COASTAL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES

for working with the Australian coast

in an ecologically sustainable way

Prepared by
The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering
Engineers Australia
www.engineersaustralia.org.au/nccoe/

November 2004
Coastal Engineering Guidelines

Disclaimer
This document is prepared by National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineers, Engineers
Australia for the guidance of coastal engineers and other professionals working with the coast
who should accept responsibility for the application of this material.

Copies of these Guidelines are available from:

(hardcopy) EA Books, Engineers Media, PO Box 588, Crows Nest NSW 1585
(pdf) www.engineersaustralia.org.au/nccoe/

For further information or to make comment, contact:

National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering
Engineers Australia,
Engineering House
11 National Circuit
Barton ACT 2600 AUSTRALIA
Fax: (02) 6273 2358
Email: [email protected]

ISBN : 085 825 819 6

ISBN (web): 085 825 819 7
Editing and authorship
Dr Michael R Gourlay (University of Queensland)
Dr Bruce A Harper (Sytems Engineering Australia)
Dr Ron J Cox (University of New South Wales)
Mr Peter B Stone (University of New South Wales)
Dr Tony Webb (University of New South Wales)

Recommended citation
Gourley M.R., Harper B.A., Cox R.J., Stone P.B. and Webb T., 2004, Coastal Engineering
Guidelines for working with the Australian coast in an ecologically sustainable way, Engineers
Australia, National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, EA Books, Barton ACT,
Australia, 101p.

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PREFACE
These Guidelines have been developed by the National Committee on Coastal
and Ocean Engineering (NCCOE) of Engineers Australia (EA). Initial funding
provided by the Capacity Building Program of the Commonwealth's Coast and
Clean Seas initiative was used in the production of a Draft Coastal Engineering
Guidelines (1998). The updated Guidelines now presented have incorporated
feedback provided by a broad range of practising coastal engineers and
managers. The Guidelines are directed primarily at professional engineers
practising in the coastal area. It is however recognised that the Guidelines will
be of value to allied professionals such as planners and managers with decision-
making roles in the coastal zone. The scope of application is designed to cover
Commonwealth, State and Local Government, industry, consulting and
development.

Boxed checklists at key positions in the document highlight significant features

and focus attention on the important issues.

This is a live document that will be regularly updated. Coastal and ocean
engineers and other related professionals are encouraged to provide ongoing
feedback and concrete examples. Comments should be sent to the National
Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, [email protected].

All members of the NCCOE have participated in the preparation of the

Guidelines with particular contributions from those listed on the opposite page.
The Water Research Laboratory (School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of New South Wales) provided professional, administrative and
production support.

Port of Brisbane, © Port of Brisbane Corporation

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. COASTAL ZONE POLICY 2
3. ETHICS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTY OF CARE 4
4. COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 5
4.1 Coastal Zone 5
4.2 Physical Environment 5
4.2.1 Geology and Geomorphology 5
4.2.2 Meteorology and Oceanography 6
4.2.3 Climatic Variability and Change 8
4.2.4 Coastal and Estuarine Processes 9
4.3 Ecological Environment 10
4.4 Coastal Systems 13
5. COASTAL DEVELOPMENT 14
5.1 Human Use of the Coastal Zone 14
5.2 Ecologically Sustainable Development 14
5.3 Coastal Engineering Activities 15
5.3.1 Ports, Harbours and Offshore Facilities 15
5.3.2 Coastal Protection and Management 15
5.3.3 Reclamation and Canal Developments 16
5.3.4 Marinas and Small Craft Facilities 16
5.3.5 Excavation, Dredging and Disposal of Sediments 16
5.3.6 Waste Disposal and Water Quality 16
5.4 Coastal Hazards 17
6. COASTAL ENGINEERING METHODOLOGY 19
6.1 Design Philosophy 19
6.2 Conceptual Design 20
6.3 Public Consultation 21
6.4 Investigations 22
6.4.1 Scope 22
6.4.2 Data 22
6.4.3 Coastal Dynamics 25
6.4.4 Design Criteria 26
6.4.5 Modelling 28
6.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessment 29
6.4.7 Licenses and Approvals 30
6.4.8 Costs 30
6.5 Detailed Design 31
6.6 Contract Documentation 33
6.7 Construction (Techniques & Materials) 34
6.7.1 Techniques 34
6.7.2 Materials 35
6.8 Maintenance and Performance Monitoring 35
6.8.1 Maintenance 35
6.8.2 Performance Monitoring 37
6.9 Removal and Life Cycle Planning 37
7. STANDARDS, CODES AND QUALITY ASSURANCE 39
8. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

APPENDICES
1 Policy, Programs and Associated Publications
2 The Institution of Engineers, Australia – Code of Ethics
3 Glossary of Coastal Engineering Terms

SUPPLEMENTS
A Beach Replenishment
B Marinas
C Outfalls
D Construction Materials for the Marine Environment

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1. INTRODUCTION
These Guidelines have been developed by the National Committee on Coastal and Ocean
Engineering (NCCOE) of Engineers Australia (EA). Initial funding provided by the Ca-
pacity Building Program of the Commonwealth's Coast and Clean Seas initiative was
used in the production of a draft edition of Coastal Engineering Guidelines (1998). The
updated Guidelines now presented have incorporated significant feedback provided by a
broad range of practising coastal engineers and managers. The Guidelines are directed
primarily at professional engineers practising in the coastal area. It is however recog-
nised that the Guidelines will be of value to allied professionals such as planners and
managers with decision-making roles in the coastal zone. The scope of application is de-
signed to cover Commonwealth, State and Local Governments, industry, consulting and
development.

In exercising its responsibilities to the community and its members, The Institution of
Engineers, Australia, “requires that its members, in their practice of engineering, shall
act in a manner that accelerates achievement of sustainability” and has defined a set of
environmental principles for professional engineering practice. The NCCOE believes that
ecological sustainability in the coastal zone will be achieved through the application of
good engineering practice and with the support of allied professions.

This publication attempts to present a comprehensive Australia-wide approach to

ecologically sustainable engineering-related practice in the coastal zone. The document is
designed to form a “core” reference that has overall applicability. The document includes
several “supplements” covering more specific topics in detail. Additional supplements are
expected to be added from time to time as demand arises and resources become available.

