.
• Information flow does not happen between

the subjects and objects in a way that would
create a conflict of interest.
Source: https://infosectests.com/cissp-study-references/domain-3-security-engineering-and-architecting/
Graham Denning Model
• It defines a set of basic rights in terms of

commands that a subject can execute over
an object.
• Each object has an owner that has special
rights on it.
• Each subject has another subject (controller)

that has special rights on it.
• The model is based on the Access Control

Matrix model.
Graham Denning Model
It has eight protection rights that detail how the functionalities

should take place securely:
• How to securely create an object
• How to securely create a subject
• How to securely delete an object
• How to securely delete a subject
• How to securely provide the read access right
• How to securely provide the grant access right
• How to securely provide the delete access right
• How to securely provide the transfer access right Protection rights
Take Grant Model
Employs a direct graph to dictate how rights can be passed from one subject
to another subject or an object
Take Rule Grant Rule Create Rule Remove Rule

Allows the subject to Allows the subject to Allows the subject to Allows the subject to
take rights over an grant rights to an create new rights remove the rights it
object object has
Take Grant Model
Example for the Take Grant model:
• Alice can create and remove privileges to

secrets t
• Alice can grant privileges to Carol
g c, r
• Bob can take Alice’s privileges
Carol Alice Secret

documents
Composition Theories
• Systems are usually built by combining smaller systems.
• Security of components must be considered when these components are combined into larger
systems.
• This is based on the notion of how inputs and outputs between multiple systems relate to one
another
o It follows how information flows between systems rather than within an individual system.
Composition Theories
Types of composition theories:
Cascading:
Input for one system comes from the output of another system.
A🡪 B🡪 C
Feedback:
One system provides input to another system, which reciprocates by reversing those roles
(so that system A first provides input for system B and then system B provides input to system A).
A🡪 B
B🡪 A
Hookup:
One system sends input to another system but also sends input to external entities.
A🡪 B
A🡪 C
Covert Channel
Covert channel is a type of attack that creates a capability to transfer information objects
between processes that are not allowed to communicate by the computer security policy.
Improper coding
Improper access control

Causes of covert implementation within
channel: software
Shared resources which

are not properly
controlled
Covert Channel
The two types of covert channels are covert storage channel and covert timing channel.
An attack where communication is transmitted over a

Covert storage channel channel that was not intended for communication
• It communicates by modifying a storage Subject at High

Security Level
Subject at Low
Security Level
Subject
After recourse
through modulation
location, such as a hard drive.
System
Writes Reads Recourse
• It occurs when out-of-band data is stored in Data Data
messages for the purpose of memory reuse. Data at High Security Level “Sees” effects as real
Subject condition within
system
Example: Steganography Storage Attack Storage Attack

Covert Channel
The two types of covert channels are covert storage channel and covert timing channel.
Covert timing channel An attack where communication is transmitted over a

channel that was not intended for communication
• It performs operations that affect the real
Subject at High Subject at Low After recourse
response time observed by the receiver Security Level Security Level
Subject through modulation
• Methods: System
Writes Reads Recourse
Data Data
o Knowing when data is transmitted
Data at High Security Level “Sees” effects as real
between parties Subject condition within
system
o Monitoring the timing of operations Storage Attack Storage Attack
Example: Monitoring cryptographic

functions
Open and Closed Systems
Closed System Open System
• This solution is the one where the source • It is the one where the source code and
code and other internal logic are hidden other internal logic are exposed to the
from the public. public.
• It is designed to work well with a • It is designed using agreed-upon industry

narrow range of other systems, standards.
generally all from the same
manufacturer. • It is easier to integrate an open system
with systems from different
• It is harder to integrate with unlike manufacturers that support the same
systems, but it can be more secure. standards.
• It is more dependent on the vendor • It often depends on public inspection and

and programmer to revise the product review to improve the product over time.
over time.
• It can provide interoperability.
Business Scenario
Kevin Butler, the security administrator at Nutri Worldwide Inc., wants to set up
different accesses to a set of folders on a network.
The access should be such that some of his colleagues will have read and write
access, while others are allowed read-only access to the files in the folder.
Kevin starts the process of selecting a security model.
Question: Which security model should Kevin Butler implement in the given scenario?
Business Scenario
Kevin Butler, the security administrator at Nutri Worldwide Inc., wants to set up
different accesses to a set of folders on a network.
The access should be such that some of his colleagues will have read and write
access, while others are allowed read-only access to the files in the folder.
Kevin starts the process of selecting a security model.
Question: Which security model should Kevin Butler implement in the given scenario?
Answer: The one-to-one relationship among subjects and objects is the focus of a matrix-based
model. Kevin should choose the matrix-based model.
Select Controls Based on System Security Requirements
Privacy Frameworks
The three privacy frameworks:
The General Data Protection

OECD Privacy Principles
Regulation (GDPR)
Privacy Management Framework

(PMF)
Source: http://www.oecdprivacy.org/
and
https://www.aicpa.org/interestareas/informationtechnology/privacy-management-framework.html
Cybersecurity Frameworks
The four cybersecurity frameworks:
Risk Management Framework

ISO/IEC 270xx
(RMF)
Cloud Security Alliance (CSA);

HITRUST Common Security
Security, Trust, Assurance,
Framework (CSF)
and Risk Registry (STAR)
and
Risk Frameworks
The four risk frameworks:
Committee of Sponsoring
ISO 31000
Organizations (COSO)
NIST Special Publication (SP)

ISACA Risk IT
800-37
and
Understand Security Capabilities of Information Systems
Architecture
It is a tool used to understand It provides a

the structure and behavior of representation of the
a complex system through concerns of each
different views. stakeholder.
Architecture
It describes the major components of the system and how they interact with each other.
Example: In a house architecture, house plan, electricity plan, or plumbing

plan for the kitchen is the highest or first level in the development process.
Architecture
• Architecture description is a formal description and representation of the system.

• It describes the relationships, interactions, and dependencies between components.
System Architecture
System architecture describes the major components of a system and how they interact with
each other, users, and other systems.
• A disciplined approach to system

architecture helps in:
o Quality
o Interoperability
o Portability
o Security
o Extensibility
• Security goals have to be defined before the
architecture of a system is created (baked-
in concept).
System Architecture
• Security being addressed late in the

development phase is called baked-on
concept.
• ISO/IEC 42010 is the systems and software

engineering architecture description.
• It is important to understand the scope of the

target system before you can develop,
architect, or evaluate it.
Security Architecture Requirement
• The government and the industry needed

to ensure that all the systems that they
were purchasing and implementing were
protecting its secrets.
• They needed to come up with a way to instruct
vendors on how to build computer systems to
meet their security needs.
• In order to find a way to test the products, the
architecture is developed based on the same
security needs.
• In 1972, the U.S. government released a

report (Computer Security Technology
Planning Study) that outlined basic and
foundational security requirements of
computer systems that it would deem
acceptable for purchase and deployment.
• These requirements shaped the security

architecture of almost all of the systems in use
today.
Trusted
computing base
Security perimeter
Some of the core
tenets of these
requirements are:
Reference monitor
Security kernel
Trusted Computing Base
It is the collection of all the hardware, software, and firmware components within the
system that provides security control and enforces the system security policy.
Hardware Hardware
TCB
Hardware
Software Software
Software
Firmware
Firmware Firmware
The TCB does not only address operating system components, but it
also addresses hardware, software, and firmware components as
they can also affect the system negatively or positively.
The components that make up the TCB provide extra layers of

protection around these mechanisms to help ensure they are not
compromised, so the system will always run safely and predictably.
If TCB is enabled, then the system has:
A trusted path A trusted shell
The communication path Actions within the

between the user or interpreter or shell cannot
program and the TCB is be exposed out and other
secure. processes cannot intrude.
System Components: Trusted Platform Module (TPM)
TPM is the implementation of a secure crypto- processor.
• It is a microprocessor that stores and generates

cryptographic keys.
• It generates random numbers for use in cryptographic

algorithms.
• It is used for cryptographic functions such as disk

encryption and authentication.
Examples: Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows 8. Windows Server 2008 uses
the disk encryption software named BitLocker.
Security Architecture: Security Perimeter
Security Perimeter
• It is an imaginary boundary that divides the

trusted and untrusted components in the Hardware
system. TCB - LAN
• It is a resource within the boundary and is
Interface
considered a part of TCB Components on Hardware
Software
either side of the boundary that can interact Software
only via interfaces.
Firmware
• The interfaces limit or restrict the commands
and data that can be passed on either side of Firmware
the boundary creating a security perimeter. Trusted System
Not Trustworthy
Security Architecture: Reference Monitor
• It’s an abstract machine that mediates all access

that subjects must object.
User Process
• It is an access control concept and is also
referred to as reference monitor concept or
All System calls go
abstract machine. through the refence
monitor for security
• A fully secure system will require subjects to be
checking
fully authorized before access is provisioned to
the objects.
Reference Monitor
• It provides direction on how all access control
decisions are made. Trusted Computing Base
• All-access decisions should be made by a core- Operating System Kernal

trusted, tamper-proof component of the OS
that works at the system kernel.
Security Architecture: Security Kernel
Security Kernel: Components in system that enforce

and implement the rules of the reference monitor
Subject
John Full control

• It is made up of hardware, software, and
1.
firmware components within the TCB. Bob No Access
• It implements and enforces the David Read

reference monitor concept. Marge Full control
Reference
• It is the core of TCB. Monitor
2. George Write
Sean No Access
John Full control
3 Bob No Access
Object
Security Architecture: Security Kernel Requirements
Security kernel has three main requirements:
Must provide isolation for Must be invoked for

the processes carrying out every access attempt and
reference monitor concept should be tamperproof
Must be small enough to be

tested and verified in a complete
and comprehensive manner
Confinement, Bounds, and Isolation
Confinement Bounds Isolation
• It allows a process to read • Bounds are the limits of • It is the mode a process
from and write to only memory a process runs in when it is confined
certain memory locations cannot exceed when using memory bounds.
and resources. reading or writing. • Process isolation ensures
• If a process attempts to • The bounds of a process that any behavior will affect
initiate an action beyond its consist of limits set on only the memory and
granted authority, that the memory addresses resources associated with
action will be denied and and resources it can the isolated process.
logged. access.
Assess and Mitigate the Vulnerabilities of Security Architectures,
Designs, and Solution Elements
CPU Architecture: Ring Model
Ring 3 Users
Ring 2
Ring model is a form of CPU hardware layering that
separates and protects domains from each other.
Ring 1
• Many CPUs have four rings, ranging from ring 0 to 3.
• The innermost ring is the most trusted.
Ring 0
• Processes communicate between rings via system Kernel
calls.
Ring 0 : kernel
Ring 1 : Other OS Components
Ring 2 : Device Drives
Ring 3 : User Applications
Client-Server Systems and Local Environment
Server
Client-server systems enable an application system

to be divided across multiple platforms.
• The client requests services and the server fulfills

these requests.
Client Client
• The client is the front-end portion of an application.
Client Client
• The server is the back-end portion of an application.
Client-Server Systems and Local Environment
Server
Local environment is a type of environment

in which:
• Applications are located on only one system Client Client
• No communication links exist with other systems Client Client

