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5.10 Applications
The op amp is a fundamental building block in modern electronic
instrumentation. It is used extensively in many devices, along with
resistors and other passive elements. Its numerous practical applications
include instrumentation amplifiers, digital-to-analog converters, analog
computers, level shifters, filters, calibration circuits, inverters, sum-
mers, integrators, differentiators, subtractors, logarithmic amplifiers,
comparators, gyrators, oscillators, rectifiers, regulators, voltage-to-
current converters, current-to-voltage converters, and clippers. Some of
these we have already considered. We will consider two more applica-
tions here: the digital-to-analog converter and the instrumentation
Digital amplifier.
Four-bit Analog
input
DAC output
(0000 –1111)

(a)
5.10.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter
V1 V2 V3 V4
The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) transforms digital signals into
analog form. A typical example of a four-bit DAC is illustrated in
Rf Fig. 5.36(a). The four-bit DAC can be realized in many ways. A sim-
R1 R2 R3 R4 ple realization is the binary weighted ladder, shown in Fig. 5.36(b).
The bits are weights according to the magnitude of their place value,
− by descending value of Rf
Rn so that each lesser bit has half the
MSB LSB + Vo
weight of the next higher. This is obviously an inverting summing
amplifier. The output is related to the inputs as shown in Eq. (5.15).
(b)
Thus,
Figure 5.36
Four-bit DAC: (a) block diagram, (b) Rf Rf Rf Rf
binary weighted ladder type. Vo  V1
V2
V3
V4 (5.23)
R1 R2 R3 R4
Input V1 is called the most significant bit (MSB), while input V4 is the
least significant bit (LSB). Each of the four binary inputs V1, . . . , V4
In practice, the voltage levels may be
typically 0 and ; 5 V.
can assume only two voltage levels: 0 or 1 V. By using the proper input
and feedback resistor values, the DAC provides a single output that is
proportional to the inputs.

Example 5.12 In the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.36(b), let Rf  10 k, R1  10 k,
R2  20 k, R3  40 k, and R4  80 k. Obtain the analog output
for binary inputs [0000], [0001], [0010], . . . , [1111].

Solution:
Substituting the given values of the input and feedback resistors in
Eq. (5.23) gives
Rf Rf Rf Rf
Vo  V1
V2
V3
V4
R1 R2 R3 R4
 V1
0.5V2
0.25V3
0.125V4
Using this equation, a digital input [V1V2V3V4]  [0000] produces an ana-
log output of Vo  0 V; [V1V2V3V4]  [0001] gives Vo  0.125 V.
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5.10 Applications 197

Similarly,
3V1 V2 V3 V4 4  300104 1 Vo  0.25 V
3V1 V2 V3 V4 4  300114 1 Vo  0.25
0.125  0.375 V
3V1 V2 V3 V4 4  301004 1 Vo  0.5 V
o
3V1 V2 V3 V4 4  311114 1 Vo  1
0.5
0.25
0.125
 1.875 V
Table 5.2 summarizes the result of the digital-to-analog conversion.
Note that we have assumed that each bit has a value of 0.125 V. Thus,
in this system, we cannot represent a voltage between 1.000 and 1.125,
for example. This lack of resolution is a major limitation of digital-to-
analog conversions. For greater accuracy, a word representation with a
greater number of bits is required. Even then a digital representation
of an analog voltage is never exact. In spite of this inexact represen-
tation, digital representation has been used to accomplish remarkable
things such as audio CDs and digital photography.

TABLE 5.2
Input and output values of the four-bit DAC.
Binary input Output
[V1V2V3V4] Decimal value
Vo
0000 0 0
0001 1 0.125
0010 2 0.25
0011 3 0.375
0100 4 0.5
0101 5 0.625
0110 6 0.75
0111 7 0.875
1000 8 1.0
1001 9 1.125
1010 10 1.25
1011 11 1.375
1100 12 1.5
1101 13 1.625
1110 14 1.75
1111 15 1.875

A three-bit DAC is shown in Fig. 5.37. Practice Problem 5.12

(a) Determine |Vo| for [V1V2V3]  [010]. 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
(b) Find |Vo| if [V1V2V3]  [110]. v1
(c) If |Vo|  1.25 V is desired, what should be [V1V2V3]?
20 kΩ
(d) To get |Vo|  1.75 V, what should be [V1V2V3]? v2 −
+ vo
40 kΩ
v3
Figure 5.37
Three-bit DAC; for Practice Prob. 5.12.
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198 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.10.2 Instrumentation Amplifiers

One of the most useful and versatile op amp circuits for precision
measurement and process control is the instrumentation amplifier (IA),
so called because of its widespread use in measurement systems. Typ-
ical applications of IAs include isolation amplifiers, thermocouple
amplifiers, and data acquisition systems.
The instrumentation amplifier is an extension of the difference
amplifier in that it amplifies the difference between its input signals.
As shown in Fig. 5.26 (see Example 5.8), an instrumentation amplifier
typically consists of three op amps and seven resistors. For conven-
ience, the amplifier is shown again in Fig. 5.38(a), where the resistors are
made equal except for the external gain-setting resistor RG, connected
between the gain set terminals. Figure 5.38(b) shows its schematic
symbol. Example 5.8 showed that
vo  Av(v2  v1) (5.24)

Inverting input v + R R
1
Gain set −1
R
−
+3 vo Output
RG R

Gain set R
−
Noninverting input v2 +2
−
R

(a) (b)
Figure 5.38
(a) The instrumentation amplifier with an external resistance to adjust the gain, (b) schematic diagram.

where the voltage gain is

2R
Av  1
(5.25)
RG
As shown in Fig. 5.39, the instrumentation amplifier amplifies small
differential signal voltages superimposed on larger common-mode

−
RG
+

Small differential signals riding on larger Instrumentation amplifier Amplified differential signal,
common-mode signals No common-mode signal
Figure 5.39
The IA rejects common voltages but amplifies small signal voltages.
T. L. Floyd, Electronic Devices, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996, p. 795.
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5.11 Summary 199

voltages. Since the common-mode voltages are equal, they cancel each
other.
The IA has three major characteristics:
1. The voltage gain is adjusted by one external resistor RG.
2. The input impedance of both inputs is very high and does not vary
as the gain is adjusted.
3. The output vo depends on the difference between the inputs v1
and v2, not on the voltage common to them (common-mode
voltage).
Due to the widespread use of IAs, manufacturers have developed
these amplifiers on single-package units. A typical example is the
LH0036, developed by National Semiconductor. The gain can be var-
ied from 1 to 1,000 by an external resistor whose value may vary from
100  to 10 k.

In Fig. 5.38, let R  10 k, v1  2.011 V, and v2  2.017 V. If RG Example 5.13

is adjusted to 500 , determine: (a) the voltage gain, (b) the output
voltage vo.

Solution:
(a) The voltage gain is
2R 2  10,000
Av  1
1
 41
RG 500
(b) The output voltage is
vo  Av(v2  v1)  41(2.017  2.011)  41(6) mV  246 mV

Determine the value of the external gain-setting resistor RG required Practice Problem 5.13
for the IA in Fig. 5.38 to produce a gain of 142 when R  25 k.