The challenges and problems of achieving ecologically sustainable development in the

coastal zone arise from its great economic, environmental and social attractiveness and
hence the great pressures that the community places on the coastal zone environment.
Proper management of Australia’s extensive coastline and its resources requires
knowledge and understanding of the complex and highly variable physical interactions of
the atmosphere, ocean and adjacent lands, over wide time scales, and their linkages to the
many chemical and biological components of the environment. The discipline of Coastal
Engineering combines this scientific knowledge with the practical knowledge needed to
plan and implement the infrastructure needs and expectations of society. These needs span
a diverse range across industry, commerce, recreation and conservation. Clearly, any
decision-making in the active coastal zone requires such knowledge and expertise to
understand the environmental processes that are constantly shaping the coastline, to
appreciate the natural variability in the coastal system and to quantify the sometimes
significant risks to life, property and the environment itself. Indeed, such knowledge is
even more important where it is intended that environmental values be preserved or
enhanced. Coastal planning, management and development processes therefore demand
proper professional advice on engineering-related matters.

These Guidelines are concerned firstly with ensuring that those who offer engineering
advice are cognisant of their specific responsibilities. However, others who are charged
with making planning and management decisions also must be aware of their own duty of
care to adequately understand the physical coastal environment, how that impacts on
chemical and biological matters and, finally, the engineering consequences of their
decisions. The issues covered within the Guidelines include government policy, profes-
sional ethics, the nature of the coastal environment and development within it, coastal
engineering methodology including recommended investigation procedures and project
planning for economic sustainability. The Guidelines are not designed to dictate (as would
a handbook or technical manual) the detailed procedures to be followed, but rather identify
the types of processes and the considerations, particularly environmental, required when
practising in the coastal zone. Boxed checklists are provided throughout the Guidelines to
highlight significant features and focus attention on the important issues.

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2. COASTAL ZONE POLICY

Effective coastal zone policy needs to be based on a sound understanding of coastal
processes and the coastal environment; it should recognise its administrative and other
impacts; and it must be supported by adequate resources for its implementation. Addi-
tionally, if coastal planning is to receive community and political support, and is to be
defensible in law if challenged, it must be based on a detailed quantified understanding
of the coastal environment.

Commonwealth, State and Local Governments all have responsibilities in the coastal
zone and have developed policies to be applied specifically in that zone. These policies
seek to strike a balance between development and environment where activities associ-
ated with these two are in conflict, and to seek management options such that they are
not in conflict.

Human use of coastal zone environments poses threats to their ecological systems. The
concept of Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) provides guidance to govern-
ments, communities and professional practitioners devising and implementing policy for
future developments in the coastal zone and elsewhere. The goal of ESD has been de-
fined in the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development 1992 (DEH
1992) as:
"…development that improves the total quality of life, both now and in
the future, in a way that maintains the ecological processes on which
life depends."

• to enhance individual and community well-being by following a path of economic de-

Its core objectives are:

• to provide for equity within and between generations,

velopment that safeguards the welfare of future generations,

• to protect biological diversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life-
support systems.

These principles are being adopted increasingly by all levels of government in the de-
velopment of their coastal zone policies.

The Commonwealth Government seeks to provide overarching policy in the coastal and
ocean areas. Although the Commonwealth Coastal Policy is no longer current, other
policies such as Framework for a National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal
Zone Management have been or are being developed to provide a similar role. The
Commonwealth Government is the owner of assets in the coastal zone associated mainly
with military and maritime activities. It also has constitutional and legislative responsi-
bility in the areas of knowledge, community involvement and overseas relations.
Through a range of policies the Commonwealth is concerned with guiding Common-
wealth coastal and ocean activities, encouraging community participation in coastal zone
management, addressing pressing problems, improving knowledge and promoting Aus-
tralian coastal management expertise.

Each State and Territory has developed and published a coastal policy. These are con-
cerned principally with land use within the coastal zone and seek to encourage the pres-
ervation, conservation and development of the coast in an ecologically sustainable fash-
ion.

Local Government is the area where most detailed land use planning occurs, but that
level of Government does not have the power to enact law. The practice generally
adopted is for State or Territory Governments to make law regarding the coastal zone
and, either explicitly or implicitly, delegate to Local Government the execution of that
law. State Governments retain for themselves the right to over-ride Local Government
decisions by the use of ministerial powers. There are also specially convened courts
wherein the decisions of Local Government with respect to the coastal zone can be
appealed.

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These procedures, which specifically identify coastal issues and also involve public par-
ticipation, are relatively recent, having been instituted over the past fifteen years. A
more detailed exposition of the laws, procedures, and policy publications regarding
coastal zone management in Australia can be found in Appendix 1 – Policies, Programs
and Associated Publications.

Humpback Whale, Hervey Bay

(QLD - EPA)

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3. ETHICS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTY OF CARE

The need for ethical behaviour by engineers practising their profession in the coastal
zone is as relevant as for any other profession. Ethical professional practice is
particularly important because poorly planned or insensitive projects in the coastal zone
have the potential to cause long-lasting, extensive and expensive ecological and
environmental damage. They can also adversely affect social, cultural, aesthetic,
indigenous and natural heritage values. Coastal climates are highly variable and
extremely demanding; information and data about coastal processes at specific sites are
often inadequate; coastal ecosystems are complex and often not well understood. Hence
economic, community and political pressures could encourage unprofessional behaviour
which ignores the adverse impacts of a project upon the coastal environment. Such
behaviour has the potential to impose unnecessary environmental and economic burdens
upon society when it has to correct the consequent environmental damage.

Engineers Australia (EA) is the professional body representing engineers throughout

Australia and is responsible for setting standards of education, experience and
competency. Additionally, professional engineers who are members of EA are obliged to
conform to the EA Code of Ethics (Appendix 2). Engineers Australia has the power to
discipline members for breaches of this code. As described in EA's Code of Ethics 2000
(IEA 2000), the way in which the code of ethics seeks to guide the activities of
engineers covers matters of their behaviour, technical skills, social values, and
environmental concern. In summary, a professional engineer is expected to place the
interests and the welfare, health and safety of the community and future generations
before their other responsibilities, to be upright, competent, honourable,
environmentally conscious, honest and to pursue a course of continuing education.

All practitioners are expected by the community to act responsibly in their professional
duties associated with the coastal zone. This includes the concept of being fit and
proper, by virtue of training and experience, to undertake such work whether for reward
or not. They are expected to devote the requisite time to each particular undertaking so
as to render an outcome that would be considered "competent". In particular, it is their
duty to maintain awareness of the current state of the art of their profession and to
obtain specialist advice whenever necessary. Engineers are required by their Institution
to act in a manner that accelerates achievement of sustainability.