Distributed Environment
Workstation
Distributed environment is a type of

system architecture, which integrates
the management of:
Database Server Database Server
• Application software
Network
• Application platform
• Technology interface
DEPT Table DEPT Table
• Information
• Communications HQ Database Sales Database
Workstation Output Devices

Industrial Control System (ICS)
Industrial Control System (ICS) is a general term that encompasses several types of
control systems, including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems,
distributed control systems (DCS), and other control system configurations such as
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) often found in the industrial sectors and critical
infrastructures. ~ NIST
Supervisory Control
Programmable Logic Distributed Control
and Data Acquisition
Controllers (PLC) Systems (DCS)
(SCADA)
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
• A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small industrial

computer originally designed for factory automation and
industrial process control.
• A PLC can be programmed as per the process that needs to
be controlled.
• PLCs have evolved into controllers with the capability of
controlling complex processes, and they are used
substantially in SCADA systems and DCS.
• PLCs are also used as the primary controller in smaller
system configurations.
• PLCs are used extensively in almost all industrial processes.
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Unlike PLCs, which are generally

standalone and perform a
A distributed control system
particular task, DCS is a system
(DCS) is a specially designed
of dividing plant or process
automated control system
control into several areas of
used to monitor and control
responsibility, each managed by
distributed equipment in
its controller, with the whole
process plants and industrial
system connected to form a
processes.
single entity.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are used to monitor and control a plant or
equipment in industries such as telecommunications, water, waste control, energy, oil and gas
refining, and other public transportation systems (airport, traffic control, and rails).
SCADA consists of many remote terminal

SCADA provides management with real-
units spread geographically across for the
time data on production, improves plant
collection of data and is connected to the
and personnel safety, and reduces costs
master station for centralized data
of operation.
acquisition via any communication system.
SCADA systems have increasingly adopted Internet

of things technology to significantly improve
interoperability, reduce infrastructure costs, and
increase ease of maintenance and integration.
SCADA Master Station/Control Center Comm. Links Remote Substation

1200 bps +
Intelligent Electronic
(down to 300 bps
Remote Terminal Devices
in actual
installation) Unit(RTU)
Actuator
Radio
SCADA Microwave
Meter
Master Spread-spectrum
Accumulator
Twisted-pair
External Control Fiber-optics Dial-up Programmable Logic
Points Leased line Controller(PLC)
Difference between PLC, DCS, and SCADA
PLC DCS SCADA
Used for controlling the Used for supervising and

Used for controlling
Usage medium or large-scale acquiring data from remote
the entire plant
applications plants
Location Local Local Geographically dispersed
Communication LAN LAN Any communication system
Performance High Medium Slow

Security Concerns with ICS
Industrial Control System (ICS) poses the following security concerns:
• Control systems protocols with little or no security

• Migration to TCP/IP networks with its inherent
vulnerabilities
• Interconnection with enterprise networks
• Old operating systems and applications with poor
patching practices
• Little monitoring of control systems to detect and
prevent attacks
• Poor security practices followed by vendors resulting
in insecure products
• Increased risk of insider attacks by outsourced IT
services
• Increased attacks on ICS by terrorists and foreign
governments
Business Scenario
First uncovered by Kaspersky Lab in 2010, the Stuxnet Worm targeted

SCADA systems and was responsible for causing substantial damage to
Iran’s nuclear program.
A key differential with Stuxnet was that, unlike most viruses, the worm
targeted systems that are air-gapped and not connected to the internet
for security reasons, via USB keys.
Business Scenario
• It exploited four zero-day security vulnerabilities found in Windows OS and

then propagated across the network, exploiting security holes on computers
running Siemens Step7 software that controls the PLCs.
• The operations were designed to provide the hackers with sensitive

information on Iranian industrial infrastructure and even cause the fast-
spinning centrifuges to tear themselves apart while masking the changes in
rotational speed from monitoring systems.
• Its complexity indicated that only nation-state actors could have been involved
in its development and deployment.
Question: What is a zero-day vulnerability?

Business Scenario
• It exploited four zero-day security vulnerabilities found in Windows OS and

then propagated across the network, exploiting security holes on computers
running Siemens Step7 software that controls the PLCs.
• The operations were designed to provide the hackers with sensitive

information on Iranian industrial infrastructure and even cause the fast-
spinning centrifuges to tear themselves apart while masking the changes in
rotational speed from monitoring systems.
• Its complexity indicated that only nation-state actors could have been involved
in its development and deployment.
Question: What is a zero-day vulnerability?
Answer: A zero-day exploit is an attack that exploits a previously unknown security vulnerability.
Case Study
ICS Malware Targets European Energy Company:
The backdoor delivered a

The SFG malware, discovered in payload that was used to
June 2016 on the networks of a extract data from or
European energy company, potentially shut down the
created a backdoor on targeted energy grid, according to
industrial control systems. security researchers at endpoint
security firm SentinelOne Labs.
Case Study
• The Windows-based SFG malware is designed to bypass next-generation antivirus

software and firewalls.
• It also encrypts key features of its code so that it can not be discovered and analyzed.
• The malware even skips features such as facial recognition, fingerprint scanners, and
other advanced biometric access control systems running inside target organizations.
• Furthermore, the malware shuts down when put into a sandboxed environment or a
virtual machine to escape the notice of security teams.
Case Study
For nation-states,
Cyber-criminals are shifting identifying weaknesses in
their focus to industrial critical infrastructures of
facilities as a lucrative adversaries can be used
target, where they can strategically in case of
blackmail facilities through conflicts, where cyber-
techniques such as attacks can be launched to
ransomware. paralyze a nation's key
sectors, such as power,
water, and transportation.
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a type of computing that depends on sharing

computing resources over the internet.
It is the use of remote servers on the internet to store, manage, and

process your data rather than your local server or local computer.
Cloud Computing Models
Broad Network On-Demand Essential

Rapid Elasticity Measured Service
Access Self-Service Characteristics
Resource Pooling
Software as a Service Platform as a Service Infrastructure as a service Delivery

(SaaS) (Paas) (IaaS) Models
Deployment
Public Private Hybrid Community Models
Cloud Computing Characteristics
On-Demand
Access
Resource Pooling
Multitenancy
The provider abstracts resources and
collects them into a pool, portions of which
can be allocated to different consumers
(typically based on policies).
Measured Services Rapid Elasticity
Broad Network
Access
On-Demand
Access
Resource Pooling
Multitenancy
It allows consumers to expand or contract
the resources they use from the pool
(provisioning and deprovisioning), often
completely automatically.
Broad Network
Access
On-Demand
Access
Resource Pooling
Multitenancy
In broad network access, all resources are

available over a network, without any need
for direct physical access.
Broad Network
Access
On-Demand
Access
Resource Pooling
Multitenancy
In measured services, customers are

charged for what they are using or
consuming.
Broad Network
Access
On-Demand
Access
Resource Pooling
Multitenancy
It is a reference to the mode of operation of
software where multiple independent
instances of one or multiple applications
operate in a shared environment.
Broad Network
Access
On-Demand
Access
• In on-demand access, consumers Resource Pooling

Multitenancy
provision the resources from the pool
using on-demand self-service.
• They manage their resources

themselves, without having to talk to a
human administrator. Rapid Elasticity
Measured Services
Broad Network
Access
Categorization of Cloud: Deployment Categories
Public Cloud
The cloud infrastructure is made available to the general public or a

large industry group and is owned by an organization selling
cloud services.
Private Cloud
• The cloud infrastructure is operated solely for a single

organization
• Might be managed by the organization or by a third party and

might be located on- premises or off- premises
Community Cloud
• Cloud infrastructure is shared by several organizations and

supports a specific community that has shared concerns (for
example, mission, security requirements, policy, or compliance
considerations)
• Might be managed by the organizations or by a third party
• Might be located on-premises or off-premises

Hybrid Cloud
Cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more clouds (private,

community, or public) that remain unique entities.
Categorization of Cloud: Service Categories
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
• It offers access to a resource pool of

fundamental computing infrastructures, such
as compute, network, or storage.
• These are also called the SPI tiers.
• Examples: Amazon EC2, Google Compute

Engine, and HP Cloud
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
• It is a category of cloud computing services

that provides a platform allowing customers
to develop, run, and manage applications.
• It doesn’t have the complexity of building and

maintaining the
• infrastructure typically associated with

developing and launching an app.
• Examples: Google App Engine, Windows Azure

Cloud Services
Software as a Service (SaaS)
• It is a full application that’s managed and

hosted by the provider.
• The consumers access it with a web

browser, mobile app, or a lightweight client
app.
• Examples: Google Apps, Microsoft Office 365

