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Earth Science
Quarter 2: Modules 1-4

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 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
N a t i o n a l C a pi t a l Re g i o n
Sc h o o l s D i v i s i o n O f f i c e o f La s Pi ñ a s C i t y

DEVELOPMENT TEAM OF THE MODULE

WRITERS: AILINE C. AUSTRIA, Teacher III

MARY ANN C. FAJARDO, Teacher III
JOSELITO P. GRANDE JR., Teacher II

CONSOLIDATOR: JOSELITO P. GRANDE JR., Teacher II

LANGUAGE EDITOR: VIRGILIA D. MUJER, Teacher III

CONTENT EMERINA CLARISSE R. BERNANTE, Teacher II

VALIDATORS: LEILANIE A. BRIZA, Teacher III
MA. CRISTINA V. DINGAL, Teacher III
GERAME H. TURA, Teacher III

COVER PAGE AIRA MARI CON M. AUSTERO

ILLUSTRATOR:

TEAM LEADER: DR. RAQUEL M. AUSTERO

Education Program Supervisor

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 Module 1 Weathering and The Earth’s Interior

Most Essential Learning Competencies

• Describe how rocks undergo weathering. (S11ES-IIb-c-22)
• Explain why the Earth’s interior is hot. ((S11ES-IIc-23)

What’s In

Weathering
Physical weathering (or mechanical weathering) disintegrates rocks, breaking
them into smaller pieces. Chemical weathering breaks down rocks through synthetic
responses that change the original rock-forming minerals. Weathering happens as a
reaction to the low pressure, low temperature, and water and oxygen rich nature of the
Earth’s surface Physical weathering and chemical weathering quite often happen
together in nature and reinforce each other. As an effect of the chemical weathering,
the rock weakens, thus becoming more susceptible to physical weathering.

The following processes lead to the mechanical breaking down of

rocks:
A. Frost wedging - when water gets inside the joints, interchange freezing, and
defrosting scenes pry the stone apart.
B. Salt crystal growth- it’s a force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water
evaporates from pore spaces or cracks in rocks can cause the rock to fall apart.
C. Abrasion – eroding of rocks by consistent impact of free particles.
D. Biological activity – plants and animals (including humans) as agents of
mechanical weathering.

The following major processes of chemical weathering:

A. Dissolution – dissociation of molecules into ions; common example includes
dissolution of calcite and salt.
B. Oxidation- reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water.
C. Hydrolysis- change in the structure of minerals when they respond with water.

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Factors that influence the type, extent, and rate at which weathering
takes place:
A. Climate – areas that are cold and dry will in general have moderate slow rates
of chemical weathering and weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering
is generally dynamic in districts with high temperature and precipitation.
B. Rock type – the minerals that constitute rocks have various susceptibilities to
weathering. The susceptibility of minerals (from high to low) roughly follows the
inverse of the order of crystallization of minerals in the Bowen’s reaction series.
Thus, olivine which crystallizes first is the least resistant whereas; quartz which
crystallizes last is the most resistant.
C. Rock structure- rate of weathering is influenced by the presence of joints, folds,
faults, bedding planes through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass.
Highly jointed/fractured rocks break down quicker than a strong mass of rock of
the same dimension
D. Topography- physical weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than
on a gentle one. On a gentle slope, water may remain longer in contact with the
stones, consequently chemical weathering is enhanced.
E. Time- length of exposure to agents of weather determines the level of
weathering of a rock.

The Earth’s Interior

The heat of Earth’s interior originates a variety of sources. These include the
heat contained in the objects that accumulated to frame Earth, and the warmth created
when they impacted. As Earth became bigger, the expanded weight on Earth's inside
made it pack and warmth up. Heat likewise originated from friction when melted
material was redistributed inside Earth, shaping the center and mantle

There are two categories of the internal heat sources of the Earth:
1. Primordial heat by briefly reviewing the process of earth formation. In particular,
the heat produced during the Earth’s formation came from the following
sources: accretion energy, adiabatic compression, core formation energy and
decay of short-lived radioisotopes.
2. Radioactive heat (the heat made by long-term radioactive decay): significant
sources are the four long-lived isotopes (large half- life), namely K40, Th232,
U235 and U238 that continually creates heat over geologic time.