The idea of responsibility (particularly professional responsibility) has given rise to the
legal concept of "duty of care" in which practitioners are expected to act in such a way
as not to put the public at risk, either physically or financially, as a result of their
professional activities. This applies to practice in the coastal zone as well as anywhere
else and for the natural environment as well as for people.

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4. COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Coastal Zone
The coastal zone is the interface between the land and the sea. Its extent depends upon
how far terrestrial and marine processes interact. It may extend seaward as far as the
edge of the continental shelf but not as far as the recently declared 200 nautical mile
(371 km) Extended Economic Zone (EEZ). The most physically dynamic portion of the
coastal zone is the littoral zone, extending from the seaward limit of wave breaking to
the swale behind the foredune. The dynamic sand movements within the littoral zone
result in the continuing reshaping of coastal morphology. The landward boundary of the
coastal zone will include all land potentially floodable by the sea and all wetlands, salt-
marshes, estuaries and marine lakes. For administrative convenience the landward
boundary is sometimes set at one kilometre landward from the littoral zone, although
significantly different rules can apply under different jurisdictions.

Australia’s coastal zone is one of the largest and most varied of any nation. Extending
from hot tropical to cool temperate latitudes, the environment within this coastal zone is
the result of interaction between many factors including varied geology, large-scale
oceanic currents, climatic variability and diverse ecosystems. As the balance between
these factors changes from place to place and from time to time, so does the character of
the various local coastal systems within the overall coastal zone.

The following sections provide brief summaries of the physical and ecological
characteristics of the Australian coastal environment. These provide the basis for an
overall understanding of the nature of the coastal systems in which coastal engineering
is undertaken. Practitioners will need to consult other sources for more detailed
information concerning the various processes and their interactions at specific sites.

4.2 Physical Environment

4.2.1 Geology and Geomorphology
The nature and location of the coast are determined by the geology of the land and
seabed and the elevation of the sea at the present time. All other processes determining
the physical and ecological environment of the coast are constrained by these two
parameters. Australia lies within one of the earth’s more stable tectonic plates and
hence, in contrast to coasts on active plate margins such as those of New Zealand and
Western America, is in a region of generally low tectonic activity and small isostatic
uplift. The surface of Australia is flatter than any other continent and its rivers generally
contribute relatively small quantities of sediment to its coasts. In few places is the
sediment supply sufficient to be causing significant accretion of the shoreline.

The most significant factor determining the present geomorphology of the world’s
coastlines has been a sea level rise of more than 100 m since the last ice age, 18 000
years ago. Existing coasts have developed during the last 6 000 years during which sea
level has been relatively stable. The alignment and form of a coast is controlled by the
presence of rocky areas and the interaction of transporting agencies, such as winds,
waves, tides, etc, with coastal sediments. Natural coasts range between the extremes of
“hard” or rocky coasts, which do not change significantly on a human time frame, to
“soft” or sandy coasts, which visibly change under the influence of the transporting
agencies.

Coastal sediments may be of either terrigenous (land) origin or biogenic origin. In the
former case, they often are formed predominantly of silica sand. In the latter case they
are predominantly calcium carbonate derived from marine organisms either directly from
detrital skeletal material and shells or indirectly from limestone rocks. Coastal
landforms and sediments vary around the Australian coast depending upon variations in
the physical and biological processes and the local geology.

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Estuaries also have been formed as the sea inundated the continental shelf, flooding
incised river valleys and making river channels tidal. Coastal sand dunes and spits
formed since sea level stabilised often act as barriers enclosing marine lakes. Cohesive
sediments, such as fine silts and clays, are predominantly found within many estuaries or
sheltered embayments. Such sediments rarely are found on exposed coasts since they are
easily stirred by waves and dispersed by currents.

Alexandria Bay (Qld - EPA)

4.2.2 Meteorology and Oceanography

Coastal environments are determined by the interaction of meteorological and
oceanographical processes with the local topography. Large scale oceanic circulation
manifests as currents which move along the margins of the continental shelf, advecting
and mixing water properties such as temperature, dissolved chemicals/salinity, nutrients,
micro-organisms, particles and sediments. At the shelf margins, upwelling of nutrient
rich, deeper ocean waters may occur at specific locations. Currents on the continental
shelf, while affected by offshelf circulation, are increasingly determined by local
meteorological and topographical conditions.

The East Australian Current (EAC) carries warm low salinity Coral Sea water southward into
the cooler more saline Tasman Sea. The northern limit of the EAC is usually defined as lati-
tude 18°S whilst its southern boundary, usually at latitude 32°S, is quite variable and can ex-
tend as far south as 42°S. The EAC is present at all times of the year but is generally strongest
between December and April. Its surface speed is usually between 0.5 and 1.0 m.s − 1 and its ef-
fect can be felt at depth. Seaward of the continental shelf the current speed at a depth of 250 m
is approximately half that at the surface. Its maximum width is about 150 km. The landward
edge of the current frequently encroaches onto the shelf with an effect on coastal processes
such as the movement of seabed sediment. The southerly flow often separates from the coast
between 29°S and 32°S, heading east across the Tasman Sea. At the point of separation the
current repeatedly forms loops that break off as large eddies that can sometimes interact with
coastal waters similarly to the EAC itself.

The Leeuwin Current is a relatively narrow, southward flowing body of warm low salinity
water flowing down the Western Australian coast. Its properties and strength vary seasonally,
with the result that in about March/April the surface salinity off Perth decreases significantly.
In winter when it achieves its most southerly extent it can pass around Cape Leeuwin (the
south-western tip of Western Australia) at speeds of up to 1.5 m.s − 1 .

South of the Australian continent the Antarctic circumpolar current links the earth's
major oceans as it encircles the Antarctic continent. It also responds to the general
eastward atmospheric circulation and movement of weather systems around the Southern
Ocean and across southern Australia. Strong westerly winds, generally associated with
mid-latitude low-pressure systems, generate both the storm waves and the swells which
impact the south-western, southern and south-eastern coasts of the continent, especially
during winter months.

