Chapter 2 Notes

Amber Mattison
Chapter 2: Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development

Erik Erikson-
o Described psychological growth from infancy through old age. Instructional implications
for every level of education from preschool through adult education can be drawn out.
o Theory portrays people as playing an active role in their own psychological development
through their attempts understand, organize, and integrate their everyday experiences.
o Highlights important role that cultural goals, aspirations, expectations, requirements, and
opportunities play in personal growth.
 Epigenetic Principle- In fetal development, certain organs of the body appear at certain
specific times and eventually “combine” to form a child.
 Psychosocial Crisis- Personality development occurs as one successfully resolves a series
of turning points.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
o Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to One year)- Infants learn to trust their world. Parents
consistency, continuity, and sameness of experience satisfies their infants basic needs.
This will permit children to think of their world as safe and dependable. Children whose
care is inadequate, inconsistent, or negative will approach the world with fear and
suspicion.
o Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Two to Three years)- Toddlers who are permitted and
encouraged to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace and in their own way
will develop sense of autonomy. If parents and teachers are impatient or shame young
children for unacceptable behavior, children will develop feelings of self-doubt.
o Initiative vs. Guilt (Four to Five years)- If children are given freedom to explore and
experiment and teachers/parents answer questions, tendencies towards initiative will be
encouraged. If children are restricted and made to feel like their questions and activities
have no point or they are a nuisance, they will feel guilty about acting on their own.
o Industry vs. Inferiority (Six to Eleven years)- If children are encouraged to make and do
things well, helped to persevere, allowed to finish tasks, and praised for trying, they
develop industry. If the children’s efforts are unsuccessful or they are treated as
bothersome, feeling of inferiority arise.
o Identity vs. Role Confusion (Twelve to Eighteen years)- Role confusion: having no clear
conception of appropriate types of behavior that others will react to favorably.
o Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
o Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Age)
o Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)
 Identity Statuses- A style of approach that adolescents adopt to deal with such identity-
related issues as career goal, gender-role orientation, and religious beliefs.
 Four Identity Statuses:
Amber Mattison
o Identity diffusion
o Moratorium
o Foreclosure
o Identity achievement
 Psychosocial Moratorium- A period of identity development marked by a delay of
commitment, ideally a time of adventure and exploration having a positive, or at least
neutral, impact on the individual and society.
Piaget: Cognitive Development
o Organization- The tendency to systematize and combine processes into coherent
general systems.
o Schemes- Children form organized generalizable patterns of behavior or thought.
These become the basis for understanding and adapting to the world in which they
live.
o Adaptation- The tendency to adjust to the environment.
Stages of Cognitive Development

o Sensorimotor Stage (Infants and Toddlers)- Understand world through their senses.
o Preoperational Stage (Preschool and Primary Grades)- Use schemas and models.
o Concrete Operational Stage (Elementary to Early Middle School)
o Formal Operational Stage (Middle School, High School, And Beyond)
 Adolescent Egocentrism- The introspective, inward turning of a high school students

newly developed powers of thought, with a tendency to project one’s self-analysis onto
others.
 Spontaneous Concepts- A term coined by Lev Vygotsky to denote the facts, concepts,
and rules that young children acquire as a natural consequence of engaging everyday
activities.
 Scientific Concepts- A term coined by Lev Vygotsky to denote such psychological tools
as language, formulas, rules, and symbols that are learned mostly with the aid of formal
instruction.
 Empirical Learning- The use of noticeable characteristics of objects and events to form
spontaneous concepts, a form of learning typical of young children.
 Theoretical Learning- Learning how to use psychological tools across a range of settings
and problem types to acquire new knowledge and skills.
 Zone of Proximal Development- Lev Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a
child can do on their own and what can be accomplished by some assistance.
 Scaffolding- Supporting learning during its early phases through such techniques as
demonstrating how tasks should be accomplished, giving hints to the correct solution to a
problem or answer to a question, and providing leading questions. As students become
more capable of working independently, these supports are withdrawn.
Amber Mattison
 Mark Tappan- Four component model that teachers can use to optimize the effects of
their scaffolding efforts and help students move through their ZPD
1. Model desired academic behaviors
2. Create a dialogue with the student
3. Practice
4. Confirmation
 Microworlds- A computer scenario intended to foster cognitive development and

overcome misconceptions by allowing students the chance to explore relationships
among variables or concepts and build personal models of how things work.
 Microcomputer-based Laboratories- A microcomputer with attached sensors and probes
that can quickly represent such data as temperature or speed in multiple ways in order to
help students explore concepts, test hypothesis, and repair scientific misconceptions.
 Multi-user Virtual Environments (MUVE)- Online virtual worlds in which several people
work together to solve various types of problems.
 Telementoring- The use of networking technologies by experts, mentors, instructors, and
peers to demonstrate ideas, pose questions, offer insights, and provide relevant
information that can help learners build new knowledge and effectively participate in a
learning community.
 Morality of Constraint (Moral Reasoning)- Piaget’s term for the moral thinking of
children to age ten or so, n which they hold sacred rules that permit no exceptions and
make no allowance for intentions.
 Morality of Cooperation (Moral Relativism)- Piaget’s term for the moral thinking of
children age eleven or older, based on the flexible rules and considerations of intent.
Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Reasoning-
o Stage 1- Punishment-obedience orientation
o Stage 2- Instrumental relativist orientation
o Stage 3- Good boy-nice girl orientation
o Stage 4- Law-and-order orientation
o Stage 5- Social contract orientation
o Stage 6- Universal ethical principal orientation

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Amber Mattison

Chapter 2: Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development

Stages of Cognitive Development

 Adolescent Egocentrism- The introspective, inward turning of a high school students

 Microworlds- A computer scenario intended to foster cognitive development and

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