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 3. Geothermal gradient or geotherm: the temperature increases with depth into
Earth (the non-linear temperature/depth curve) (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The geothermal gradient (source: http://

www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/10.html)

How is the Earth’s internal heat redistributed?

• Simultaneous conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Convection happens at the mantle but not between the core and mantle or even
between the asthenosphere and lithosphere (except at seafloor spreading
zones).
The only heat transfer mechanism in these transition regions is through conduction.

Figure 2. Diagram illustrating how heat is transferred in the Earth’s interior.

source: ttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/EarthSci/people/lidunka/GEOL2014/Geophysics8%20-%20Thermal %20evolution/Heat.htm)

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Magma Formation
The following are the special conditions required for the formation of magma:
A. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting).
B. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles.
C. Melting as result from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer melting).

Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing different zones where melting occurs

(source: http:// www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/10.html)

The different places where magma can form:

A. Mid-oceanic ridges
B. Mantle plumes (hot spots)
C. Subduction zones

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 What’s More

Activity 1: Complete It!

Directions: Fill-out the blanks with the appropriate word to complete the idea of the
paragraph about weathering.

potholes acid rain climate cracks Chemical moisture Frost wedging

temperatures Rust Freezing minerals Mechanical Pressure Pieces

Weathering is the breaking of rocks into ____________________. There are two

main types of weathering. __________________ weathering involves breaking rocks
without changing their chemical composition.
In _________ __________________, water trapped in rocks freezes and expands,
forcing the rocks apart. _______________ can also cause mechanical weathering. Plant
roots put pressure in rocks and cause small _______________ to widen and split the
rock.
______________________ weathering involves water, air and other substances
to react with the minerals in rocks. When metal is exposed to water and oxygen,
oxidation occurs and __________ forms. Carbonic acid in plant roots and mosses also
react with the ______________ in rocks. Water and carbon dioxide form
_______________ which deteriorates many stones. How rapidly these changes occur
depend on the ____________ of the area. Chemical weathering happens more slowly
in the desert because there is little _________________. Low ____________________ in
polar regions cause more physical weathering. Whenever _______________ and
thawing alternate, mechanical weathering becomes very detrimental forming many
___________________ on the roadways.

Activity 2: Explain It!

Directions: Explain how magma forms in the following locations.
1. Mid-oceanic ridges
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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2. Mantle plumes
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Subduction zones
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Directions: Complete the Venn Diagram below to show the similarities and differences of
mechanical and chemical weathering.

Mechanical Chemical
Weathering Weathering

What I Can Do
Directions: Create a comic strip that will illustrate how magma forms in the different locations
on Earth. Your teacher will use the rubrics below to evaluate your work.

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Rubrics for comic strip:

5 4 3 2 SCORE
Craftsmanship The output is The output The output The output
exceptionally is attractive is is
attractive in in terms of acceptably distractingly
terms of neatness. attractive messy.
neatness, Good though it
well construction may be bit
contrasted and not messy
and not very messy.
messy.
Creativity The output is The output The output The output
exceptionally is creative, is creative, does not
creative. A and a good and some reflect any
lot of thought amount of thought degree of
and effect thought was put creativity
was used. was put into.
into.
Originality Exceptional Good use Average No use of
use of new of new use of new new ideas
ideas and ideas and ideas and and
originality. originality. originality. originality.
Time Bound The output is The output The output The output
submitted on is a day or is one is two or
time two days week more
delayed delayed weeks
from the from delayed
deadline of deadline of from
submission submission deadline of
submission
TOTAL

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 Module 2 Magma and Metamorphism

Most Essential Learning Competencies

• Describe what happens after magma is formed (S11ES-IIc-25)
• Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to
•
changes in pressure and temperature (metamorphism) (S11ES-IIc-26)

What’s In
Magma forms from partial melting of mantle rocks. As the rocks move upward
(or have water added to them), they begin to dissolve a bit. These little blebs of dissolve
move upward and blend into bigger volumes that keep on moving upward. They may
gather in a magma chamber, or they may simply come straight up. As they rise, gas
atoms in the magma come out of arrangement and structure bubbles and as the air
pockets rise, they grow. In the long run the weight from these air pockets is stronger
than the surrounding rock and this surrounding rock breaks, allowing the magma to
get to the surface.