Within tropical and subtropical regions the southeast trade winds in the Coral and
Tasman Seas are a surface component of the atmospheric circulation system driven by
the uneven heating of the earth’s surface between the equatorial and polar regions,
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modified by Coriolis (earth rotational) effects. The distribution of land masses and
ocean temperatures in equatorial regions results also in a general east-west surface
circulation over the Pacific Ocean. Quasi-biennial fluctuations in surface temperatures
and air pressures may cause a reversal of this circulation over the western Pacific, which
is associated with the El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon.

During the summer months between November and April warmer sea surface
temperatures in the tropical seas adjacent to northern Australia, south of about latitude
10ºS, provide conditions favourable for the generation of tropical cyclones. Together
with the north-west monsoon which brings moisture laden air to the northern part of the
continent, tropical cyclones significantly affect summer coastal climates in northern
Australia. Characteristically the summer is the wet season and the winter is the dry
season. Tropical cyclones generate strong winds, rain, large storm waves and storm
surges, a combination with potentially enormous disastrous impact for low lying islands
and coastal regions.

Circulation of coastal waters on the shallow continental shelf protected by the Great
Barrier Reef and between northern Australia and New Guinea and the Indonesian
archipelago is influenced by seasonal changes in the dominant winds. In the southeast
trade wind dominated winter months waters tend to move westward through the Torres
Strait and seas north of Australia, while during the summer north-west monsoon season
water movement tends eastward.

Inshore on the continental shelf, current speeds and directions as well as local sea levels
are influenced by both wind stress and barometric pressure fluctuations. Meteorological
disturbances on the Western Australian continental shelf can generate long period (~ 10
day) continental shelf waves propagating from the west around the southern shelf and up
the eastern coast. These continental shelf waves generate currents that can dominate
other processes.

Close to the coast the astronomical tides, generated by periodic variations in the
gravitational attraction exerted by the moon and sun upon oceanic and coastal waters,
are in some regions an important factor determining both sea levels and currents.
Particularly in estuaries and large bays, tidal currents dominate.

Whatever the generating mechanism, topographical features such as headlands or islands

significantly modify the currents. The projection of a headland will cause the current to
accelerate locally. In the lee of headlands and islands there will often be a wake
consisting of eddies and gyres. Such local variations can have a major influence on
sediment and pollutant transport

NOAA satellite image of sea surface

temperature of New South Wales
coastal waters.

(CSIRO Marine Research, Hobart,

background image © Commonwealth of
Australia, Ozestuaries database
www.ozestuaries.org/)

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4.2.3 Climatic Variability and Change

The climate of a given region cannot be regarded as constant as it is changing
continually within a variety of time frames. Climatic variability represents variation of
climate about a mean condition whereas climatic change * represents a change or trend in
that mean condition. Climatic change can only be reliably detected if the time frame of
observations is sufficiently long. If the time frame for which information is available is
short, e.g. 10 to 100 years, it is often impossible to detect the relatively small long-term
change because of the large “noise” from shorter-term variability effects.

• the annual or seasonal variation consequent on the earth’s motion around the sun,
The time frames within which climate varies range from:

• variations of a few years as a consequence, for example, of the ENSO phenomenon,

• variations of a few decades or several centuries which may be related to fluctuations

• variations of the order of 100000 years associated with the freezing and thawing
in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface,

cycles of the various ice ages.

If the Pleistocene geological time frame (last two million years) is considered, then the
ice ages and their intervening warm periods, which have occurred at 100 000 to 120 000
year intervals, are examples of long term climatic variability. On the other hand, during
the Holocene time frame (last 10 000 years) the earth has been warming, and the ice
caps melting. The sea level initially rose at a rate of the order of 10 mm per year until it
stabilised about 6 000 years ago at approximately its present level. Hence, on a
Holocene time frame, the postglacial warming has produced significant climatic change,
which has drastically altered the form and location of the world’s coasts.

Within the time frame of meteorological records in Australia (50 to 100 years), the
ENSO cycle is the most well known cause of climatic variability and has been linked to
the strength of the monsoon, the occurrence of droughts and the frequency and
distribution of tropical cyclones.

Current concern with climatic change arises from scientific research indicating that the
balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate since the
"industrial revolution" commenced in the 18th century. Increasing concentrations within
the earth’s atmosphere of various gases, largely derived from the burning of fossil fuels,
are trapping more solar radiation. The resulting global warming (enhanced Greenhouse
effect) has the potential to change weather systems, rainfall patterns, wind speeds and
directions and, significantly, cause mean sea level to rise. These factors all can have an
impact on the environment within the coastal zone. Changes in rainfall affect the runoff
from coastal rivers and flooding of estuarine floodplains; increased wind speeds and
changing directions could cause higher wave heights and changed wave directions; sea
level rise would result in inundation, shoreline recession, and changes to the coastal
environment, particularly to mangrove forests, salt-marshes and wetlands.

The estimation of climate change effects is made using numerical simulations of the
earth’s climate system. Such models are extremely complex and, while there has been
considerable improvement in their sophistication over the past decade, the results of
such simulations still only provide indicative scenarios rather than definitive
predictions. Despite the uncertainty, there is a strong indication that climate change is
likely to cause a significant change in sea level. Climate change may also affect other
climatic parameters (including extreme events) affecting coastal infrastructure and
ecosystems. This points to the need to consider potential climate change impacts
wherever possible in coastal design and planning.

*
The term “climatic change” used in these guidelines refers to a change in climate from any or all
causes, whereas the term “climate change”, as presently used in the Climate Change Convention and
related “greenhouse” debate, refers only to the change in climate caused by human (anthropogenic)
activity.
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The most recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2001)
states that by 2100 sea level rise, as a result of thermal expansion of the oceans and
melting of glaciers and ice-sheets, is expected to be between 0.20 m and 0.86 m (IS92a
scenario). The 'best guess' is that sea level will rise by 0.49 m. This wide range is due
largely to the uncertainty in the amounts of greenhouse gases, mainly CO 2 , that nations
will continue to emit over this period. Paradoxically, if aerosol emissions can be reduced
back to 1990 levels, this range may increase by about 10% because increasing aerosol
emissions alone are tending to cool the atmosphere.

The publication Guidelines for Responding to the Effects of Climate Change in Coastal
and Ocean Engineering (NCCOE 2004) provides specific advice and guidance to
practising professional coastal engineers. This document is recommended reading for
those needing to understand the wider issues and consider potential impacts. The
original NCCOE (1991) document on this topic was one of the first attempts to develop
a considered methodology for engineers or any other profession to address enhanced
Greenhouse issues.

