1.0 SOIL RESISTIVITY (Ref: para 13.1.1 of IS 3043 : 2018)
• The measure of the resistance offered by the soil in the flow of electricity is called the soil resistivity. The resistivity of the earth varies within extremely wide limits, between 1 and 10000 ohm meters.
• Soil resistivity plays a vital role in the design of an earthing system. For safety at substations i.e. the touch and step potentials are greatly influenced by soil resistivity.
• The resistance to earth of a given electrode also depends upon the resistivity of the soil in which it is installed. The flow of current into the grounds depends on the resistivity of the soil in which the earth electrode is placed.
• For example, as per para 14.2.2 of IS 3043 : 2018, the resistance of a pipe or rod electrode is given by:
Where, ρ = resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m (assumed uniform), l = length of rod or pipe, in cm, and d = diameter of rod or pipe, in cm,
• The soil resistivity is affected by the moisture content of the soil, chemical composition, concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water and other factors like grain size, distribution, and closeness of packing etc. Many of these factors vary locally and some seasonally so that the table should only be taken as a general guide. Therefore, local values of soil resistivity should be verified by actual measurement of soil resistivity.
• The soil resistivity varies over a wide range depending on its moisture content. It is, therefore, advisable to conduct earth resistivity tests during the dry season in order to get conservative results. The types of soil largely determines its resistivity and examples are given in below table: (Table 3 of IS 3043:2018.) Sr. Type of soil Probable Climate Condition No. value of resistivity Normal and high Low rainfall and Underground Ω.m rainfall (for desert condition waters Example, Greater (for example, (Saline) than 500 mm a less than 250 year) mm a year)
example keuper sandstone and clay shales) vi. Quartzites, compact 300 100 to 1000 and crystalline limestone (for example, carboniferous marble, etc.)
vii. Clay slates and slatey 1000 300 to 3000 1000 upwards 30 to 100 shales
viii. Granite 1000
ix. Fossil slates, schists 2000 1000 upwards
gneiss igneous rocks * Depends on water level of locality.
• Resistivity is expressed in ohm-metres. An ohm-metre is defined as
the resistance of a cube of material measuring 1m x 1m x 1m. Imagine two metal plates fixed either side of the cube then the resistivity is the resistance measured between these two plates as shown below. Fig. 1: Pictorial view of 1 meter cube 2.0 ONE ROD TEST METHOD (Ref: para 40.7 of IS 3043 : 2018)
This is a simpler test than the full Wenner’s test and may be used for distribution substations. When this method is used at the planning stage the rod may be installed in a position where it can be included in the final electrode installation. 3.1 Test Procedure Drive a single earth rod into the ground for a known depth (a depth of 2.4 m is sufficient for most distribution substations) as shown below in fig. 3. Make the connection as shown below using three terminal resistance meter (or 4 terminals with C1 and P1 shorted).
Fig. 2: One Rod Soil Resistivity Measurement
Measure the resistance. Use the resistance measured and rod dimensions to calculate the average soil resistivity required to produce the measured resistance. The resistance measurement may be made using the 61.8 percent method. The formula for calculating the resistance to earth R of a vertical rod given below may be used:
Where R = the resistance to earth of a vertical rod, L = the length of the electrode, in meters (m), d = the diameter in meters (m), ρ = the resistivity of the soil (assumed uniform), in ohm meters (Ω.m) Hence, The soil resistivity measured using above formula gives the average value. The soil resistivity measured using above formula gives the average value. If it is difficult to drive 2.4 meter earth rod to its full depth, it is an indication that there is a layer of high resistivity ground below the immediate surface. In this case wenner’s four point method is suitable.
3.0 WENNER’S FOUR POINT METHOD
(Ref: para 40.3 & 40.4 of IS 3043 : 2018)
The most popular and user friendly method is Wenner’s Four Point Method. This is done without any excavation, by injecting a current and measuring the voltage drop at different spacing. Wenner’s method is more time consuming than the “One Rod Method”. But it is helpful to decide on deep or shallow earths when conditions are difficult. Material Required: One four-terminal earth megger with four rods (electrodes) & connecting leads with clamps.
3.1 Test Locations (Ref: para 40.2 of IS 3043 : 2018)
For measurement of soil resistivity for
substations and generating stations, at least eight test directions shall be chosen from the center of the station to cover the whole site. This number shall be increased for very large station sites if the test results obtained at various locations show a significant difference, indicating variations in soil formation.