Security as a Service (SaaS)
• It is the outsourcing of security functions to

a vendor that can offer advantages in scale,
costs, and speed.
• Security is a complex, wide-ranging

cornucopia of technical specialties, all
working together to provide appropriate risk
reductions in today’s enterprise.
Security as a Service (SaaS): Services, Benefits, and Concerns
Services Benefits Concerns
• Proxy services • Cloud-computing • Lack of visibility

• Identity management benefits • Regulation
• SIEM • Staffing and expertise differences
• IDS and IPS • Intelligence-sharing • Handling of regulated
• Web application firewall • Deployment flexibility data
• Scaling and cost • Changing providers
• Data leakage
Internet of Things (IoT)
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other
items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and connectivity that enables these
objects to connect and exchange data.
Any Services Anything
Any Time IoT Anywhere
Any Data Anyone
Any Path
IoT Architecture
Hardware Communication Cloud Applications
Sensors and Gateway Data Center or Mobile, Tablet,

Actuators Cloud Laptop, or API
Embedded
Cloud
The Internet
Private
Big cloud
Data
Data Acquisition Data Aggregation Data Analysis Data Presentation

Top 10 IoT Vulnerabilities of OWASP
1 Weak, guessable, or hard coded passwords 2 Insecure network services
3 Lack of secure update mechanism 4 Insecure ecosystem interfaces
5 Insecure or outdated components 6 Insufficient privacy protection
7 Insecure data transfer and storage 8 Lack of device management
9 Lack of physical hardening 10 Insecure default settings
Source: https://owasp.org/www-pdf-archive/OWASP-IoT-Top-10-2018-final.pdf
Microservices Architecture
Microservices architecture is an approach in

which a single application is composed of many
loosely coupled and independent services.
Microservices can be thought Microservices follow Ken

of as a variant of Thompson’s Unix
service-oriented architecture philosophy: Do one thing
(SOA) wherein applications are and do it well.
built as a collection of different
smaller services rather than
one whole app.
Source: https://www.tiempodev.com/blog/disadvantages-of-a-microservices-architecture/
Microservices
Benefits Disadvantages
• Code can be updated more easily • More complex than monolithic

applications
• Components can be scaled
independently of one another • Can present security threats
• Better fault isolation • Testing can become complicated and
tedious
• Code for different components can
be written in different languages
Source: https://www.tiempodev.com/blog/disadvantages-of-a-microservices-architecture/
Uber: Case Study
• Like most startups, Uber built their application with a

monolithic architecture.
• However, as Uber started expanding worldwide they started
facing several issues related to scalability, performance, and
stability of its application.
• Monolithic architecture is a very popular single-tiered software
application in which all components are combined into a single
program.
• Those components include the client-side user interface,
server-side business logic, the data access layer, and
integrations.
Source: https://hackernoon.com/microservices-are-hard-an-invaluable-guide-to-microservices-2d06bd7bcf5d
And
https://dzone.com/articles/microservice-architecture-learn-build-and-deploy-a
Uber: Case Study
• These components are interconnected and interdependent,

meaning when one component needs to be updated, you have
to make changes to the entire application.
• Failure of one component can bring down the entire system.
• When the number of services increases, integration and

managing whole products can become complicated.
• To avoid such problems Uber decided to break its monolithic

architecture into multiple applications to form a microservice
architecture.
And
Uber: Case Study
• Microservices divide and distribute the application workload,

providing stable, seamless, and scalable services by interacting
with each other.
• Compared to traditional data storage models used by
monolithic applications, microservices decentralize the data
storage by managing their own data stores.
• Uber was now able to manage each microservice individually
as the dependency between each and every feature was
removed.
• In this way, Uber benefited by shifting its architecture from
monolithic to microservices.
And
Microservices
The figure illustrates the difference between a monolithic architecture and a microservice architecture:
UI
UI
Microservice
Business Data
Logic Access Microservice
Layer
Microservice Microservice
Microservice
Microservice
Monolithic Architecture
Microservice Architecture
Containerization
Containerized Applications
Containerization is the process of packaging an
App D
App A
App B
AppCC
App E
App F
application with all its related configuration files,
App
libraries, and dependencies required for it to run
in an efficient and bug-free way across different
computing environments.
Docker
Host Operating System
Infrastructure
Source: https://tsa.com/top-5-benefits-of-containerization/
Containerization: Benefits
Enhanced Improved security Simple and faster

productivity deployment
Improved scalability Increased portability
Source: https://tsa.com/top-5-benefits-of-containerization/
Serverless
The cloud service

Serverless computing
provider automatically
is a cloud architecture
provisions, manages,
that enables the
and scales the
execution of code
resources required to
on-demand.
run the code.
Serverless
Benefits
• Build applications faster
• Pay only for resources used
• Scale up or down automatically

Function-as-a-Service (FaaS)
Function-as-a-Service (FaaS) is a type of cloud-

computing service that enables the execution of
code in response to events without the
complexity of building and maintaining the
infrastructure.
• Subset of serverless
• Server-side logic runs in stateless containers
Serverless
The following diagram illustrates a serverless architecture:
Function
Microservice
Function
Function
Monolithic
Microservice
Application
Function
Function
Microservice
Function
Source: https://www.cloudflare.com/en-in/learning/serverless/glossary/function-as-a-service-faas/
High-Performance Computing (HPC) Systems
High-performance computing (HPC) is the use of parallel processing for running

computationally intensive operations across multiple resources. High-performance
computing consists of computing, network, and storage.
User/Scheduler
Data Storage
Computer Cluster
Edge and Fog Computing
Fog computing is a standard that defines the way edge computing should work, and it
enables the operation of computing, storage, and networking services between end devices
and cloud computing data centers.
The data is
It has a processed in the
decentralized local network
computing where the device
structure. connected to the
sensor is located.
Source: https://www.e-zigurat.com/innovation-school/blog/cloud-edge-fog-computing-practical-applications/
Edge and Fog Computing
Fog computing is a standard that defines the way edge computing should work, and it
enables the operation of computing, storage, and networking services between end devices
and cloud computing data centers.
Data is processed on the edge device, IoT,

endpoint, and embedded devices.
Benefits:
• Real-time data analysis
• Improved response time
• Lower bandwidth consumption
Edge and Fog Computing: Vulnerabilities and Mitigations
Vulnerabilities Mitigations
• Same security • Employ security by

challenges as the IoT design
• Increased attack • Increase network
surface monitoring
• Physical security
concerns
Virtualization
Virtualization is a technology that enables running multiple operating systems side-by-side on the
same processing hardware.
App App App

Application
It adds a software layer OS OS OS It’s benefits include
between an operating system Operating system efficiency, higher
Hypervisor
and the underlying computer availability, and lower
hardware. costs.
Traditional Architecture Virtual Architecture

Hypervisor
A hypervisor is a software that is installed to

virtualize a given computer.
• Host machine: A computer on which a
hypervisor is installed
• Guest machine: Every virtual machine
App App App App
OS OS OS OS
Type 1 hypervisors run directly on the host
machine’s hardware
Hypervisor Hypervisor
• Example: Microsoft Hyper-V hypervisor,
VMware ESX/ESXi
Hardware Operating System
Type 2 hypervisors run within an existing Hardware
operating system environment

Type 1 Bare Metal Type 2 Hosted
• Example: VMware Workstation, Virtual Box
Business Scenario
During the 2017 Pwn2Own, an annual hacking contest in Vancouver, a hacker

compromised Microsoft's heavily fortified Edge browser in a way that escapes a
VMware Workstation virtual machine it runs in, which fetched a prize of $105,000.
• The hacker used a JavaScript engine bug within Microsoft Edge to achieve the code
execution inside the Edge sandbox, and he used a Windows 10 kernel bug to escape
from it and fully compromise the guest machine.
• Then he exploited a hardware simulation bug within VMware to escape from the guest
operating system to the host one.
• This sets up a scenario in which malicious websites can not only compromise a visitor's
virtual machine, but also the much more valuable host machine the VM runs on.
• VMware patched the vulnerabilities within 2 weeks.
Question: What is the risk of breakout from a hypervisor isolation?

Business Scenario
During the 2017 Pwn2Own, an annual hacking contest in Vancouver, a hacker

compromised Microsoft's heavily fortified Edge browser in a way that escapes a
VMware Workstation virtual machine it runs in, which fetched a prize of $105,000.
• The hacker used a JavaScript engine bug within Microsoft Edge to achieve the code
execution inside the Edge sandbox, and he used a Windows 10 kernel bug to escape
from it and fully compromise the guest machine.
• Then he exploited a hardware simulation bug within VMware to escape from the guest
operating system to the host one.
• This sets up a scenario in which malicious websites can not only compromise a visitor's
virtual machine, but also the much more valuable host machine the VM runs on.
• VMware patched the vulnerabilities within 2 weeks.
Question: What is the risk of breakout from a hypervisor isolation?