4.2.4 Coastal and Estuarine Processes

Coastal and estuarine environments are a consequence of interaction between physical
processes, sediments and marine biota. These physical processes include winds and
waves, tides and currents, rainfall and runoff.

Under conditions of stable mean sea level, water levels in the coastal zone vary with the
astronomical tides with twice daily, daily, fortnightly and longer period variations.
These levels are modified by meteorological effects, such as wind set-up caused by wind
blowing over the water surface and barometric pressure variations – an extreme example
being cyclonic storm surges. The combined extreme effects produce storm tide levels
which may inundate low lying coastal land areas and which also allow waves to erode
coastal dunes.

Storm waves are generated by wind and, once generated, continue to propagate as swell
in the absence of wind. Both the wave-induced orbital motion of the water and the
turbulence associated with wave-breaking stir up sediments which can then be
transported by whatever currents are present. Offshore of the surf zone these currents
are generally a consequence of meteorological (wind) effects or oceanic currents. Within
the surf zone and further inshore wave-generated currents usually predominate, whereas
near and within the mouths of estuaries or tidal lagoons, periodically changing tidal
currents are significant. When waves break directly on cliffs or structures or currents
flow around or over reefs or structures, forces of considerable magnitude, often cyclic in
nature, may be exerted on these immersed objects.

Sandy coastlines are generally formed by waves moving sand both from offshore onto
the beach and from alongshore. Sand accreting on the beach under constructive wave
action often is blown landward by onshore winds where it is trapped by vegetation and
builds up into coastal sand dunes. During stormy periods, particularly during extreme
storm tides, erosion of these dunes provides sand to build up a protective offshore bar at
the seaward edge of the surf zone. In many places sand dune barriers enclose large bays,
shallow estuarine areas or tidal lakes. Mangrove forests and salt marshes occupy many
such areas.

The lower reaches of rivers discharging into the sea are generally tidal and the mixing of
upland freshwater with saline sea water as the tide flows in and out of the estuary
controls the nature of the estuarine environment. Large runoff from the upland drainage
basin (catchment) of rivers discharging into estuaries may flood adjoining low lying
estuarine flood plains. Where the runoff is large in comparison with tidal flows, it also
reduces temporarily the salinity of estuarine waters, flushes estuarine organisms out to
sea and discharges significant amounts of sediment laden water, often accompanied by
various nutrients and pollutants, into the coastal waters in the vicinity of the estuary.
Fine sediments may be trapped within estuaries by a combination of saltwater density
currents, flocculation and deposition in slack water areas associated with mangroves or
sea grasses, or created by dredging.

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The impacts of extreme events, such as cyclones or other storms and floods, may change
the previously established balance between various physical, chemical and biological
processes in a given coastal area and hence create new local coastal environments. The
latter are then developed and maintained by prevailing climatic conditions until
disrupted by a subsequent extreme event. Extreme weather events may become more
intense and more frequent in certain regions as a result of climate change (IPCC 2001).

While the basic coastal and estuarine processes are similar along all parts of the coastal
zone, their relative magnitudes and effects vary around the Australian coast. Tides
around the coast vary both in tidal range and from semidiurnal (twice daily) to diurnal
(once daily). For example, on the eastern coast of Queensland, tides vary from less than
2 m up to 9 m in range and may be either semidiurnal or mixed (combination of diurnal
and semidiurnal). In the southern Gulf of Carpentaria tides are diurnal. In Western
Australia micro tides (1 m) tending to diurnal predominate in the south while in the
north-west semidiurnal macro tides (10 m) occur.

The different climatic conditions in the tropics and temperate zones result in different
wave climates. In northern Australia the largest waves are generally associated with the
occurrence of tropical cyclones, whereas in southern Australia they are usually caused
by winter storms. The southern parts of the continent are exposed almost continually to
swells, whereas, for example, the tropical Queensland coast is protected from most swell
action by the Great Barrier Reef. Such differences in wave climate result in different
coastal sediment movement patterns and very different ecosystems.

The Coorong, En-

trance of Murray River
system into Encounter
Bay.

4.3 Ecological Environment

Australia’s coastal zone contains various ecosystems associated with the transitions
from terrestrial to marine conditions and from tropical to temperate climates. The
terrestrial environments include coastal sand dunes, cliff faces and headlands, coastal
rain forests, etc. In some cases terrestrial environments included by administrative
definition in the coastal zone may not be significantly affected by marine conditions. In
other cases, such as coastal sand dunes which are formed by and subjected to continuing
coastal processes, ecosystems exist in continuing threat of disturbance or destruction by
the sea. Hence dune plants generally are salt tolerant and adaptable to exposed windy
conditions.

An assessment of the condition of Australia’s marine environment has recently been

prepared for the Commonwealth. This State of the Marine Environment Report (SOMER
– Zann 1995) identifies the principal marine ecosystems within Australia’s coastal zone
as estuaries, coastlines and shore communities, coastal salt-marshes, mangrove forests,
seagrass beds, temperate reefs, coral reefs and the sea floor communities of the
continental shelf. The following is drawn largely from Zann, 1995, pp 6-15.
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Estuaries are the portions of rivers and coastal lagoons where fresh and salt water meet
and mix under the influence of both variable upland runoff and alternating tidal flow.
These highly variable physical conditions result in a relatively low diversity of plants
and animals, although their abundance and adaptability are high. Extensive intertidal
mangrove forests provide a major source of organic nutrients which sustain aquatic life,
often making the estuarine ecology a very productive one. Estuaries play a very
important role in the reproductive cycle of many marine species and are important fish
habitats. Australia has almost 800 major estuaries, over half in tropical regions and a
quarter in temperate regions, with the remainder in subtropical regions.

Apart from direct physical destruction caused by reclamation or similar developmental

activity and dredging, estuarine ecologies can be altered by increased sediment
concentrations in upland runoff changing light penetration which affects rates of
photosynthesis. Settlement of suspended sediments can also smother seabed organisms.
Significant increases in nutrients in estuarine waters may cause eutrophication, that is
the excessive growth of algae, which can smother other organisms and deplete oxygen
levels. This process is particularly likely to occur in those estuaries and coastal lagoons
which are not well flushed by tidal flows.

