Chapter 1

Introduction
Questions
Q#1: What Are protocols needed?

Answer:

Protocols provide us with a medium and set of rules to establish communication between
different devices for the exchange of data and other services. Protocols are needed in every
field like society, science & technology, Data Communication, media, etc.
Q#2: what are the two types of line configuration?
Answer:

Types of Line Configurations

 Point to Point connection.
 Multipoint connection.
Q#3: Name the four basic network topologies and cite an advantage of each type.

Answer:

Network topology refers to the arrangement of computers connected in a network through

some physical medium such as cable, optical fiber etc. Topology generally determines the shape
of the network. The various types of network topologies are as follows:

Types of Topology
There are five types of topology in computer networks:
1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network
through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the
link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n
devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of
the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O
ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device

called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data
to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be
connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected
with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without
hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the
central system of star topology.

Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this
main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the
drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable,
there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.

Ring Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of
it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on
the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If
a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one
direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is
intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended
device receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two
links are required to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due
to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topology
A combination of two or more topologies is known as hybrid topology. For
example, a combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability
is our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing
networks with different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Q#4: Explain the difference between a required RFC and a recommended RFC.

Answer:

RFCs with the status “required” must be complied with immediately, and “recommended” or
“suggested” RFCs are simply recommendations. The use of “elective” RFCs is at the discretion
of the individual user.
Q#5: When a resident uses a dial-up or DLS service to connect to the Internet, what is the
role of the telephone company?
Answer:

Telephone companies provide dial-up service and DSL service to access the Internet.
These two services use the existing telephone network to transmit internet data.
Dial-up:
• In Dial-up service, Dial-up modem dials ISP’s (third party company) phone number to
make a traditional phone connection with that ISP.
• Internet data is transmitted thorough this phone connection as Analog signals, from
ISP modem to user modem.
• At both ends, modems convert the Analog signals into digital signal.
• Since Dial-up modem is already on call with ISP, no further calls are allowed. That is,
while the user is using dial-up Internet service, telephone(voice) service will be stopped.
Since the telephone company is just allowing the resident to connect with ISP, but not
providing any Internet data, while resident is using the Dial-up service, the telephone
company will act as just telephone service provider.
Therefore, the telephone company will act as just a telephone service provider,
but not ISP (Internet service provider) when the user or resident using dial-up
service to access Internet service.

Q#6: what is an internet? What is the Internet?

Answer:

The Internet is a vast network that connects computers all over the world. Through the
Internet, people can share information and communicate from anywhere with an Internet
connection.
Q#7: what are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point one?
Answer:
The advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection are ease of
installation, low cost, reliability. A point to point connection is used for connecting 2 devices,
whereas in a multipoint connection more than 2 devices share the communication link.
Q#8: what is the first principle we discussed in this chapter for protocol layering that
needs to be followed to make the communication bidirectional?
Answer;
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make
each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction. The
second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical.
Q#9: Identify the five components of a data communications system.
Answer:
A data communications system has five components-(i) Message, (ii) Sender, (iii) Receiver,
(iv)Transmission medium, (v) Protocol.
Book Page No 4
1.1.1 Components
Q#10: What Is the Difference Between half duplex and full duplex transmission
modes?
Answer;
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. Like walkie-talkies.
In full-duplex mode, both station can transmit and receive simultaneously. Like telephone
network.
Book Page no 6and 7
Topic 1.1.3
Q#11: Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.
Answer:
Point to point- mesh and star.
Multi point- bus and ring.

Q#12: what are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
Answer;
Performance, Reliability, Security.
Book Page no 8
Q#13: How many point-to-point WANs are needed to connect n LANs if each LAN
should be able to directly communicate with any other LAN?
Answer:
In point-to-point WAN communication , a separate communication channel(medium) is
provided for each pair of LANs , so here a COMPLETE GRAPH is formed .

we know that the number of EDGES (here edges will be point-to-point WAN
communication) in COMPLETE GRAPH are - n(n-1)/2

Q#14: For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh,
ring, bus, and star topology?

Answer:
n(n-1)/2 cable link are required for mesh, n for ring, n-1 cable link for bus, and n cable link for star
topology.

Q#15: Explain the difference between an internet draft and a proposed standard.
Answer:

An Internet Standard is characterized by technical maturity and usefulness. The IETF also
defines a Proposed Standard as a less mature but stable and well-reviewed specification. A
Draft Standard is a third classification that was discontinued in 2011.
Q#16 When we use local telephones to talk to a friend, are we using a circuit-switched
network or a packet-switched network?
Answer:

In circuit switched network a dedicated path is established between the source and the
destination.
• It has 3 phases for communication: connection establishment, Data transfer and
connection termination.
• In circuit switching network once the connection is established communication or
delivery of data packets is continuous. The delay in the packets is uniform.
• Circuit switching network is more suitable for voice transfer communications where the
packets are to be delivered continuously at a time until the connection is terminated.