Answer: If the hypervisor is compromised, all VMs residing on the hypervisor can be compromised
Select and Determine Cryptographic Solutions
Cryptography
It enables you to store

sensitive information or
Cryptography is the transmit it across
science of using insecure networks (like
mathematics to encrypt the Internet) so that it
and decrypt data. cannot be read by
anyone except the
intended recipient.
Basic Definitions
Science of secret writing that enables an entity to store and transmit data in a
Cryptography form that is available only to the intended individuals
Hardware or software implementation of cryptography that contains all the

Cryptosystem necessary software, protocols, algorithms, and keys
Cryptology The study of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
Algorithm Set of mathematical and logical rules used in cryptographic functions

(Cipher)
Kerckhoff’s The concept that an algorithm should be known and only the keys should be
principle kept secret
Conventional Encryption
Conventional encryption is illustrated below:

Encryption and Decryption
Cryptographic Key
A key is a piece of information that determines the

functional output of a cryptographic algorithm.
Key clustering is an instance when two different

keys generate the same ciphertext from the
same plaintext using the same algorithm.
Keyspace is a range of possible values used to

construct keys.
Strength of Cryptosystem
• A good cryptosystem
should be cost-
Work factor is an
efficient and less
estimate of the effort and
time-consuming.
resources it would take
an attacker to penetrate
• A brute force attack
a cryptosystem.
is used to break a
cryptosystem.
Strength of Cryptosystem
How all work Strength of

together Algorithm
Cryptosystem
depends on:
Initialization Secrecy of
vectors the key
Length of the
key
Cryptosystem Elements
• Use an algorithm without flaws

• Use a large key size
• Use all possible values within the key
space as randomly as possible
• Protect the actual key
Cryptosystem Services
Cryptosystem services ensure:
Confidentiality Integrity Authentication Nonrepudiation
Ensures the data

Renders the has not been Verifies the
information altered in an identity of the Ensures that the
unintelligible unauthorized user or the sender cannot
except by manner since it system that deny sending the
authorized was created, created the message
entities transmitted, or information
stored
Cryptography Methods: Substitution Cipher
• It works by substituting one letter for another letter

based on a key.
• Example: Caesar cipher or ROT13 in which the alphabet is
rotated by 13 steps.
• The message HELLO becomes URYYB after ROT13
substitution.
• Substitution Cipher is generally used on blogs to filter

certain words and in combination with other ciphers.
Cryptography Methods: Transposition Cipher
• Transposes the original text with long sequences of

complex substitutions and permutations
• Uses a key to determine positions the characters
are moved to
• Is used in combination with substitution cipher in
standard ciphers
Cryptography Methods: Running Key Cipher
• It could use a key that does not require an

electronic algorithm and bit alterations, but
cleverly uses components in the physical world
around you.
• For instance, the algorithm could be a set of books

agreed upon by the sender and receiver. The key in
this type of cipher could be a book page, line
number, or column count.
Cryptography Methods: Running Key Cipher
• For example, you get a message from your super-

secret spy buddy and the message reads
CRYPTOGRAPHY 149l6c7.299l3c7.911l5c8.
• This could mean for you to look at the 1st book in

your predetermined series of books, the 49th page,
the 6th line down the page, and the 7th column.
Cryptography Methods: Concealment or Null Cipher
• A concealment cipher is a message within a message.

If your other super-secret spy buddy and you decide
the key value is every third word, then when you get a
message from him, you will pick out every third word
and write it down.
• Example: Suppose he sends you a message that
reads, The saying, “The time is right” is not cow
language, so is now a dead subject.
• Because your key is every third word, you produce
The right cow is dead.
Steganography
Steganography is the art of hiding the existence of

a message.
• It is used to insert digital watermarks on
images to identify illegal copies.
• It is used to send secret messages through
emails.
• It involves concealing the very existence of data
by hiding it in some other media such as a
picture, audio, and video file.
XOR Function
XOR function returns a true value when only one of the input values is true.
A B XOR
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
If both values are false or both values are true, the output of the XOR function is false.
Mod Function
The modulo function is quite simply the remainder value left over
after a division operation is performed.
Number Divisor MOD Function

15 4 3
10 2 0
7 3 1
90 10 0
77 8 5
The modulo function is just as important to cryptography as

logical operations.
Initialization Vector(IV)
• Random values are used with algorithms to ensure patterns are not created during the
encryption process.
• They are used with keys and need to be encrypted when being sent to the destination.
• If IVs are not used, then two identical plaintext values that are encrypted with the same key will
create the same ciphertext.
• The IV and the key are both used by the algorithm to provide more randomness to the
encryption process.
One-Time Pad
• Also known as Vernam Cipher
• Perfect encryption scheme
• Considered unbreakable if implemented properly
• Two copies of the pad (also known as the key)

required to use a one-time pad
• A block of truly random data, which is at least as long

as the message you wish to encode
One-Time Pad
This encryption process uses a binary mathematical function

called Exclusive OR or XOR Secure Implementation:
• Made up of truly random values
• Used only one time
• Securely distributed to its destination
• Secured at sender’s and receiver’s sites
• At the least, is as long as the message

Encryption Methods
Symmetric Key Asymmetric Key

Algorithm Algorithm
Introduction to Symmetric Cryptography
• Both encryption and decryption of a message

performed using only a single cryptographic key
• Each pair of communicating users must have a
copy of the key
Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext
• Can provide confidentiality because of the same
key, but not authenticity or non-repudiation
• Used to send secret messages where
confidentiality is the main criterion Sender Encrypt Decrypt Recipient
• Used in wired and wireless networks Same key is used to encrypt

and decrypt message
• Number of keys = n(n-1)/2
• Keys must be securely shared between
communicating parties
• Examples: Blowfish, AES, IDEA, RC4, RC5, RC6, Shared Secrete Key
DES, and 3DES.
Symmetric Key Ciphers
The two primary types of symmetric key ciphers are:
Block Cipher Stream Cipher

Plaintext
$mail random $mail random
key key
Block Cipher Symmetric Key Stream Stream

Encryption Ciphers Cipher Cipher
Key
KeyStream KeyStream
(Pseudo-random string) (Pseudo-random string)
Ciphertext Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext

Block Cipher
• Converts a fixed-length block of plaintext data

to a block of ciphertext data of the same Plaintext
length
• Text is operated on preset blocks
(64,128,192 bits, etc.)
• A combination of substitution and Block Cipher
transposition is used Encryption
Key
• Although stronger than stream-based ciphers,
it is more expensive and computationally
more exhaustive
• Mainly implemented in software Ciphertext
• Used in ciphers like DES and AES
Stream Cipher
• A stream of ciphertext data is generated by combining the keystream (sequence of bits) with
plaintext data bit by bit using XOR operations
• To ensure security, keystream must have a non-repeating pattern of bits
• Mainly implemented in hardware
• Most common in voice or video
11 0 1 1
Plaintext
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Key stream
Ciphertext
Stream Cipher
Can encrypt and decrypt more quickly
Can scale better within increased bandwidth requirements
Used when real-time applications, such as VoIP or multimedia, are encrypted
Considered less secure than block ciphers
Requires a lot of randomness and encrypts individual bits at times
Requires more processing power than block ciphers
Difficult to generate a truly random and unbiased keystream

Stream Cipher vs. Block Cipher
Stream Cipher Block Cipher
• Faster than block cipher • Operates on larger block of data
• Processes the input element • Slower than stream cipher

continuously producing output, one • Processes one block at a time, producing
element at a time output for each input block
• Requires less code • Requires more code
• With steam cipher, keys can be used • Reuse of key is possible
only one time
• Example: DES encryption
• Application: SSL (Secure connection on
• Application: Database, file encryption
Web)
• Easier to implement in software
• Easier to implement in hardware
Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Data Encryption Standard
Half block (32 bits) Subkey (48 bits)
• Based on symmetric-key cryptosystem

• Is a block encryption algorithm with fixed E
sized 64-bit blocks
• Uses a 56-bits key (plus 8-bits of parity)
• Uses 16 rounds of transposition and
substitution
• No longer considered strong enough S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
The Feistel Function

(F function) of DES
Data Encryption Standard (DES) Modes
Modes of operations
Electronic Cipher Cipher Output

Code Book Block Feedback Feedback Counter (CTR)
(ECB) Chaining (CFB) (OFB)
(CBC)
DES Operation Modes: Electronic Code Book
• Simplest and the weakest form of DES
• Message is broken into independent (64-bit) blocks which are encrypted
• Each block is encoded independently of the other blocks (No Chaining)
• Operations can be run in parallel, which decreases processing time
• Errors are contained
• Useable only for shorter messages
Plaintext Plaintext Plaintext
Block Cipher Block Cipher Block Cipher

Encryption Encryption Encryption
Key Key Key
Ciphertext Ciphertext Ciphertext

DES Operation Modes: Electronic Code Book
Cannot carry out Involves generation of

Susceptible to known
preprocessing functions identical ciphertext by
plaintext attacks
before receiving plain text identical plaintexts and keys
Repetitive information If the same message is

contained in the plaintext encrypted (with the same
Fast and easy
may show in the ciphertext if key) and sent twice, its
aligned with blocks ciphertext is the same
DES Operation Modes: Cipher Block Chaining
• Stronger than ECB and solves security deficiencies in ECB

• Uses an IV (initialization vector) to add some randomness to encryption
• Previous ciphertext becomes IV for the next block using a chaining function
• Uses 64-bit plaintext blocks which are XORed with 64-bit IV
DES Operation Modes: Cipher Block Chaining
• Repeats same plaintext block result in different

ciphertext block
• Each previous cipher block should be chained
to be in input with the current plaintext block
• Repeated plaintext blocks are encrypted
differently since the encryption of a block
depends on the current and all blocks before it
• Uses bulk encryption
DES Operation Modes: Cipher Feedback
• The plaintext is divided into 1, 8, 64, or 128-bit segments (the four sub-modes of CFB).
• Block cipher is used as a stream cipher.
o Can encrypt any number of bits. For example, single bits or single characters (bytes)
o S=1: bitstream cipher
o S=8: character stream cipher

