Camera Systems

Basics of Aerial Photography

Aerial photography has three general uses: 

- Cartographers and engineers take detailed measurements from aerial photos  
- Trained interpreters use airphotos to map land use and all kinds of human activity  
- Earth scientists use air photos to analyze and map the environment

Although both maps and aerial photos present a "bird's-eye" view of the earth, aerial photographs are
not generally considered maps. Maps are spatially correct representations of the earth's surface; they are
directionally and geometrically correct with regard to a planar frame of reference. Uncorrected aerial
photos have radial distortion (due to lens curvature) as well as geometric distortions due to
inconsistencies in the attitude of the airplane (roll, pitch and yaw).  These limitations to accuracy are
sometimes quantifiable in terms of scale, resolution and angular distortion but for the most part the
"accuracy" of an air photo interpretation is a function of the experience of the interpreter and availability
of ancillary information.  Geometric distortions can be corrected but not always, this too is a function of
the experience of the person doing it.

Photogrametry is, "the art or science of making measurements from aerial imagery". The geometry of an
air photo is fixed by the altitude, focal length and film format. These three variables, along with
measurements of the plane's three dimensional position relative to the ground, can be used to remove
spatial distortions caused by topography, called "ortho rectification". By removing the geometric
distortions and the topographic distortions aerial photographs can be used for very precise
measurements.

Novice photo interpreters often encounter difficulties when presented with their first aerial photograph
because objects are portrayed from an unfamiliar perspective. It's all a matter or experience, once you
become familiar with interpreting aerial photography you will become better at identifying features and
recognizing diagnostic patterns. It's simple, the more photos you look at the better photo interpreter you
become.

Advantages of Aerial Photography over Ground Based Observation

- offers an improved vantage point 

- capability to take a "snap shot" of time that serves as a permanent record of changes  
- broader spectral sensitivity than the human eye and much broader field of view  
- better spatial resolution and geometric/radiometric fidelity than many ground based methods  
- provides repetitive looks at the same area 
- can focus in on a very specific wavelength range and distinguish subtle differences  
- can also look at a number of wavelengths simultaneously

Why Process Remotely Sensed Data Digitally?

Humans are adept at visually interpreting images and learning patterns. Our eyes and brain are the most
sophisticated remote sensing instruments there are, well beyond what machines will ever be capable of
(even in the 21st century!) but computers do one thing better than we do - the same thing over and over
and over again very quickly with flawless repetition. What our brains can to do far better than computers
can is rule out illogical inferences; when we are presented with an image our brains immediately
associate patterns with meanings, a computer has to match the pattern to something in a digital
database. Although brute force computer horse power can effectively match patterns, with something as
complicated as an aerial photograph it is doubtful that people will ever be replaced in this regard.

Think of "precision" as the number of decimal places and "accuracy" as how well the results match the
real world. In the field of air photo interpretation it is more important to be accurate with your reasoning
rather than precise with your measurements. The products of human interpretations can be highly
subjective, hence, not perfectly repeatable. Conversely, results generated by computer programs - even
when they're wrong - are perfectly repeatable. Some foundation knowledge about camera systems and
film will serve as a basis upon which to start becoming an air photo interpreter. Although technology has
progressed significantly, the basic ideas describing cameras and film will continue to be relevant far into
the future.

Camera Systems

Cameras are similar to your eyes; many of the mechanisms, including the geometry, are
analogous. Cameras, like film, have undergone a steady evolution since they were invented.
The reflex lens was crucial, as was film that would react quickly (and predictably) to light of
different wavelengths. Camera lenses and filters are now a fully evolved technology. The
following diagrams depict some fundamental ideas that pertain to the optics of cameras. 
 

Focal Length vs. Lens Shape. Focal length is the distance between the lens
Camera vs. Eye Ball. Note the image inversion; this is
and the point where the light rays converge. Magnification is controlled by
corrected by mirrors in the camera body, and by our brains
distance from the object, film format, and/or the focal length. Lens
- the world your eyes see is really upside down!
curvature, optical purity and film quality also play a role.

 Focal Length

For aerial systems, the amount of ground coverage acquired by a camera is a function of altitude
of the platform, the focal length of the lens and the film format (size). Different camera systems
have been developed for specific purposes, e.g. military surveillance where the balance between
resolution, area covered and altitude has resulted in a multitude of different camera system
configurations. The panoramic camera and the stereo strip camera are two examples of camera
systems developed for specific tasks; panoramic cameras covered large areas and the stereo strip
camera covered relatively small areas, from low altitude, in detail. 
A wider field of view will capture more area but sacrifice resolution. Digital camera
systems are subject to the same physical constraints. Longer focal length, with lens
diameter held constant, reduces image coverage but increases detail.
    
 
Focal Length vs. Size Size Magnification, focal length, and angler field of view.
Fisheye
The figures above illustrate the the relationship between distance (altitude) and focal
length, as well as the relationship between aerial coverage and angular field of view. The
figures below illustrate the tradeoff between lens diameter and object size. The pair of
diagrams on the left shows the relationship between aperture, focal length, and
magnification. Increasing lens diameter compensates for shorter focal length, but
increasing lens aperture, focal length and film format, as is illustrated by the picture of
the 40 inch focal length camera on the right, can greatly increase magnification and
potential image detail. 

 
Lens Aperture vs. Focal Length

Camera Components
The main difference between aerial camera systems and traditional cameras is the need for aerial
systems to be spatially accurate. Metric precision is necessary because aerial photography is often used
to measure very small distances, and to create high resolution elevation models from stereo imagery. For
these purposes it is necessary to have photography that is extremely accurate. It is possible to do your
own photo reconnaissance by pointing a regular camera out the window of a plane and taking a picture
of the ground, but in order to make reliable measurement you need a more stable setup. Certified "metric
quality" cameras are expensive sensitive devices but necessary if precise/accurate measurements are
required.