Fig.3: Eight equally spaced directions from the center of the site
3.2 Test Procedure
Drive four electrodes in the chosen direction into the earth along a straight line at equal intervals at the selected test site as shown in fig. 4 below. The depth of the electrodes in the ground shall be of the order of 10 to 15 cm. Fig.4: Connections for a four-terminal megger Place the megger on a steady and approximately level base. Open the link between terminals P1 and C1 and connect the four electrodes to the instrument terminals as shown in Fig. 4 above. On most earth resistivity tester, terminals C1 and P1 are shorted to enable the instrument to measure electrode resistance. Ensure that these two terminals are not shorted out whilst carrying out a resistivity test as it will give a false reading. Select an appropriate range on the instrument to obtain clear readings avoiding the two ends of the scale as far as possible. Turn the crank at about 135 rev/min or press the push button (if instrument is of push button type). Working Principle :- In this we are passing a current through the two outer current electrodes through the earth. The current I flowing into the earth produces an electric field proportional to its density and to the resistivity of the soil. The voltage V measured between the inner electrodes is, therefore, proportional to the field. Consequently, the resistivity will be proportional to the ratio of the voltage to current. Further the voltage difference V is observed between the two inner potential electrodes thereby calculating the resistance R=V/I
Figure: 5 Generally, the earth tester used for these tests directly read the resistance (R). The resistivity may be calculated from the equation as given in table below:
If spacing between the rods (s) is If spacing between the rods (s) is less than more than 20 times of depth of 20 times of depth of burial (e) i.e. s < 20e burial (e) i.e. s > 20e For example, if spacing between the rods (s) (In this depth of burial of the is 300 cm and depth of burial (e) is more electrodes (e) in the ground is than 15 cm, below formula to be used: negligible compared to the spacing (s) between the electrodes) For example, if spacing between the rods (s) is 300 cm and depth of burial (e) is less than 15 cm, below formula to be used:
Where
ρ = resistivity of soil in ohm- V = voltage difference between the two
meter, inner electrodes in Volts, s = distance between two I = current flowing through the two outer successive electrodes in electrodes in amperes, meters, R = megger reading in ohms e = depth of burial of electrode in meters 3.3 Testing of Soil Uniformity (Ref: para 40.5 of IS 3043 : 2018) During above tests, it is advisable to get information about the horizontal and vertical variations in soil resistivity over the site for the correct computation of the resistivity for the use in design calculations. The vertical variations may be detected by repeating the tests at a given location in a chosen direction with a number of different electrode spacings, increasing from 2 to 250 m or more, preferably in the steps 2, 5, 10, 15, 25 and 50 m or more. If the resistivity variations are within 20 to 30 percent, the soil in the vicinity of the test location may be considered uniform. Otherwise a curve of resistivity versus electrode spacing shall be plotted and this curve further analyzed to deduce stratification of soil into two or more layers of appropriate thickness or a soil of gradual resistivity variation. The horizontal variations are studied by taking measurements in various directions from the center of the site/station. 3.4 Computation of Earth Resistivity of Uniform Soil (Ref: para 40.5 of IS 3043 : 2018) When resistivity readings are found more or less constant irrespective of the increase in the electrode spacing after certain spacings. Note down the resistivity for this spacing and take as the resistivity for that direction. Similarly, measure resistivities for at least eight equally spaced directions from the center of the site as shown in fig.1 earlier. Plot these resistivities on a graph sheet in the appropriate directions choosing a scale.
Plot a closed curve on the graph sheet jointing all the resistivity points plotted to get the polar resistivity curve as shown in fig. 5 (Green).
Measure the area inside the polar resistivity curve and find out the equivalent circle (fig. 5 Blue) of the same area. The radius of this equivalent circle is the average resistivity of the site under consideration. The average resistivity thus obtained may be used for the design of the earthing grid and other computations and the results will be reasonably accurate when the soil is homogeneous.
Fig- 6 Polar curve
Disclaimer: It is clarified that this pamphlet does not supersede any existing provisions laid down by Indian Standards, Railway Board, RDSO or Zonal Railways. The pamphlet is for guidance only and it is not a statutory document. If you have any suggestion or comment, please write to: Dy. Director (Electrical), CAMTECH, Maharajpur, Gwalior (M.P.) – 474 005 Ph.0751-2470740, Fax 0751-2470841 E-mail: [email protected]