DES Operation Modes: Cipher Feedback
• A ciphertext segment depends on the

current and all preceding plaintext
segments.
• A corrupted ciphertext segment during
transmission will affect the current and next
several plaintext segments.
• The size of the ciphertext must be the same as
the block of plaintext.
• It uses stream data encryption and
authentication.
DES Operation Modes: Output Feedback
• Encrypted keystream of the previous block

is fed to the next block to create the next
portion of the keystream.
• It is very similar to CFB.
• The block cipher is used as a stream cipher.
• OFB is appropriate when data arrives
in bits or bytes and when error
propagation is not accepted.
• The keystream needs to be of the same size
as the block of plaintext.
DES Operation Modes: Output Feedback
• Advantages:
o More resistant to transmission errors; a bit error in a ciphertext segment affects only the
decryption of that segment
o IV should be generated randomly each time and sent with the ciphertext
• Uses:
o Stream encryption over noisy channels (digital video and audio signals)
DES Operation Modes: Counter
• Counter uses a 64-bit random data block counter as the

first IV.
• It uses an IV counter that increments for each plaintext
block that needs to be encrypted.
• Counter for each plaintext will be different.
• IV and key are encrypted; the quantity is then XORed with
each plaintext block or ciphertext block.
• Like stream cipher, the encrypted CTR values generate a
keystream, which is then XORed with the message stream.
• The counter must be unknown and unpredictable.
• The counter can be any function that produces a sequence
that is guaranteed not to repeat for a long time.
DES Operation Modes: Counter
• Strengths:
o Needs only the encryption algorithm
o Random access to encrypted data blocks
o Blocks can be processed (encrypted or decrypted) in parallel
o Simple and fast encryption or decryption
• Uses: High-speed network encryptions, encrypting ATM cells, IPSec, and Wireless 802.11i
Triple DES
• Uses three 56-bit keys instead of one and uses

48 rounds of transposition and substitution
(instead of 16)
• Approximately 256 times stronger than DES
• Used in secure electronic transmission of data
• Can be configured for use in VPN
connectivity (example: IPsec)
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a

symmetric block cipher.
• AES is the current U.S. standard.
a 0,0 a 0,1 a 0,2 a 0,3 b 0,0 b 0,1 b 0,2 b 0,3
• For encryption it uses:

a 1,0 a 1,1 a 1,2 a 1,3
SubBytes b 1,0 b 1,1 b 1,2 b 1,3
o 128-bit keys (10 rounds of encryption) a a a2,2 a b b b2,2 b

2,0 2,1 2,3 2,0 2,1 2,3
o 192-bit keys (12 rounds of encryption) or a 3,0 a 3,1 a 3,2 a 3,3 b 3,0 b 3,1 b 3,2 b 3,3
o 256-bit keys (14 rounds of encryption)
• AES uses the Rijndael algorithm with variable S

block sizes (128, 192, and 256-bit) and key
lengths (128, 192, and 256-bit).
Other Symmetric Systems
• Stands for International Data Encryption Algorithm

• Uses 64-bit blocks, 128-bit key, and 8 rounds of
IDEA computation
• Used in e-mail encryption software, pretty good privacy
(PGP)
• Uses 64-bit block size

o 32 – 448 bits (in steps of 8 bits) key size and 16
Blowfish
rounds of computation
• Optimized for 32-bit micro-processors
• Is a modification of Blowfish using 128-bit blocks

Twofish
• Uses variable key length up to 256 bits
Other Symmetric Systems
• Uses block sizes of 32, 64, or 128-bits, with key length

RC5 up to 2040-bits
• Created as a candidate algorithm for AES
• Uses key size of 128, 192, and 256-bits and has a block
RC6 size of-128 bits
• Based on RC5 and was also a candidate for AES
Symmetric Keys: Round Up
Algorithm Block Size Key Length Comments

DES 64 bit 56 bit + 8-bit parity 16 rounds of processing
Compromised by meet-in-
2DES 64 bit 112 bit
the-middle attack
3DES 64 bit 168 bit

Rijndael 128,192,256 bits 128,192,256 bits Performs variable rounds of operation
• 8 rounds transposition and substitution

IDEA 64 bit 128 bit
• Used in PGP
CAST 64 bit 40 to 128 bits
SAFER 64 to 128 bit 64 to 128 bit A version used in Bluetooth
Blowfish 64 bit Variable key size
Twofish 128 bit 128, 192, 256 bits
RC5 16,32,64 bits 0 to 2040 bits

AES 128 bit 128, 192, 256 bits
Business Scenario
Hilda Jacobs who is the general manager, IT Security, assigned Kevin Butler the task
of selecting a good encryption system to secure the confidentiality of the
company’s data. She had asked for a symmetric block cipher system that can
encrypt using a 128-bit encryption key.
Kevin started gathering information about the existing encryption standards.

Based on the current and the future requirements, he had to choose
between DES, 3DES, and AES.
Question: Which encryption standard should Kevin select, the DES, the 3DES, or the AES?
Business Scenario
Hilda Jacobs who is the general manager, IT Security, assigned Kevin Butler the task
of selecting a good encryption system to secure the confidentiality of the
company’s data. She had asked for a symmetric block cipher system that can
encrypt using a 128-bit encryption key.
Kevin started gathering information about the existing encryption standards.

Based on the current and the future requirements, he had to choose
between DES, 3DES, and AES.
Question: Which encryption standard should Kevin select, the DES, the 3DES, or the AES?
Answer: With the given requirement, AES is the best choice as it supports a 128-bit key.
Introduction to Asymmetric Cryptography
In asymmetric cryptography, two keys are used that are linked mathematically but are
mutually exclusive. One key is for encryption, and the other is for decryption.
• Asymmetric cryptography is also called public-key encryption as one key is made public.
• A pair of keys is required for encryption or decryption.
• The keys are mathematically related.
• Each key is used to encrypt or decrypt.
• You cannot encrypt or decrypt with only one key.
• The public key is usually shared, while the private key is secured by the owner.
• Secure Message format: The message is encrypted with the receiver's public key (confidentiality).
• Open Message format: The message is encrypted with the sender’s private key (authenticity).
o This provides authenticity, integrity, and non-repudiation.
o Examples: RSA, Diffie-Hellman, Elliptic curve cryptosystem (ECC), El Gamal, and Digital signature
algorithm (DSA).
Working of asymmetric cryptography is illustrated below:

Introduction to RSA Algorithm
RSA stands for Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman, the inventors of this algorithm.
RSA:
Is a worldwide de Provides digital signatures, encryption,

facto standard and secret key distribution
Is based on the fact that

Used in web browsers with
factoring the two large prime
SSL, systems that use
numbers’ (up to 200 digits
public-key cryptosystems
long) product forms is
difficult; hence, difficult to
crack the cryptosystem
Other Types of Asymmetric Cryptography: Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems
• Instead of generating keys as the product of very

large prime numbers, ECC generates keys through
the properties of the elliptic curve equation.
• An ECC key of 160 bits provides the same
protection as a 1024-bit RSA key.
• ECC is more efficient than RSA.
• It provides encryption, digital signature, and
key exchange.
• It is used in devices with limited processing,
storage, and bandwidth capacity.
• Examples: Wireless and cell phone
Zero-Knowledge Proof
• Zero-knowledge proof is applicable in public-key

cryptography.
• It means someone can tell you something that
you can trust without telling you more
information that you need.
• For example, you trust a message based on half
the key pair (public key), without needing to know
the other half of the pair (private key).
Zero-Knowledge Proof
Ownership: Membership:
Proves that you own a private Proves you are part of a group,
key without revealing your identity
Application of
Zero-Knowledge
Proof
Sealed Bid Auction:

Proves who won, without
revealing bid
M of N Control
• M of N control requires that a minimum number of agents (M)

out of the total number of agents (N) work together to
perform high-security tasks.
• This is a backup process of public and private key material over

multiple systems or devices.
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/12293221/
M of N Control
• It’s a tool that prevents the recreation of private and public key material from the backup.
• The key materials are backed up and then mathematically distributed across several systems
or devices.
• Implementing three of eight controls would require three people out of the eight with the
assigned work task of key escrow recovery agent to work together to pull a single key out of
the key escrow database (thereby also illustrating that M is always less than or equal to N).
Other Types of Asymmetric Cryptography: Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
• A key distribution asymmetric algorithm

o A protocol whereby two or more parties can agree on a key in such a way that both influence
the outcome
• Allows two users to exchange a secret key
• Requires no prior secrets
• Does not provide for encryption or digital signature functions
Other Types of Asymmetric Cryptography: Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
• Vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attack

• Based on the difficulty of calculating discrete
logarithms in a finite field
• Currently used in many protocols, namely:
o Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport
Layer Security (TLS)
o Secure Shell (SSH)
o Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
o Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

Hybrid Key Cryptography or Digital Envelope
• It is a hybrid system that combines the symmetric and asymmetric methods.

• The more efficient symmetric algorithm encrypts a message using a secret key.
• The symmetric secret key is encrypted using a recipient’s public key with an asymmetric algorithm.
• The message is encrypted with that secret key and the encrypted symmetric secret key is sent to
the recipient.
Hybrid Key Cryptography or Digital Envelope
• The recipient uses his private key to decrypt the secret key.
• The secret key is then used to decrypt the message.
• A symmetric algorithm is used for bulk encryption.
• To distribute the symmetric key, the asymmetric algorithm
is used.
Session Key
• A single-use symmetric key is used to encrypt or decrypt

communication between two users for a single session.
• It’s more secure than static symmetric keys.
• Here, peers decide on the session key and continue to use it
till the session is over.
• Here, eavesdropping is difficult and breaking the keys will
prove to be futile.
Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Cryptography
Symmetric Cryptography Asymmetric Cryptography

Same key for
A pair of keys, one for encryption and the
encryption and
other for decryption
decryption
Consumes less computing power Consumes more computing power
Is much faster Used to distribute the symmetric key as they are slower
• Encryption key is called public key

Symmetric key is synonymous with • Decryption key is called private or secret key
secret key or session key • The asymmetric key refers to the public key or private
key of an asymmetric key pair
Advantages and Disadvantages
Types of
Advantages Disadvantages
cryptography
• Presents the challenge of key
• Very fast to encrypt or decrypt,
Symmetric management
secure, and affordable
cryptography • Does not provide authenticity,
• Best for encrypting large files
nonrepudiation
Provides:
• Better key distribution than
• Much slower operation
symmetric systems
than symmetric systems
Asymmetric • Better scalability due to ease of key
cryptography • Vulnerable to man-in-the-middle
distribution
attacks
• Authenticity and
nonrepudiation, in addition to
confidentiality and integrity
Introduction to Public Key Infrastructure
Registration
Authority(s)
Users
Certificate
Authority(s)
“A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a set of
hardware, software, people, policies, and
procedures needed to create, manage, distribute, Components
use, store, and revoke digital certificates.” of PKI
Keys
Certificates
Introduction to Public Key Infrastructure
• The public key infrastructure provides CIA and nonrepudiation.