Q#17: What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication system is a
LAN or WAN?

Answer:
Size and Coverage of area determine whether a communication system is LAN or WAN. A LAN normally
covers an area less than 2 miles; a WAN can be worldwide.

Q#18: In a LAN with a link-layer switch (Figure 1.8b), Host 1 wants to send a message to
Host 3. Since communication is through the link-layer switch, does the switch need to
have
an address? Explain.
Figure 1.8 An isolated LAN in the past and today
Answer:
A link layer switch is a network device which is used to forward packets with in a
network from one device to another device. Switch connects many hosts on a network
and forwards packets between the devices using the destination address of the host.

Q#19: Explain the difference between the duties of the IETF and IRTF.

Answer:

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) focuses on longer-term research issues related to
the Internet while the parallel organization, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), focuses
on the shorter term issues of engineering and standards making.

PRPBLEMS
P1-In the bus topology in Figure 1.6, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?
Answer:
In a bus topology, no station is in the path of the signal. Unplugging a station has no effect
on the operation of the rest of the network.
P2- Compare the telephone network and the Internet. What are the similarities? What are the
differences?
Answer:
Both are the ways of Communications; both can be made by wires/wireless. Both are capable to two-way
traffic of signals. Internet allows us to share our files with our Friends while telephone don't. Video chat
is being used by people who has the access to internet, but it isn't possible through telephone.
P3-When a party makes a local telephone call to another party, is this a point-to-point or multipoint
connection? Explain your answer.
Answer:
It is Point-to-Point connection because multipoint connection needs more than two end points.

P4- A color image uses 24 bits to represent a pixel. What is the maximum number of
different colors that can be represented?
Answer:

On a computer screen, color is made of red, green and blue pixels in varying degrees of
brightness. The phrase “24-bit color” means that each of those channels can display 8 bit
color - in other words, 2 to the power of 8, which comes to 256 different strengths.

So that’s 256 grades of color for each channel. Multiply them together and you get 256 x
256 x 256 = 16,777,216 different colors.
P5-What is the maximum number of characters or symbols that can be represented by Unicode?
Answer:
The code can define up to 2^ (32) (4,294,967,296) characters or symbols.

P6-For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a connection
fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology,
b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub),
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology,
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology.
Answer:
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology,
Mesh is high redundancy. Only one device would be disconnected if all the connections were to fail for
that device. You can have many connections to other devices that’s why its less likely to fail. The only
cause for failure at this point is really the power and if you just don't have any. Even if one of the
connections between two devices fail there is no effect on network and they can still communicate
through other channels.

b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub),

Star runs to a central device like a switch, so if the switch itself fails then the whole network will be
disconnected.

c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology,

Bus runs in a straight line from one network device to another. So if one gets disconnect then the all the
devices connected down the line get disconnect.

d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology.

Ring is like a bus except it connects back onto itself. So if one device fails they all fail. The exception is if
there is a redundant inside ring like that used in FDDI (fiber ring) then if both get disconnect from one
device then they all do.

P7-Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed? How many
ports are needed for each device?
Answer:
Cables needed (6*5)/2 = 15 and,
Each device needs to be connected to 5 other devices. So, each device needs to have 5 ports. Six devices times five
ports equal 30 total ports.

P8-Performance is inversely related to delay. When you use the Internet, which of the following
applications are more sensitive to delay?
a. Sending an e-mail
b. Copying a file
c. Surfing the Internet
Answer:
It is true that performance is inversely proportional to delay.
Sending an email is more sensitive to delay than copying a file and surfing the internet. Because E-mailing may be
interrupted due to high latency, but can always assume as soon as the server is performing again, without user
interaction.
Copying a file is less sensitive to delay than surfing the web and sending an e-mail.
Surfing the web is not so much affected by delay because due to effect of latency on surfing the net.
P9-You have two computers connected by an Ethernet hub at home. Is this a LAN, a
MAN, or a WAN?
Answer:
These small sizes networks are categorized to LAN.Ethermet is a LAN.All small sized office networks and
in house networks are LANs.MAN owned by single company, its averagely large network. Participate
Level2 (e.g. Switches) networking devices. (Level 3 also can contain). A man is a Metropolitan Area
Network that connects together all machines in an enterprise, campus or town. A Wan is a wide area
network that typically connects machines that are geographically remote. WAN interconnect several sub
networks together. It’s a large network. Usually network resources are owned by several companies.
Heavily Consist with level 3 networking devices (e, g: Routers). Expand to large geometric areas.

P10-In the ring topology in Figure 1.7, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?
Answer:
If One of the Stations Is Unplugged, connection to only that station will be affected.