The intertidal shores of the coastline are the interface between land and sea. They are
continually subject to wetting and drying and are also subject to extremes of salinity.
The shores of Australia’s coast include open coasts with rocky headlands, cliffs, and
sandy beaches; and sheltered coasts, bays and estuaries with muddy and sandy intertidal
flats. Such geomorphological diversity accompanied by climatic variation is reflected in
a high diversity of specialised animals, birds and plants and some environments have
high biological productivity. Often the marine biota are not obvious; for example, on
sandy beaches most organisms live below the surface of the sand. On intertidal rocky
shores, where habitat areas are often limited, marine communities are vulnerable to
over-harvesting and damage from human visitors, oil and other pollutants.

Coastal salt-marshes are intertidal plant communities dominated by herbs and low
shrubs and are often associated with estuaries. They are highly productive, key habitats
which support many other organisms. They are an essential habitat for many migratory
species of birds. As well as being vulnerable to land reclamation for various purposes,
salt-marshes are potentially endangered by sea level rise, particularly in populated areas
where urban and other developments prevent their landward migration.

Seagrasses grow in sheltered coastal and estuarine waters. Seagrass beds are highly
productive ecosystems and are important as fisheries habitats and, in tropical regions, as
the habitats for dugongs and turtles. Like terrestrial grasses they have the ability to trap
and stabilise sediments. Australia has large areas of both tropical and temperate seagrass
beds. Overall they are the most biodiverse in the world. There has been very significant
dieback of temperate seagrasses in many parts of southern and south-eastern Australia
during recent years.

Seagrass at Warnbro Sound

Western Australia

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Mangroves are tree and shrub species which live in the periodically inundated and salty
conditions of the intertidal zone. Mangrove forests are very productive ecosystems,
providing habitats and nurseries for fish and habitats for many birds and other wildlife.
Mangroves encourage accretion of estuarine sediments, reduce the impact of storm
waves upon coastlines and are natural nutrient filters. Australia’s mangrove forests vary
in diversity from over 30 species in some parts of the north-eastern wet tropics to only
two or three species in temperate southern regions. In southern Australia most
mangroves belong to a single species. Destruction of mangroves has occurred in areas
close to towns and cities but growth and expansion of mangrove forests has also been
observed in some areas during the last 50 years. More recently there has been significant
success in replanting and regeneration of previously damaged mangrove areas.

Rocky reefs off Australia’s temperate southern coastline have very high species
diversity and a high proportion (80 to 90%) of endemic flora and fauna species. They are
the sites of important commercial and recreational fisheries.

Coral reefs are unique among Australia’s ecosystems in that their underlying structure
and sediments are essentially of biologic origin. Ecologically, they are among the most
productive, diverse and complex systems in the world. Australia has the largest area of
coral reefs of any nation and the largest reef complex, the Great Barrier Reef.
Significant reef systems also exist along central and northern Western Australia, in
Torres Strait, and offshore in the Coral Sea. While Australia’s coral reefs are generally
well protected and relatively unaffected by human activities, elevated nutrients and
sediments from upland soil erosion pose threats in some places. In other parts of the
Indo-Pacific region coral reefs are significantly degraded.

While the majority of ecosystems and their various, diverse biota have existed for many
thousands or millions of years, it is important to recognise that the actual marine
ecosystems presently existing along the world’s coasts have only existed in their present
locations for about 6 000 years since sea level reached its present level. The reefs and
cays of the Great Barrier Reef, mangroves and seagrasses of Moreton Bay, Botany Bay,
Port Phillip Bay and all the diverse estuaries around Australia’s coast are all less than
10 000 years old and did not exist in their present locations during the last ice age.
Marine ecosystems have proved to be very adaptable to natural climatic change. Some
coastal ecosystems are particularly at risk from climate change, including saltwater
marshes, mangrove ecosystems, coastal wetlands, sandy beaches, coral reefs, coral cays
and river deltas. Changes in these ecosystems would have major negative effects on
tourism, freshwater supplies, fisheries and biodiversity.

There is a growing concern in both the scientific and general communities regarding the
increasing numbers of rare and threatened species of flora and fauna as a consequence of
the spread of development and the increasing intensity of human activities within the
coastal zone and elsewhere.

Lady Musgrave Island,

(QLD - EPA)

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4.4 Coastal Systems

Whenever activity is contemplated in a given coastal area, regardless of whether this is
for conservation, management or development, it is essential to define the extent of the
overall coastal system affected by and affecting the proposed activity. In most cases the
relevant system will be, to a greater or lesser extent, open-ended rather than closed. For
example, even if a particular bay is a closed system for sediment transport, there will be
interchange of bay water with offshore waters and the system will be, at least to some
extent, open from an ecological perspective. Storage reservoirs and agricultural
activities in the catchment of a river discharging into the bay, as well as deepening for
ship movements and construction of port structures in the river estuary, are all likely to
modify the hydrology and/or quality of upland runoff discharged into the bay and hence
may have impacts upon its ecology. A proposed marina within the bay may not interfere
with alongshore sediment transport but may be a potential source of contaminants which
can be dispersed by waves and currents into adjoining coastal waters.

Having defined the extent of the coastal system relevant to the contemplated activity, it
is important to consider wider socio-cultural issues as well as the physical, chemical and
biological processes. For example, there may be parts of the system that have significant
natural heritage value or have particular cultural significance.

All activities within a given region of the coastal zone require a general understanding

• the regional geomorphological and sedimentological processes which have occurred

of many issues including:

• the hydrology and water quality of its inflowing streams and the oceanography of the
and are continuing within the Holocene time frame,

• the ecosystems within the region's coastal zone and its waters,
adjoining sea,

• the natural heritage values of the region,

• the impacts from other previous or continuing human activities.

This overall regional understanding provides the frame of reference for the development
of conceptual models of the physical, chemical and biological processes at specific sites
within the region where activities are being undertaken.

Such conceptual models provide a basis for planning data acquisition programmes and
developing the numerical or physical models required to obtain a more complete
understanding of the processes affecting and affected by an engineering or other project.
Once this understanding has been gained then it becomes possible to develop predictions
or scenarios of the likely impacts of the proposed activities.

Checklist – Coastal Systems and Environment

• Is there a sufficient range of expertise available to evaluate the

characteristics of the system and the impact of the proposed activities
upon its coastal environment?
• Has the extent of the coastal system likely to be affected by the proposed
activities been defined?
• Have the time frames of climatic variability and climatic change relevant
for this system and the proposed activities been identified?
• Have the important physical and ecological factors likely to be influenced
by or to influence the proposed activities been identified?
• Have the significant natural heritage values of the system been identified?
• Are human activities already influencing the system and/or are other
developments within it also being proposed ?