• PKI includes Certificate Authority (CA), digital certificates,
Registration Authorities (RA), policies and procedures,
certificate revocation, time-stamping, nonrepudiation support,
and security-enabled applications.
• A digital certificate is required by each participant in a PKI,
which contains a particular participant’s public key and other
identifying information.
• This is signed by a trusted certificate authority and the
authenticity of the public key is the liability of the CA.
• PKI is used in online banking and e-commerce.
Certificate Authority and Registration Authority
• CA is a trusted third party responsible for the issuance

and maintenance of digital certificates.
• It can also be internal to an organization.
• CA also handles the revocation of certificates.
• The revoked certificates are stored in the Certificate
Revocation List (CRL) which is updated and maintained
by the CA.
Certificate Authority
Certificate Authority and Registration Authority
• The RA performs the registration duties.

• It establishes and confirms the identity of the individual,
initiates the registration process with CA, and performs
certificate lifecycle management.
• The RA verifies all the necessary information before
allowing a request to go to CA.
• The RA cannot issue certificates.
Registration Authority
PKI Certificate
A digital certificate, also

known as a public key
infrastructure certificate, is Digital certificates are for
used to cryptographically link sharing public keys to be
ownership of a public key used for encryption and
with the entity that owns it. authentication.
Source: https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/encryption
and
https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/digital-signature
PKI Certificate
• Digital certificates include the public key being

certified, identifying information about the entity that
owns the public key, metadata relating to the digital
certificate, and a digital signature of the public key
created by the issuer of the certificate.
• X.509 is the standard that dictates the fields that are used
in the certificate and the valid values that can be populated
in the fields.
Source: https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/encryption
and
https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/digital-signature
Enrollment Process
When a user wants to obtain a digital certificate, the user must first prove his identity to the CA in
some manner. This process is called enrollment.
Enrollment Process
Steps of Enrollment Process:
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

The user needs to The user seeking The CA creates an The CA digitally
prove his identity to the certificate X.509 digital signs the certificate
obtain a digital needs to provide its certificate and provides the
certificate. public key after the containing the user with a copy of
verification process user’s identification the signed digital
done by the CA is information and certificate.
complete. public key.
Verification Process
When a user receives a digital certificate from a person with whom he wishes to communicate,
he must verify if:
The digital signature of The CA is trusted

the CA is authentic by the user
The certificate contains The certificate is not

the data you trust listed on a CRL
Revocation Process
Occasionally, a certificate authority needs to revoke a certificate. This might occur because:
The certificate was The certificate was

compromised erroneously issued
The details of the The security association

certificate changed changed
Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs)
Certificate Revocation Lists Online Certificate Status

Certificate Revocation Lists
Protocol (OCSP)
• Certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are • It carries out real-time validation of
maintained by various certificate authorities. certificates and reports it back to the user.
• They contain the serial numbers of • It checks the CRL that is maintained by the CA.
certificates that have been issued by a CA and
have been revoked along with the date and
time the revocation went into effect.
PKI Process
Step 1 Step 6 Step 7

The CA will digitally sign User A will present the
User A and User B want
the certificate and send it certificate to User B in
to participate in the PKI
to User A. order to communicate
process.
with User B.

The CA will generate a digital
User A will generate public User B will take the certificate
certificate which is of X.509
key and private key at his or and verify the digital signature
standard which will have the
system. of the CA.
public key of the user
embedded in it.

User A will send Public Key The RA or CA will verify After verification, User B
and identification information the information can trust the public key of
to the Registration Authority provided by User A. Use A and can securely
or Certificate Authority. communicate with User A.
One-Way Hash
A hash function uses an algorithm without any key for encryption. This encryption cannot be
reversed and hence is called one-way.
• A fixed-length hash value (message digest or

hash) is created or hashed from variable length
plaintext.
• When the plaintext changes, its hash value also ‘Hashing’
of data
changes. Thus, for providing integrity, hash
functions are used. Fixed length
Variable
length “digest” data
• Hash is used to guarantee the integrity of data.
original data
• It can be applied to data block of any size.
• It produces fixed-length output.
One-Way Hash
Characteristics:
• Hash should be computed over the entire message.

• Hash should be a one-way function.
• Given a message and hash value, computing
another message with the same hash value should
be impossible.
• It is resistant to birthday attacks.
Hashing Algorithms
A hash function is any algorithm or subroutine that maps large data sets of variable length to smaller
data sets of a fixed length.
• Most widely used of the MD (Message-Digest Algorithm) family

of hash algorithms
MD5:
• Harder to break; for input of any length, it creates a 128-bit
hash value
• Belongs to the Secure hash algorithm (SHA) family
SHA-1: • Generates a 160-bit hash value

• SHA-2 includes SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512,
termed after the length of the hash value each creates
Message Authentication Code
• A Message Authentication Code (MAC), also known as a tag, is a short piece of information
used to authenticate a message to confirm that the message came from the stated sender
(its authenticity) and has not been changed.
• The MAC value protects both a message's data integrity as well as its authenticity by
allowing verifiers (who also possess the secret key) to detect any changes to the
message content.
message message message

MAC
key hash algorithm key hash algorithm
MAC MAC = MAC
Sender sends mac with Client computers the mac and

the message Compares with the mac send
Message Authentication Code
• It is an authentication scheme derived by applying a secret key, in some form, to a message.
• The receiver performs the same computation on the message and checks if it matches the MAC.
message message message

MAC
key hash algorithm key hash algorithm
MAC MAC = MAC
Sender sends mac with Client computers the mac and

the message Compares with the mac send
Birthday Attack
• If the algorithm does produce the same value for two distinctly different
messages, it is called a hash collision.
• The birthday attack attempts to exploit the probability of two messages

producing the same message digest by using the same hash function.
Birthday • It is based on the statistical probability that with 23 people in a room, there
Attack is more than 50% probability that two people have the same birthday.
• SHA-1 (160 bits) may require approximately 280 computations to find a hash
collision.
• A hashing algorithm that has a larger bit output, such as a birthday attack, is
less vulnerable to brute force attacks.
Salting
Salt is a random value that is added to password hash to prevent dictionary attacks
and hash collisions.
Salting
Password Creation
• It makes it difficult for the attacker to break Plaintext
Random Salt
into a system by using the strategy of password
password hash-matching.
• For each password, a new salt is randomly
Hashing
generated.
• Instead of the original password, the
output of the cryptographic hash function
processed is stored in the database. Salt Hash
• It is used in Unix systems and for internet

security.
Digital Signatures
• Are used for signing the document cryptographically

• To digitally sign the data:
o Create the hash of a data
o Encrypt that hash with the sender's private key
• To verify the digital signature:

Digital o Hash the data
signatures: o Find the sender’s public key
o Decrypt the signature with the sender's public key
o Check whether the hash you have created matches the hash which you
received
• Hashing provides message integrity; signing of hash provides authentication,
and non-repudiation
• Involve encrypting the hash value of a message with a private key
Digital Signatures
The working of digital signatures is illustrated below:

Key Management
Key management is the most challenging part of cryptography and can be

handled manually or automatically.
• Key management includes:
o Generating, destroying, and recovering keys
o Protection of keys against capturing, modification, corruption, or
disclosure to unauthorized individuals
Key Management o Regular update of keys and distribution to the right entities
• Key distribution protocols (asymmetric) include:

o RSA
o Diffie-Hellman
• The Kerberos Key Distribution Center (KDC) is an example of automated key

management.
Key Management Principles
Key management includes taking backup copies and adopting multi-party key recovery.
Keys Management Rules Creation
• Keys should be:

Destruction Backup
o Stored and transmitted by secure means
o Random
Archival The Key Management Deployment
o Properly destroyed at the end of their Lifecycle
lifetime
o Long enough to provide the necessary
level of protection
Expiration Monitoring
• The key’s lifetime should correspond with the
sensitivity of the data it is protecting. Rotation
Business Scenario
Important points on key management:

• The value of information encrypted with a key should correspond to the
level of effort taken to protect an encryption key.
• The ciphertext can be compromised if the encryption key is compromised.
• The level of protection required for a key should be the same as that
required for the original unencrypted data.
• The automatic key management is more accurate and secure.
• Keys must be updated continuously and distributed to the right entities.
• Keys need to be generated, recovered, and destroyed properly.
Question: What should be the relationship between key’s lifetime and sensitivity of data?
Business Scenario
Important points on key management:

• The value of information encrypted with a key should correspond to the
level of effort taken to protect an encryption key.
• The ciphertext can be compromised if the encryption key is compromised.
• The level of protection required for a key should be the same as that
required for the original unencrypted data.
• The automatic key management is more accurate and secure.
• Keys must be updated continuously and distributed to the right entities.
• Keys need to be generated, recovered, and destroyed properly.
Question: What should be the relationship between key’s lifetime and sensitivity of data?
Answer: Shorter key lifetime is for more sensitive data and longer key lifetime is for less sensitive
data.
Understand Methods of Cryptanalytic Attacks
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis
• Cryptanalysis is the study of ciphertext,

ciphers, and cryptosystems to understand
how they work and find improving techniques
for defeating or weakening them.
• Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic
security systems and decipher the contents of
encrypted messages, even without knowing
the cryptographic key.
Brute Force
• The attacker attempts to break the key by systematically checking all possible
combinations of characters until the correct one is found.
• It is always successful if the time for the attack is not limited.
Attack Time@ 1013