Figure 1. Two processes as magma rises

up: (1) ejected out to the surface through
volcanoes (2) solidifies within the
shallower levels.
Source: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Igneousrock#/media/
File:Igneous_rock_eng_text .jpg. Accessed: May 2, 2016

Figure 2. The magma chamber and rising

magma.
Magma chamber: Source : http://
www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/images/bathol
ith_gif_image.html

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 Different factors affect magma’s
viscosity (measure of a fluid’s
resistance to flow). Temperature, silica
content and volatile content control the
viscosity of magma. Use the table
below to clarify the effects of different
factors on magma viscosity.
Mafic magma is less thick than silicic (felsic) magma since it is hotter and
contains less silica. Additionally, the volatile in magma decreases viscosity.
The series of sequence of mineral crystallization in a cooling magma is describe
as Bowen’s reaction. The process of creating one or more secondary magmas from
single parent magma is known as Magmatic differentiation. The following are the
different processes by which the composition of magma may change: Crystal
Fractionation, Partial Melting, Magma mixing and Assimilation/contamination of magma
by crustal rocks.

Metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks are like sedimentary rocks in the sense that they are both
“recycled” rocks (derived from pre-existing rocks). Whereas sedimentary processes
(weathering, erosion, and deposition) occur at surface or near surface conditions,
metamorphism (the process through which pre-existing rocks are transformed into
metamorphic rocks) normally occur at subsurface conditions (resulting from but not
limited to deep burial). Unlike igneous rocks, there is no melting involved in
metamorphism (alteration of the composition or structure of a rock by heat, pressure,
or other natural agency).

The mineral composition of the resulting metamorphic rock is influenced by the

following:

• Mineral composition of the parent rock

• Composition of the fluid that was present

• Amount of pressure and temperature during metamorphism

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 Figure 3: Typical transition of mineral content resulting from the metamorphism of
shale (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).

Metamorphic grade pertains to the temperature and/or pressure condition(s)

to which a rock has been subjected during metamorphism. Foliation is the pervasive
planar structure that results from the nearly parallel alignment of sheet silicate minerals
and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the rock.

Table 1: Agents of metamorphism and the associated metamorphic

processes.

Agents of Metamorphism Metamorphic Processes

• Minerals convert to new high

temperature minerals
• Fluids are released (e.g., clay = mica +
High temperature
H2O)
• Crystals grow larger • Rocks become
weaker and easier to deform

• Minerals may recrystallize into more

compact/stable forms
High pressure
• Platy or elongate minerals may align in
a preferred direction

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Table 2: Some common metamorphic rocks

Classification Metamorphic Parent Rock Common

Processes Minerals

Slate Shale, mudstone Quartz, clay

minerals
(feldspars)

Schist Shale, slate, Mica, chlorite,

Foliated (Banded) basalt, or granite talc, quartz

Gneiss Shale, schist, Quartz, feldspars

granite, sandstone
and other rock
types

Quartzite Sandstone Quartz

Non-Foliated (Non- Marble Limestone, Calcite

Banded) dolomite

Anthracite coal Bituminous coal Crystalline carbon

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 What’s More

Activity 1: Analyze It!

Directions: Analyze the magnified views of the minerals found in an igneous rock and
in a metamorphic rock shown below. The millimeter scale indicates the size of the
crystals shown in the magnified views. Then, answer the questions that follow.

Figure 4: Typical transition of mineral content resulting from the metamorphism of

shale (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).