Aerial cameras consist of essentially six component;

1. Lens Assembly; 3.5, 6, 8.25 and 12 inches are typical focal lengths. The lenses of aerial systems have
the focus fixed at infinity.

2. Focal Plane; this is a perfectly perpendicular plate aligned with the axis of the lens, a vacuum system is
used to fix the film to the plate so the focal plane is perfectly flat during exposure.

3. Lens Cone; this holds the lens and filter, and covers the front part of the camera preventing light from
leaking into the camera body.

4. Body; encloses the camera, the mounting bolts and stabilization mechanism.

5. Drive Assembly; the guts of the camera, the winding mechanism, shutter trigger, the vacuum pressure
system and motion compensation.
6. Magazine; holds the roll of unexposed film, advances the film between exposures, holds the film in
place and winds-up the exposed film.

Aerial camera systems also have a mounting bracket, power supply, vacuum lines, heating jackets, filters,
forward motion compensation (FMC) and an Interial Motion Unit (IMU). Also part of the system is a
viewfinder for targeting the camera, an intervalometer that determines the rate at which exposures are
taken (the amount of overlap) as the plane flies along the flight path, a navigation control system and an
exposure control system. Computers have assumed many of these tasks which were once
manual/mechanical. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are now integrated into the camera system to
provide very precise in-flight positional control.

Multispectral Cameras
Multispectral cameras were the precursor to the development of digital mulispectral satellite
remote sensing systems. Different configurations of cameras, lenses, filters and film types were
experimented with to determine optimal wavelength regions for the remote sensing of different
landscape features. These experiments led to the selection of the multispectral wavelength
ranges, or "bands", that were later used for satellite based remote sensing systems. 
 

Left: Four Hasselblad 60 mm cameras

setup to acquire synchronized multispectral
images using different filters. 
Right: BW CIR film using four filters; A
blue filter, B green filter, C red filter, D  
near IR filter. 9 Lens Multispectral Camera
Some Military Camera Systems
WWII Mosquito being loaded with 700,000 candlepower
photoflashes in the bomb bay to take high definition flash
pictures of the ground surface at night.

 
K-25 WWII Recon Camera
 
The Stereo Strip Camera demonstrated its military surveillance
potential in a time when near real time high resolution images
were of the utmost importance.

These cameras were pulled out of storage specifically for the task
of low level high speed reconnaissance. Prior to the Cuban Missile
Crisis, they were used in WWII and for determining the winner of
horse races that were too close to judge by the human eye.

It does not use a shutter like a regular camera, but instead uses a
slit. The film rolls past the slit with the same proportional speed of
target, which in the case of aerial photography is the speed of the
plane. Two contiguous strips of stereo photography are produced
which would not be possible using a conventional shuttered
camera and image motion compensation because low flying jet
aircraft move way too fast. More Info

KA-18A Stereo Strip Camera

Ektachrome 64 mm & Hasselbladd 500 EL/M 70 mm Cameras
NASA has modified standard off-the-shelf Hasselblad 70 mm cameras (right in the image below) to
operate in zero gravity aboard the Space Shuttle. A data recording module (DRM) has also been installed
on each camera to record the date, time, mission number, roll number, and frame number on each
exposure. The camera utilizes a 70 mm film format and uses one of three lens (50, 100, or 250 mm) to
acquire high quality photographs through the four viewing ports on the Shuttle. The Ektachrome 64 mm
camera was also used aboard the Space Shuttle. 
Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/
 
 Ektachrome 64 mm & Hasselblad 70 mm cameras.
 
Lihof Aero Technika
NASA has modified the Linhof cameras to operate in zero gravity on board the Space Shuttle as well. The
camera utilizes a five-inch film format and is equipped with interchangeable lens (90 mm and 250 mm). A
data recording module (DRM) is also mounted on the camera to record the date, time, mission number,
roll number, and frame number for each photograph. http://www.linhof.de/english/

Large Format Camera

The Large Format Camera (LFC) was a high altitude aerial mapping camera scaled up to operate from the
Space Shuttle. It was used on one mission in October 1984. The camera weighs about half a ton and a
single frame covers 23,400 square miles at about 10-20 m resolution.

LFC specs: Film Format: 9 x 18 inches (23 x 46 cm), Aperture: F/6.0, Focal Length: 12 inches (30.5 cm),
Exposure Interval: 7.5 sec., Ground Resolution: 20 meters at 160 nautical miles.
High Quality Photographic Systems and the Digital Modular Camera
Aerial cameras manufactured by Carl Zeiss and LH Systems are of the highest quality and are
the most widely used. Z/I Imaging (Intergraph - Carl Zeiss) introduced the Digital Modular
Camera (DMC) pictured on the left below. The advantages of an all-digital camera system are
extremely precise planar coordinate registration, reliability and the automation of manual tasks,
such as triangulation, which are typically expensive and time consuming. The images on the
right are of two other metric quality camera systems, the most popular are the RMK cameras.
RMK TOP cameras have been in production for many years and are the most recognizable aerial
camera system. LH Systems cameras incorporate the higher fidelity capabilities of film based
cameras with the exacting digital precision of computers and in-flight GPS. 
 

RC30 Aerial Camera System LH Systems

 
Z/I Imaging, Digital Mapping Camera
RMK TOP - Aerial Survey Camera System Z/I Imaging
(DMC) more info