Bits Cipher Number of Keys
decryptions/sec
56 DES 7.2 x 1016 1 hr
128 AES 3.4 x 1038 5.3 x 1017 yrs
168 3DES 3.7 x 1050 5.8 x 1029 yrs
192 AES 6.3 x 1057 9.8 x 1036 yrs
256 AES 1.2 x 1077 1.8 x 1056 yrs

Ciphertext Only
• The attacker has the ciphertext of several messages.
• Each of the messages has been encrypted using the same encryption algorithm.
• The goal is to discover the key used in the encryption process.
• It is the hardest attack to be successful at because the attacker has very little information about
the encryption process.
Known-Plaintext
The attacker has the The attacker can The goal is to

plaintext and the analyze the discover the key
corresponding relationship between used to encrypt the
ciphertext of one or the plaintext and the messages.
more messages. ciphertext.
Frequency Analysis
• Frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of

letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext.
• Frequency analysis is based on the fact that, in any

given written language, certain letters and
combinations of letters occur with varying
frequencies.
• It is used as an aid to breaking classical ciphers such

as the Ceaser cipher.
Chosen-Plaintext
The attacker knows the

The attacker runs samples
algorithm used for
of plaintext to obtain the
encryption.
corresponding ciphertexts.
An Adaptive Chosen-
Plaintext attack is where The attacker can compare
the attacker can modify the ciphertexts to possibly
chosen plaintext based on discover the encryption
the resulting ciphertext. key.
Chosen-Ciphertext
The attacker can choose the

The attacker has
ciphertext to be decrypted
access to the system
and have access to the
used for decryption.
resulting decrypted plaintext.
The attacker gains access to an

unattended decryption system
through lunchtime, midnight
attacks. The goal is to figure
out the encryption key.
Implementation Attacks
The attacker exploits implementation weaknesses in the software, protocol, or

encryption algorithm.
Implementation Attacks
Side–Channel Reverse– Fault Injection Logical

Analysis Engineering
Timing Circuit Level Eavesdropping
Power and EM MITM

Embedded Code
Analysis
SW / HW Bugs
Side-channel Attacks
The attacker analyzes the information retrieved from the encryption device.
Power Time taken for

Radiation
consumption Error information encryption and Sound
emissions
statistics decryption
Fault Injection
It is a physical attack on the device to inject a fault in the system deliberately to

change its intended behavior.
Electromagnetic Power supply Radiation-based fault

interferences disturbances injections
The goal is to retrieve the secret key with a very small number of experiments.
Man-in-the-Middle (MITM)
• It's a type of side-channel attack.
• The attacker tries to break the ciphertext by

analyzing the time taken to execute the
encryption and decryption algorithms for
various inputs.
• The goal is to discover the key used to encrypt

the messages.
Man-in-the-Middle (MITM)
• It is a communication eavesdropping attack.
• The attacker intercepts and relays messages

between two targets.
• The client and the server believe they are

directly communicating with each other.
Pass-the-Hash
• The attacker captures a password hash and

uses it to gain access as an authorized user.
• The attacker doesn’t need to decrypt the hash

to obtain a plain text password.
• This technique can be performed against any

system which accepts NTLM authentication.
Ransomware
It is a form of malware that encrypts a victim's data and important files.
The attacker then demands a If the victim doesn’t pay

ransom from the victim for on time, the data is
the decryption key to restore gone forever.
access to the data.
Apply Security Principles to Site and Facility Design
Site and Facility Design Criteria
Physical security is an The most important It is a standard Layered approach is a

essential part of a goal in planning a site operational procedure strategy that includes
security plan and is the protection of life, for a security examining physical
forms the basis of all property, and professional to review security measures
other security operations. all aspects of starting at the site
measures, including construction. perimeter and working
personnel and down to the desktop
information. computer.
Information Protection Environment
Factors considered by a security professional:
Protection of life, Minimize risk of theft,

property, and destruction, and
operations unauthorized access
The areas of consideration are Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

(CPTED), site location, construction, and support facilities.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
CPTED is a crime reduction technique.

Examples: Streets, parks, museums, government buildings, houses, and commercial complexes.
The three environmental strategies of

INFORMAL CPTED are:
SURVEILLANCE
LIGHTING Territoriality: These make users feel safe
and make the potential offender aware of a
substantial risk of apprehension.
DEFINED
SPACE Surveillance: It creates the perception that
people can be seen.
DEFINED
LEGIBILITY ‘PERMEABILITY’ Access Control: It limits the opportunities
for crime.
Discussion
Discussion
Review the blueprint of Conwy Castle (in the next slide) and determine if it
demonstrates the use of CPTED principles.
Discussion
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/342203271683079513/
Business Scenario
Hilda Jacobs, General Manager, IT Security at Nutri Worldwide Inc. was planning
the physical security controls of the new site along with Kevin. Hilda asked Kevin
to assist her in this project since she is handling the planning all by herself.
• Hilda Jacobs decided to use the existing landscape to deter threats.

• Use of fences, vehicle barriers, warning signs, access point restriction,
proper lighting, and a CCTV system were planned.
Question: Which concept of physical security are Hilda and Kevin trying to implement here?
Business Scenario
Hilda Jacobs, General Manager, IT Security at Nutri Worldwide Inc. was planning
the physical security controls of the new site along with Kevin. Hilda asked Kevin
to assist her in this project since she is handling the planning all by herself.
• Hilda Jacobs decided to use the existing landscape to deter threats.

• Use of fences, vehicle barriers, warning signs, access point restriction,
proper lighting, and a CCTV system were planned.
Question: Which concept of physical security are Hilda and Kevin trying to implement here?
Answer: Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED)
Site Location
The site location of the facility is also a concern during the initial planning.
Existing
Location and
Boundary
Access
Protection
Stable Power
Local Crime
Supply
Joint Tenants Visibility
Wind and Emergency

Surface Traffic Access
Natural
Hazards
Construction
The areas that require attention during the construction planning stage are:
Floor slab
Raised flooring
Walls
Ceilings
Windows
Doors
Business Scenario
Nutri Worldwide Inc. is a rapidly growing company with offices in different parts
of the world. Recently, the company thought of opening an office in India. Hilda
Jacobs, General Manager, IT Security at Nutri Worldwide Inc. was reviewing the
physical and environmental security of the proposed office.
• She assigned the task of listing out various threats from natural and
environmental factors, man-made factors, and political factors based on
the location of the proposed office to Kevin.
Question: What is the first thing Kevin should consider when designing good physical and
environmental security?
Business Scenario
Nutri Worldwide Inc. is a rapidly growing company with offices in different parts
of the world. Recently, the company thought of opening an office in India. Hilda
Jacobs, General Manager, IT Security at Nutri Worldwide Inc. was reviewing the
physical and environmental security of the proposed office.
• She assigned the task of listing out various threats from natural and
environmental factors, man-made factors, and political factors based on
the location of the proposed office to Kevin.
Question: What is the first thing Kevin should consider when designing good physical and
environmental security?
Answer: Life safety is the most important and first factor Kevin needs to consider for designing
good physical and environmental security.
Design Site and Facility Security Controls
Support Facilities
The factors involved are:
(Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) IT managers should know who is

HVAC
responsible for HVAC.
Turn off all electrical power to the equipment, allow water to drain out,
Water place all affected equipment or media in an air-conditioned area, and wipe
with water displacement spray.
Recommended practices are installing user surge protectors,

Electricity uninterruptible power supply (UPS), installing backup source for critical
systems, and anti-static carpet.
Keep computers away from glass windows and high surfaces, place
Earthquakes components on shock absorbers and anchors, and ensure other objects do
not fall on computers.
Best practice is to switch off the systems, unplug them, and store the
Lightning
backup tapes away from the building’s steel support.
Data Center Security: Guidelines
Data Centers, server rooms, and wiring closets should be at the core of the facility.
Wiring closets in a multistory building should be placed directly above or below each
other. This helps with the easier connectivity of wires across the building.
Access to DC should be via only one door. If there are additional doors, they should
function as one-way exit doors.
DC should not be in the basement or upper floors of a building.
The data processing center should be constructed as one room rather than different
individual rooms.
DC should have a positive air pressure. No contaminants can be sucked into the room.
Water detectors should be placed under raised floors and on dropped ceilings.
The HVAC system should be implemented for temperature and humidity control.
Personnel Access Control
Tailgating
Tailgating is when another
Piggybacking
person, whether an employee
Piggybacking is when another
or not, passes through a
person follows through a
secure door without the
door with the permission of
knowledge of the person who
the person who has received
has gained legitimate access
access.
through the secure door.
Mantraps and Turnstiles
• A turnstile is a form of a gate that prevents more

than one person at a time from gaining entry and
Turnstiles often restricts movement in one direction.
• It is the equivalent of a secured revolving
door.
It is a double set of doors that is often protected by

a guard or some other physical layout that prevents
Mantraps
piggybacking and can trap individuals at the
discretion of security personnel.
Access Control
Smart card Memory card Proximity reader
• Security ID with an embedded • Machine readable ID cards • A passive device or

magnetic strip, bar code, or with memory sticks transponder that can be
integrated circuit chip used to control physical
• Can hold a small amount of
access
• Can process information or data in memory but cannot
store a reasonable amount process it • A passive device, typically
of data in memory worn by an individual,
• Are easy to copy or duplicate
that alters the magnetic
• Can be used in multifactor
field generated by the
authentication to improve
reader when detected
security
and processed.
• Vulnerable to physical security
attacks
Media Storage Security: Safe
• Safes are commonly used to store media.