1. How will you describe the alignment of minerals of the two rocks illustrated?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What cause the alignment of minerals in the metamorphic rock?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you describe the metamorphic grade of the illustrated metamorphic rock?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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Activity 2: Complete It!
Directions: Fill-out the blanks with the appropriate word to complete the idea of the
paragraph about why and how magma rises.

buoyancy deeper levels temperature low viscosity

slower felsic magma volatile pressure
less dense mafic magma decrease
faster viscosity increase
shallower levels silica content high viscosity

Density contrast: magma is 1.____________________ than the surrounding country

rock. Magma rises 2. ____________________when the difference in density between
the magma and the surrounding rock is greater. At 3____________________, magma
passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding rock. When
enough mass and 4. ____________________ is attained, the overlying surrounding
rock is pushed aside as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding 5.
__________________ and other factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s
surface or rise at shallower levels underneath. At 6. ____________________, magma
may no longer rise because its density is almost the same as that of the country rock.
The magma starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies. 7. ____________________ a
measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with 8. ______________________ flow
more easily than those with 9. _______________________. 10. _________________, 11.
___________________ and 12. ___________________ content control the viscosity of
magma. 13. ____________________ is less viscous than silicic 14.
____________________ because it is hotter and contains less silica. Also, the volatiles
in magma 15. ____________________ viscosity.

What I Have Learned

Directions: Answer the following questions about magma differentiation and
metamorphism.
1. How does temperature and silica content affect the viscosity of magma?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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2. How does the density contrast between surrounding rocks affects the movement
of magma?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. How does metamorphism cause changes on rocks?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Directions: Existing rocks undergoes metamorphism because of its exposure to
extreme heat and pressure. Just like rocks that undergoes metamorphism, students
are expose to different situations that will aims to develop them to become a better
version. In this activity, you will be asked to create a poem that will show the likeness
of you as a student to a rock that undergoes metamorphism. Your work will be
evaluated based on the rubrics below.

5 4 3 2 SCORE
Content The output The output The output The output
was was was was not
interesting connected somewhat connected
and was to the topic. connected to the topic.
connected to the
to the topic. topic.
Creativity The output is The output The output The output
exceptionally is creative, is creative, does not
creative. A and a good and some reflect any
lot of amount of thought degree of
thought and thought was was put creativity
effect was put into. into.
used.
Time Bound The output is The output The output The output
submitted on is a day or is one is two or
time two days week more
delayed delayed weeks
from the from delayed
deadline of deadline of from
submission submission deadline of
submission
TOTAL

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 Crustal Deformation and the Seafloor Spreading
Module 3
Hypothesis

Most Essential Learning Competencies

• Describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as
compression, pulling apart, and shearing (S11ES-IIc-27)
• Explain how the seafloor spreads (S11ES-IIf-32)

What’s In
Since the formation of the Earth, rocks is constantly exposed to factors that
causes changes to its physical and chemical properties. In the previous lesson,
weathering and erosion, magmatic differentiation and metamorphism was discussed.
In addition to this process, the forces applied to the rocks causes changes to it. This
will be the focus of this module.

Stress and Strain

Rock is subjected to constant

pressure caused by overlying materials
or even the movement of the plates. This
pressure is described as stress.
Additionally, stress is defined as the
force per unit area applied on rock. The Figure 1. Undeformed Rock Layers. Photo taken from
rock’s response to stress is described as http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/rock-
deformation.html
strain. Strain, also referred to as
deformation, is defined as the change in
shape or volume of the rock caused by
stress. Figure 1 shows the cross-section
of undeformed rock layers. Essentially, an
undeformed rock layer will be horizontal.
This is due to the way sediments are
deposited, and over time turns into rock
layers. On the other hand, Figure 2,
Figure 2. Deformed Rock Layers. Photo taken from
shows how sedimentary rock layers http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/rock-
behaved due to deformation caused by deformation.html

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stress. It is implied that these rock layers are originally layered horizontally but
deformed due to stress. A wave-like appearance is observed in rock that is exposed
to constant stress and this is called as the fold.

Kinds of Stress and Stages of Deformation

1. Compressional Stress –Common in places where there is converging plates and
rocks are being squeezed.
2. Tensional Stress - Common ins diverging plate boundaries where rocks are
being pulled apart.
3. Shear Stress – Usually observed in transform plate boundaries where plates move
side by side. In this, rocks are subjected to forces in opposite directions that are
parallel to its plane.