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5. COASTAL DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Human Use of the Coastal Zone
While early human urban civilisations developed in fertile river valleys where water was
available for irrigation, subsequently new population centres developed on the coast,
generally at the mouths of rivers, as a consequence of the development of maritime
trade. Initially the needs and impacts of these activities imposed only small disturbances
upon the coastal environment. However, the advent of modern transportation technology,
first the railway and then the steamship – later the car and the aeroplane, has allowed
human communities to use and develop the coastal zone much more extensively and
intensively than previously. Indeed, this trend for increasing use of the coastal zone is
strong within Australia.

“The coastal zone has a special place in the lives of Australians. Most Australians want
to live or take their holidays there. It is a priceless national asset.” (DEST 1995).

With two thirds of the Australian continent lying in an arid zone it is not surprising that
86% of Australia’s population live within its relatively well watered coastal zone.
During the last 25 years there have been significant increases in population,
development and tourism in this zone. About half of the total population growth during
this period has occurred in regions away from the older population centres based on the
state capital cities. The most rapidly developing coastal areas are the south-east and far
north of Queensland, the south-west of Western Australia and the central and north
coasts of New South Wales. In such a situation coastal engineering has had, and should
be continuing to have, a significant role in meeting the needs of the community.

Coastal Engineering is frequently required if there is or has been actual human use of
the coastal zone or adjoining areas which affect the coastal zone. In many cases ade-
quate planning for good coastal management in the past would have eliminated the need
for coastal protection works. However, ever since communities have lived and worked in
the coastal zone, they have sought to provide facilities for their maritime and other ac-
tivities and to protect themselves, their homes and their resources against the impacts of
the marine environment in all its varied moods. Even with the best planning, the need
for some coastal engineering works is not eliminated. Indeed in some situations positive
management of the environment using coastal engineering works will enable natural
conditions to be restored, replicated or improved.

5.2 Ecologically Sustainable Development

The success of new coastal engineering works and activities in achieving their purposes
requires the practical application of the principles of Ecologically Sustainable
Development (ESD) in their conception, design and implementation. Coastal engineers
and other professional practitioners need to recognise, understand and apply, wherever
practical, the precautionary principle (see Appendix 3).

This principle requires that decision-makers should act in advance of scientific certainty
to prevent harm to humans and the environment.

It is also important to recognise and assess the cumulative impacts of continuing

environmental degradation upon the viability of ecosystems, biodiversity, etc. Habitat
loss, decline in habitat quality, changes in ecological processes, direct removal of
species for human use or from other causes, etc are becoming increasingly significant in
threatening the sustainability of the coastal environment.

Guidelines Towards Sustainable Engineering Practice (Greene 1997) have been prepared
by IEA to give engineers practical assistance in carrying out their activities in ways
consistent with sustainability principles. These Coastal Engineering Guidelines and the
IEA sustainability guidelines are complementary and the former should be applied
within the frameworks outlined in the latter. This implies, among other things, that

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wherever possible coastal engineers should seek to recommend “environmentally

friendly” solutions for their clients’ needs, consistent with satisfactory performance
standards, sustainability and the available resources.

ESD principles are therefore applicable to all of the common coastal engineering
activities required by the community as described briefly in the following Section 5.3.

5.3 Coastal Engineering Activities

5.3.1 Ports, Harbours and Offshore Facilities
Facilities for the loading and unloading, operation and servicing of shipping involved in
maritime trade are an essential need for an island nation such as Australia, the economy
of which is also highly dependent upon the export of bulk commodities.

Coastal engineering works associated with these activities include breakwater-protected

artificial harbours on open coasts, river entrance and other training walls for estuarine
ports, dredged channels, wharf structures including offshore facilities for loading bulk
commodities or for petroleum production, pipelines and navigation aids, as well as port
waste treatment and disposal.

Hay Point, Dalrymple Bay, Qld

5.3.2 Coastal Protection and Management

Subdivisions to or near the high water mark have led to the construction of houses and
other facilities on coastal sand dunes and other unstable or vulnerable parts of the coast.
In some places such developments have been further endangered by natural shoreline
erosion or by the disturbance of shoreline processes caused by port and harbour works.

Coastal engineering activities may include seawalls, revetments, groynes, offshore

breakwaters, beach replenishment, sand bypassing, dune stabilisation and various
combinations of the above. Beach replenishment is frequently adopted to create or
enhance beaches for recreational or tourist use or for aesthetic or heritage purposes.

Further discussion is presented in Supplement A on Beach Replenishment.

Australian coastal engineers’ experience in coping with mistakes of the past led to the
establishment of public authorities such as Queensland’s Beach Protection Authority and
South Australia’s Coast Protection Board. Besides encouraging good coastal
management practices, these and similar organisations, or their successors, in most other
states provide data collection programmes for the understanding of coastal processes, for
the design of coastal engineering works and for the modelling of the impacts of both
engineering works and management practices upon the coastal environment under
various developmental and climatic scenarios.

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5.3.3 Reclamation and Canal Developments

In the early years of canal style development not all processes and environments were
well enough understood and some notable failures resulted. With improved knowledge
such developments in appropriate environments may be possible, but caution is required.

Problems of acid sulphate leaching from soils into coastal waters can occur naturally,
but excavations and exposure of such soils through development can grossly exacerbate
the problems. In more recent times the serious environmental and ecological damage
resulting from excavations within acid sulphate soil areas, common along the coastal
zone (particularly in northern New South Wales and Queensland), have been recognised
and must now be given serious consideration in future planning.

Concrete and steel foundations of buildings or other structures constructed on low lying
geologically recent coastal and estuarine sediments may deteriorate rapidly because of
the presence of acid sulphate soils.

5.3.4 Marinas and Small Craft Facilities

The increasing use of the coastal zone by both Australians and overseas tourists is
creating the demand for facilities for various water-based activities using small craft of
all kinds. Most coastal resort towns will establish at least one marina. Both resorts and
urban communities located around large bays or estuaries are making increasing use of
fast passenger ferries. Facilities for these vessels are also required on offshore islands
and various reefs within the Great Barrier Reef and other coastal waters. In certain
situations vessel wakes may have adverse impacts.

Further discussion is presented in Supplement B on Marinas.