• Passive locking safes can detect if someone
attempts to tamper with them, in which case
extra internal bolts will fall into place to
ensure it cannot be compromised.
• Thermal locking safes can identify
temperature changes and implement
additional locks.
Media Storage Security: Safe Types
Safe Type Characteristic
Embedded into the wall and

Wall Safe
easily hidden
Embedded into the floor and
Floor Safe
easily hidden
Chests Stand-alone safe
Safes with slots; allow

Depositories
valuables to be slipped in
Safes that are large enough to
Vaults
allow walk-in
Fire Prevention, Detection, and Suppression
Fire Prevention
• Training employees for fire safety
• Supplying the right equipment and ensuring their working conditions
• Storing combustible materials in a proper manner
Fire Detection
Placing fire detectors at strategic points to detect smoke or fire
Fire Suppression Systems

Using a suppression agent to put out a fire
Stages of Fire
The earlier the fire is detected, the easier it is to be extinguished.
Stage 1: Incipient Stage 2: Smoke Stage 3: Flame Stage 4: Heat

stage stage stage stage
Initial stage, only air Smoke is visible Flame can be seen Fire is considerably
ionization, no smoke from the point of with naked eye higher
ignition
Fire Detection Devices
Smoke Activated
• Good early warning devices

• Photoelectric device
○ Detects a variation in light intensity and produces a beam
of light and if the light is obstructed, an alarm is
produced.
Fire Detection Devices
Heat Activated
• Fixed temperate: Alarm is generated when a particular

temperature is reached
• Rate-of-raise: Alarm is generated when the temperature
raises over time
○ Rate-of-raising temperature sensors usually provide a
quicker warning than fixed-temperature sensors, but they
are prone to false positives
Environmental Controls: Fire
The following are the classes of fires:
Class A Fires Class B Fires Class C Fires Class D Fires Class K Fires
Environmental Controls: Fire
The table given below indicates the types of fires and the corresponding extinguishing
methods.
Class Description (Fuel) Extinguishing Method
Common combustibles such as paper,

A Water, Foam
wood, and clothing
B Burnable fuels such as gasoline or oil Inert Gas, CO2
Inert Gas, CO2

Electrical fires such as computers and
C (Note: Most important step: Turn off
electronics
electricity first!)
Dry Powder
Special fires, such as chemical, or
D (May require total immersion or other
metal
special techniques)
K Commercial Kitchens Wet Chemical

Water-Based Suppression System
• Always full of water, usually discharged by temperature control sensors.

Wet Pipe
• Also called closed head systems
• Water is not stored in the pipe, instead contains compressed air.

Dry Pipe
• Opening the water valve causes water to fill the pipes and discharge.
• Combination of wet and dry pipe

Preaction • Water is not held in the pipes until the fire is detected.
• Released only after the sprinkler head activation triggers are melted by sufficient heat.
• Another form of dry pipe system that uses larger pipes and can deliver a
Deluge
significantly larger volume of water.
Gas Suppression
• It is more effective than water suppression systems.

• Gas discharge systems remove oxygen from the air and
should not be used in environments where people are
located.
• Halon is an effective gas suppression system, but as it
Gas Suppression degrades the environment, it is banned.
• Effective replacements for Halon are:
○ FM200
○ NAF-S-III
○ Argon
○ Inergen
Motion Detectors
Infrared Heat-based Wave Pattern

Monitors for significant changes Monitors for significant changes Transmits low ultrasonic
in the infrared lighting pattern in the heat levels of a monitored frequency signals and monitors
of a monitored area. area. for significant changes in the
reflected patterns.
Capacitance Photoelectric Passive Audio

Monitors the changes in the Monitors visible light levels in a Listens for abnormal sounds in
electrical or magnetic field monitored area. a monitored area.
surrounding a monitored object.
Alarm Types
Deterrent
• Alarms that trigger deterrent actions
• The goal is to make intrusion attempts more difficult.
Repellent
• Alarms that trigger sound or light
• The goal is to discourage intruders.
Notification
• Alarms that trigger notifications to security analyst
• Silent from an attacker's perspective, but it gives
warning signals to the security team.
Alarm Categories
Local Alarm System
• Must broadcast an audible alarm signal that can be heard within 400 feet.
• Security guards should be stationed nearby.
Central Station
• The alarm is silent locally, but offsite monitoring agents are notified.
Auxiliary system
• Can be added to either a local or a centralized system.

• Notifications are sent to emergency services such as the fire, police,
and medical teams.
Emanation Security: Electronic Emanation
Hardware or electronic devices emit

TEMPEST is used to protect
electronic signals which if captured
against emanation leaks.
can reveal useful information
Emanation Security: Electronic Emanation
Controls against Electronic Emanation:
Faraday Cage White Noise Control Zone
A closed enclosure with Broadcasts false traffic to • Implementation of zones so

external metal mesh that fully mask and hide the presence of that the emanations are
surrounds the enclosure, real emanations. controlled within the
absorbing EM signals. environment.
• Can use faraday cage or
white noise in those zones
Business Scenario
Kevin Butler is studying the importance of security for data centers. He reads
about the recent unauthorized intrusion in data centers caused by a faulty design.
He studied some of the countermeasures for the same. He understands that for
dropped ceilings, the walls should extend above the ceiling to the true ceiling.
● Similarly, for the raised floors, the walls should extend below the false floor.
● Even the air ducts should be small enough to prevent an intruder from crawling
through them.
● Kevin identified, apart from the above-mentioned considerations, the need to
have strong access control for the data center and made his suggestions to Hilda.
Question: What suggestion did Kevin include in his report to ensure strong access control for the
data center?
Business Scenario
Kevin Butler is studying the importance of security for data centers. He reads
about the recent unauthorized intrusion in data centers caused by a faulty design.
He studied some of the countermeasures for the same. He understands that for
dropped ceilings, the walls should extend above the ceiling to the true ceiling.
● Similarly, for the raised floors, the walls should extend below the false floor.
● Even the air ducts should be small enough to prevent an intruder from crawling
through them.
● Kevin identified, apart from the above-mentioned considerations, the need to
have strong access control for the data center and made his suggestions to Hilda.
Question: What suggestion did Kevin include in his report to ensure strong access control for the
data center?
Answer: The use of three-factor authentication for access control.
HVAC
Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
• Temperature and humidity are maintained within reasonable limits.

• Positive pressure and drainage are employed.
• Recommended humidity levels are 40 to 55%.
• Low humidity causes static electricity.
• High humidity may cause corrosion.
• Recommended set point temperature range for a data center is 68 to 77°F (20–25°C).
Power Supply
A reliable power supply is critical for any data center. The following are common
threats to the power system:
Power Excess
• Surge: Prolonged high voltage
• Spike: Momentary high voltage
Power Loss
• Blackout: Prolonged, complete loss of electric power
• Fault: Momentary power outage
Power Degradation
• Brownout: Prolonged reduction in voltage
• Sag or dip: Momentary reduction in voltage
Training and Awareness
Physical security awareness and training are

very critical. It should include:
• Training on operating emergency power
systems
• Training on operating fire extinguishers
• Evacuation routes should be prominently
displayed
• Fire drills
Key Takeaways
An architecture framework provides a structure used for

developing a broad range of security designs.
The various types of evaluation criteria are trusted computer

system evaluation criteria, information technology security
evaluation criteria, common criteria, and payment card
industry data security standard.
System security architecture is focused on designing security

services within individual computing systems.
The various types of distributed systems are virtualization,

hypervisor, cloud computing, grid computing, and peer-to-
peer.
This concludes Security Architecture and Engineering.
The next domain is Communications and Network Security.
CISSP® is a registered trademark of (ISC)² ®

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Certified Information Systems Security Professional

(CISSP) Certification Training Course

CISSP® is a registered trademark of (ISC)² ®

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Implement secure design principles such as fail safe or fail secure,

Compare different security models

Discuss privacy, cybersecurity, and risk frameworks

Examine the concepts of security architecture

Explain cloud computing, Internet of Things, microservices,

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Summarize the concepts of Data Encryption Standard (DES)

List the various advantages and disadvantages of symmetric and

Implement key management principles

Explain different environmental control methods

Kevin Butler, Security Administrator in the Network Firewalls division

In the previous financial year, Nutri Worldwide Inc. expected a large

Security engineering helps in:

• Building information systems and the related

• Delivering the required functionality to address

The principle of least privilege means

Threat modeling is a process by which:

Defense in Depth Physical

Defense in depth is a concept in Network

• Separation of duties (also known as segregation of duties) is the concept

Keep it simple is a design principle that states that most processes or

Fail Secure (Closed) Fail Safe (Open)

Trust but Verify (TbV) Organizations must Verification audits can

Zero trust is a security model based on the principle of

While it is difficult to obtain access from

Every access request is fully

Under this broken trust model, if an attacker

Seven principles of Privacy By Design:

1. Proactive not reactive or preventative not remedial: Anticipate, identify, and

Seven principles of Privacy By Design:

• A shared responsibility model is a cloud security

• The cloud provider is responsible for the security of

• Typically, the contract (SLA) between the cloud

• Cloud customer is ultimately responsible for

It maps the desires of the

It maps the abstract goals of the policy to

• It is usually represented in mathematics and

A CISSP candidate should be aware of the general types of security models.

The goal How each new

This is used to describe the behavior of a system to different inputs.

• Once the system is in a secure state, the System Bootup Secure

Example: If any component in the OS or

State Machine Model Characteristics

• Multilevel security models describe strict

Example: A user with secret clearance can

Subjects Document File Printer Network Folder Share

Amanda Read, Write Print No Access

Mark Read, Write Print Read, Write

• The goal of a noninterference model is to Non – Interference

o Covert channel attacks

• The information flow model focuses on the

• The model is based on a state machine.

• It doesn't necessarily deal with only the

• It can also address the type of flow.