Although different kinds of stress happen to different rock layers, their deformation
undergo the same stages of deformation. There are three stages of rock deformation;
namely, they are elastic deformation, ductile deformation, and brittle deformation.
Elastic deformation is the first stage of deformation. In this stage, deformation is still
reversible. Rock layers may return to its original shape once stress is removed. Next
is ductile deformation, in this stage rocks are described to behave like plastic where
they may be bent or be deformed without breaking its continuity. Lastly, brittle
deformation happens when rocks deformed are fractured or broken. Both ductile and
brittle deformation are irreversible. Rocks that undergone these stages will not return
to its original shape or volume after these. As rocks return to its original shape in elastic
deformation, no permanent structure will be seen in this stage. Folds may form during
ductile deformation caused by compressional and shear stress. Depending in the
composition of the rock and the condition it is exposed to, then fracture may also
happen. A fracture is any break in the rock layer caused by stress. A fracture will be
described as a fault when movement between the broken rock layer is visible. A
fracture will be called as a joint if there is no visible movement between the broken
rock layers.

Continental Drift Theory and the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

Throughout this quarter, you are exposed to concepts of exogenic and
endogenic processes. Exogenic processes are those processes that are primarily
driven by the solar energy. Examples of this are weathering and erosion, and even
mass wasting. Endogenic processes, on the other hand, are driven by the forces
originating deep within the Earth. Examples of this are metamorphism, formation of

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magma and the movement of plates. In this lesson, we will focus on the how endogenic
processes, caused the spreading of the ocean floor.

Continental Drift Theory: Precursor to the Seafloor Spreading

Hypothesis
For the longest time, humans believe in different theories that explain the
Earth’s topography. Many believed that the Earth’s land is caused by the contraction
of the Earth. Under this belief, it is explained that the Earth’s size is getting smaller, just
like a deflating balloon, and this deflation cause the formation of the Earth’s topography
(mountains, continents, and even underwater landforms). Others believed that the
Great Flood written in the Bible caused the distinctions on the Earth’s landforms. But,
in 1915, Alfred Wegener proposed the Continental Drift Theory. This theory
suggests that the continents were once part of an enormous landmass, Pangaea, and
that it is moving through the oceans and sometimes collide with other continents. This
theory is further supported by evidence observed by Wegener, which are:
1. Fit of the continents - it can be observed that the continents look like pieces of
jigsaw puzzle that can be fitted to each other. This is further supported by the
presence of similar rock types between 2 continents separated by vast ocean basin.
2. Distribution of Fossils – the presence of similar fossils between two different
continents suggests that they are once connected to each other. Particularly, fossil
evidence suggests that land animals will not have any means to transport from
continent to another, as they are not capable of swimming through the ocean.
3. Evidence of tropical climates and glaciation – Tropical animals and plants can
only survive in a specific climate range. The presence of tropical plants’ fossils in a
continent no longer in the tropical region suggest that the continent was once in a
different location. Additionally, the presence of landforms caused by glaciation is
present in tropical regions where there are no glaciers found in the present times.
Although the Continental Drift Theory laid out the evidence of the moving of the
continent, it failed to explain how the movement occurs which results to the disapproval
of this theory by the scientific community. Additionally, Wegener have calculated the
movement of the continents to happen faster than its real rate, which lead to more
doubt on the theory. The Continental Drift Theory was not widely accepted but in
1960’s, Harry Hess, proposed the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis which supported the
claims of Wegener. Hess stated that the continents do not change dramatically or move
independently but moves because of the movement of the tectonic plates where the
continents lie.

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Evidence/Observations that Support the Seafloor Spreading
Hypothesis
The Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis claims that younger seafloor is formed
when molten material spewed from the mid-ocean ridges pushes the seafloor away
from the ridges. As the lava cools, it turns into younger seafloor and the pushed seafloor
tends to subside as it contacts denser continental crust. The following discusses the
evidence that support that the seafloor spreading hypothesis.
1. Seafloor’s topographic features – Before the 19th century, people believed that
the seafloor is flat and featureless. But bathymetric survey (measure the depth of a
water, commonly uses echolocation) suggests that the depths of the sea is not flat
and differences in its height shows that there are different topographic features
present in the seafloor. Scientists were able to identify the presence of underwater
mountains, hills, and plains and even trenches. With these surveys they also found
out that the sediment on the seafloor is more likely to be thicker if it is farther from
the mid-ocean ridge. It supports the idea that the seafloor farther from the mid-
ocean ridge are older, thus, permitting the more sediments to build up on it than
the seafloor near the mid-ocean ridge (which are newly formed).
2. Concentration of tectonic activities – Seismologists, in 20th century, were able
to map out the concentration of earthquakes in the seafloor. They found out that
more earthquakes are happening in oceanic trenches and the mid-ocean ridges.
The oceanic trenches are the location were old seafloor subducts to the mantle as
it converged with the continental crust. This subduction will then be recorded as an
earthquake. Similarly, the oozing of molten material out in the mid-ocean ridges
pushes the seafloor along it which causes it movement.
3. Age of the seafloor – Absolute dating of the radioactive rocks present in the
seafloor suggests that older seafloor is present as you go farther away from the
mid-ocean ridge. However, there are no rocks present in the seafloor older than
200 years old, suggesting that rocks are continuously recycled bask as it reaches
the trenches near the continents.
4. Magnetic striping of the seafloor – in the modern times, scientists were able to
find out that the Earth’s magnetic poles tend to reverse every 200 to 300 thousand
years. In this magnetic reversal, the magnetic north tends to align with the
geographic south. This reversal leads to the striping of the seafloor. As new seafloor
forms in the mid-ocean ridge, iron bits tend to the chance to align to the magnetic
north as it cools down. But the reversal of the pole every 200-300 thousand years

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 results to a seafloor with stripes of iron bits. In this case there are iron bits that
points to the north and the next points to the south, which disproves the idea that
the seafloor tends to look like it since its formation.

What’s More

Activity 1: Choose It!

Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write FALSE on the
blank provided before the number.
_______________1. In elastic deformation, the rock returns to its original shape when
the stress is removed.
_______________2. In plastic deformation, the rock does not return to its original shape
when the stress is removed.
_______________3. In fracture, the rock breaks.
_______________4. At the Earth’s surface, rocks usually break quite quickly, but
deeper in the mantle, where temperatures and pressures are
higher, rocks are more likely to deform plastically.
_______________5. Sudden stress, such as a hit with a hammer, is more likely to make
a rock break. Stress applied over time often leads to plastic
deformation.

What I Have Learned

Directions: Look for news article that will show real-life events where crustal
deformation happens. Paste the article in a sheet of paper and write your reaction
about the news article. Your work will be graded based on the rubrics below.

Score Description
Outstanding The article chosen shows direct connection to the topic. The
8-10 points reaction contains necessary details. It directly and effectively
addresses the topic being raised. It is written properly with
correct grammar.
Average The article chosen shows a little connection to the topic. The
5-7 points reaction somehow directly addresses the topic being raised.
There are less than 5 grammatical errors.
Does not meet The article chosen shows no connection to the topic. The
expectation reaction does not directly address the topic being raised.
4 points and There are more than 5 grammatical errors.
below

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 What I Can Do
Directions: Using the space below, illustrate how rocks respond to stress and undergo
the three different stages of deformation. Then, write a short paragraph below your
drawing to describe it.

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 Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins and the
Module 4
Plate Tectonic Theory

Most Essential Learning Competencies

• Describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins (S11ES-IIf-33)
• Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds, faults,
trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges(S11ES-IIg-h-34)

What’s In
Seafloor spreading caused the formation of different topographic features.
Contrary to the old belief that it is flat and featureless, modern instruments were able
to map out the different features of the seafloor. In this section, we will be discussing
the different topographic features of the seafloor and the evolution of the ocean basin.

Topographic Features of the Seafloor

The latest technologies have permitted mankind to map our ocean floor. With this
we were able to identify the different features of it. The following is taken from Teaching
Guide for Senior High School: Earth Science as it discusses the different underwater
landforms:

Figure 1. Features of the Seafloor. Photo taken from

https://kudzuacres.com/wwow/lessons/hydrology/oceantopopdfphoto.jpg

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1. Continental shelf – an area with shallow water that surrounds the land(continent).
2. Continental margin – the border of the continental shelf. It is the submerged outer
edge of the continent where continental crust transitions into oceanic crust.
3. Abyssal plain – It is sometimes referred to as the seafloor. An extremely vast flat
surface underwater, that is sometimes interrupted by hills, seamount and valleys.
4. Abyssal hill - are elongate hills, typically 50-300m high and common on the slopes
of mid oceanic ridge
5. Mid-ocean ridges – a submarine mountain chain that winds for more than 65,000
km around the globe. It has a central rift valley and rugged topography on its flanks.
6. Deep-ocean trenches- narrow, elongated depressions on the seafloor many of
which are adjacent to arcs of island with active volcanoes, deepest features of the
seafloor.
7. Seamounts and volcanic islands – submerged volcanoes are called seamounts
while those that rise above the ocean surface are called volcanic islands. These
features may be isolated or found in clusters or chains.

Evolution of the Ocean Basin

Encyclopedia Britannica defines ocean basin as any of several vast submarine
regions that collectively cover nearly three-quarters of Earth’s surface. Technically, this
is the area covered by seawater and there are 5 major ocean basins in our planet such
as the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic. The formation of ocean basin is
aligned with the principle of seafloor spreading hypothesis. The following discusses the
processes involve in its formation.
1. Embryonic stage - the formation of the ocean basin starts with a rifting of a
continental crust. A continent may split and forms a rift valley.
2. Juvenile stage – in this stage, basalt which comes from the molten material oozing
from the rift will start to form the seafloor.
3. Mature stage -In this stage, the ocean basin continues to widen. At some point its
boundary, will meet with continental crust that will start its subduction on the other
side.
4. Declining – As the movement of the plates may change, ocean basins may start to
narrow. The origin, which are diverging plates may end up converging with other
plates that will permit the narrowing of the ocean floor.

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5. Terminal – The last stage of ocean basin evolution ends with the complete collision
of two continental plates. The last seafloor will be eliminated, and a previously
formed ocean basin will no longer be seen as mountain chains replaces it.

Figure 2. The Evolution of Ocean Basins. Photo taken from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ocean-basin

The Plate Tectonic Theory

The Continental Drift Theory and the Seafloor Spreading, permitted the
formation of a unifying theory that will further explain the concepts of the two previous
theories. The Plate Tectonic theory is the most accepted theory that explains the
topography of the seafloor and even how the continents form. This theory describes
the movement of the plates due to tectonic processes. It explained that due to mantle
convection, the lithospheric plates ride over the soft, ductile asthenosphere.

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Plate Boundaries and Its Movement
The table below shows the different plate boundaries and its movement. It points
out that there are three types of plate boundary such as divergent, convergent and
transform plate boundary. Their interaction with each other leads to the formation of
different landforms.

Figure 3. Plate Boundaries.

Photo taken from Teaching Guide for Senior High School: Earth Science

What’s More

Activity 1: Arrange It!

Directions: Arrange the pictures below to show the evolution of ocean basin. Use
numbers 1-5.

_____1.

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_____2.

_____3.

_____4.

_____5.
Photos taken from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-57852-1_8

Activity 2: Match It!

Directions: Match the different features of the ocean basin in Column A with its
correct description in Column B. Write your answer on the space provided before
each number.
Column A Column B
___1. Abyssal hill a. an area with shallow water that surrounds
___2. Abyssal plain the land(continent).
___3. Continental shelf b. are elongate hills, typically 50-300m high
___4. Continental margin
and common on the slopes of mid oceanic
ridge
c. the border of the continental shelf. It is the
submerged outer edge of the continent
where continental crust transitions into
oceanic crust.
d. It is sometimes referred to as the seafloor.
An extremely vast flat surface underwater,
that is sometimes interrupted by hills,
seamount and valleys
e. a submarine mountain chain that winds for
more than 65,000 km around the globe. It
has a central rift valley and rugged
topography on its flanks.

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 What I Have Learned

Directions: Create a concept map that will show the connection between the
Continental Drift Theory, Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis and the Plate Tectonic
Theory. Write your output in another sheet of paper. Your work will be evaluated based
on the rubric below.

Score Description
Outstanding The output contains all the necessary details. It directly and
8-10 points effectively shows the connection of the different theories. All
ideas about shown in the concept map is correct.
Average The output misses to include 1-2 necessary details. There are
5-7 points some ideas that has no connection to the different theories. Some
ideas are incorrect.
Does not The output misses to include more than 2 necessary details. Most
meet of the ideas does not have connection to the issue being raised.
expectation
4 points and
below
What I Can Do
Follow the directions below to create a globe that will represent the Earth’s plate
tectonics.

Directions:
1. Cut out the map shown on the next page.
2. Create a crumpled paper ball with a cricumference of at least 4 inches.
3. Apply glue at the back of the equator. Apply the cut out map to the center of
the paper ball. Make sure that both poles cover the pole. Adjust the
circumference of the paper ball if needed.
4. Apply glue to the flap of the cut out map and press down to the ball. Repeat
this process for all the other flaps.
5. Cut out the base and glue its ends together to form a ring. When dry, rest
globe on the base.
6. Based on your globe, list down examples of:
Example: There is a divergent boundary between the Nazca and Pacific plates.
A. Convergent plate boundary
B. Divergent plate boundary
C. Transform plate boundary

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 The Plate Tectonics Ball Globe
Adopted from activity created by US Geological Survey. Retrieved from https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/file_mngr/file-
139/This_Dynamic_Planet-Teaching_Companion_Packet.pdf on July 10, 2020

29
 30
MODULE 1
MODULE 2
Activity 1
1. The minerals in the metamoprhic rock is aligned Activity 1
than those in the igneous rock. 1. pieces
2. Exposure to heat and pressure caused the 2. mechanical
alignment of minerals in the metamoprhic rocks. 3. frost wedging
3. The rock could be in intermediate grade which 4. pressure
is seen in the presence of biotite and amphibole. 5. cracks
These minerals form in an intermediate 6. Chemical
metamorphic rock as shown in the Bowen's 7. rust
reaction series. 8. minerals
9. acid rain
Activity 2 10. climate
1. Less dense 11. moisture
2. Faster 12. temperatures
3. Deeper levels 13. freezing
4. Buoyancy 14. potholes
5. Pressure
6. Shallower levels
7. Viscosity Activity 2
8. Low viscosity
9. High viscosity 1. Magma forms in mid-oceanic ridges through
10. Temperature decompression melting. As two plates diverges,
11. Silica content pressure decreases in the mantle causing the
12. Volatile content formation of magma.
13. Mafic magma 2. Direct heat in mantle plumes causes the
14. Felsic magma formation of magma. As these locations
15. Decrease experiences extreme heat, solid materials melts
and turns into magma.
3. Magma forms in subduction zone due to
What I Have Learned introduction of volatile materials. These materials
1. Increase in temperature causes magma to be changes the properties of the minerals present in
less viscous while increase in silica content causes subduction causing its boiling point to decrease
magma to be more viscous. and leads to the formation of magma.
2. Difference in density between the magma and
the surrounding rocks can identify whether the
magma will rise and reach the surface or will stay
below the ground. What I Have Learned
3. As rocks is exposed to extreme heat and
pressure during metamorphism, its minerals are Students' answers may vary. Accept any
rearranging itself forming new types of minerals. reasonable answers that the students may have.
Metamorphism also leads to physical changes in
rocks.
Answer Key
 31
MODULE 3
MODULE 4
Activity 1
1. 5 Activity 1
2. 1 1. True
3. 3 2. True
4. 2 3. True
5. 4 4. False
5. True
Activity 2
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. c What I Have Learned
What I Have Learned
Students' answers may vary. Use the rubrics to
evaluate the students’ work.
Students' answers may vary. Use the rubrics to
evaluate the students’ work.
References
Commission on Higher Education. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School:
Earth Science.
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill . (2007). Earth Science. Columbus: McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.
Holt, R. a. (n.d.). Earth Science Interactive Textbook. Austin, Texas.
McGuire, T. (2005). Earth Science: The Physical Setting. New York: Amsco School
Publications, Inc.
S.M. Gandhi, B.C. Sarkar,. (2016). Essentials of Mineral Exploration and Evaluation.
Pages 159-198. ISBN 9780128053294. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128053294000144

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