5.3.5 Excavation, Dredging and Disposal of Sediments

Developments within the coastal zone inevitably disturb the environment. Clearing of
vegetation and earth moving activities initiate soil erosion and, if not controlled,
unwanted and possibly contaminated sediments may be discharged into wetlands or
estuaries. Harbour and other works, including dredging and reclamation activities, not
only in estuaries but on some sandy shorelines underlain by fine sediments and on coral
reefs, also are potential sources of fine suspended sediments. Control of turbidity from
disturbed fine sediments and the disposal of dredged material, particularly if it is
contaminated, often are significant problems requiring careful operational planning and
sediment settling systems.

5.3.6 Waste Disposal and Water Quality

Disposal of sewage, industrial waste and stormwater in the coastal zone (open ocean,
estuaries, rivers, wetlands and dunes) is common practice world-wide. As the quantities
of wastes have increased over time the impacts on coastal water quality within Australia
have become increasingly detrimental and locally unacceptable to many communities.
With improved knowledge of the environmental and ecological impacts of waste
disposal, waste management options and practices are rapidly being modified and
improved. Urban stormwater can bring with it oils and greases from pavements, sewage
leakage and overflows, and both degradable and non-degradable detritus. Trade waste
management, source control, innovations in treatment technology, re-use where
practicable, stormwater control and high energy deepwater ocean outfalls have resulted
in significant improvements in coastal water quality in some regions. Ongoing serious
degradation of many coastal areas remains.

More diffuse discharge of nutrients and pesticides from upland agricultural activities can
also affect estuarine and coastal water quality causing eutrophication and hence the need
not only to control such discharges but also to improve tidal flushing of tidal lakes and
bays. The disturbance of acid sulphate soils adjoining rivers and estuaries may make
estuarine waters and coastal lakes toxic to fish. Appropriate coastal or other engineering
works may provide solutions to such problems in some situations.

Further discussion is presented in Supplement C on Outfalls.

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5.4 Coastal Hazards

While the coastal zone is generally a pleasant environment in which to live, there are
also various potential hazards that threaten human life and developments from time to
time. These hazards include cyclones, storms, floods, storm surges, extreme waves and
tsunamis.

Cyclones and severe storms generate strong winds which may destroy buildings, blow
down trees, move sand dunes on coastal land, as well as generate large waves in coastal
waters. These waves may damage coastal structures, cause cliff collapses, interfere with
maritime activities and erode beaches. Floods from upland runoff may inundate coastal
towns located on estuarine flood plains and infill dredged navigation channels with
sediments. Storm surges may inundate low-lying coastal towns and resorts with sea
water and also facilitate the erosion of the foreshore by waves. For example, 300
persons drowned in 1899 when a cyclone and storm surge destroyed a pearling fleet
anchored near the remote north Queensland coast. In 1918 a combination of cyclonic
winds, storm surge from the sea and subsequent upland runoff devastated the Queensland
city of Mackay, killing 30 people.

Tsunamis are also a potential cause of inundation and damage from the sea. The major
earthquake (8.6 on the Richter scale) of 1960 in Chile generated tsunami waves in
Sydney Harbour which persisted for several days. Damage to moored boats was
significant but limited because the peak 0.8m tsunami wave arrived at low tide. The
north-west coast is perhaps more vulnerable to tsunami impact. The 1994 Java and 1977
Sumbawa earthquakes resulted in water level increases of four to six metres on the
sparsely populated northern West Australian coast. As this publication was going to
press the Aceh tsunami had just occurred with devastating consequences for many
nations around the northern Indian Ocean. The event was clearly detected by Australian
tide gauges with maximum height of 0.6 m at Hillarys Boat Harbour near Perth and 0.35
m at Port Kembla.

Waves breaking on coastal rock shelves or shallow coastal bars are a significant hazard
for anglers and users of small boats. Commercial fishermen need to be wary of the
confluence of strong tidal currents and waves at river and estuary entrances. Port
operators need to be wary of minimum under-keel clearance requirements for the safe
passage of ships at times of low tide and strong offshore winds. Unstable or undercut
coastal cliffs pose threats both to human lives and to buildings and other facilities.

While human use of the coastal zone poses threats to the coastal environment, it is
important to recognise that the coastal environment also poses threats to coastal
communities. Planning and design of coastal developments and structures to withstand
or minimise exposure to the risks of these hazards require coastal engineering expertise.

Gold Coast erosion,

circa 1996 (QLD - EPA)

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Checklist – Is engineering expertise needed for a proposed devel-

opment or activity in the coastal zone?
• Does the project involve port and harbour facilities?
• Are buildings or other facilities constructed near the shoreline be-
ing, or likely to be, threatened by erosion?
• Are coastal structures such as breakwaters, groynes, training walls,
jetties, seawalls, etc to be constructed?
• Are low-impact engineering alternatives being considered?
• Are any dredging activities being considered?
• Is turbidity and its control an issue?
• Will there be any interference with coastal or estuarine sediment
transport systems?
• Are flood prevention/mitigation works required?
• Is a knowledge of wind, wave or current forces on a structure or ob-
ject required?
• Is data on waves, tides or currents required?
• Is physical or numerical modelling of environmental impacts on a
structure or development required?
• Is physical or numerical modelling of the impacts of a structure or
development on the environment required?
• Is a planning decision requiring quantification of coastal processes
involved?
• Are land reclamation and/or canal works being considered?
• Are engineering works required to restore or replicate a natural
coastal or marine environment?
• Will the operation of facilities or equipment be dependent on envi-
ronmental parameters?
• Is the marine environment causing unacceptable deterioration of
buildings or facilities?
• Does a culturally significant structure or precinct need to be re-
stored, reconstructed or relocated?
• Is storm water runoff to be discharged into a wetland area?
• Are acid soils likely to be disturbed by the project?
• Does the project involve a marina or other small craft facilities?
• Is waste disposal infrastructure including possible outfalls and wa-
ter re-use under consideration?
• Is a structure to be built on a reef or offshore?
• Does tidal flushing of a coastal lake or bay need to be improved?
• Is the proposed development or activity likely to be vulnerable to
coastal hazards such as cyclones, storms, floods, storm surges, ex-
treme waves or tsunamis?
• Is there a hazard to human life?

If the answer to any of the above or similar questions is YES, then coastal engineering
and/or other expertise is needed for the proposed development or activity in the coastal
zone. In many situations, the engineer will need to obtain relevant specialist advice from
marine scientists and other allied professionals.

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6. COASTAL ENGINEERING METHODOLOGY

6.1 Design Philosophy
A design philosophy should underpin all coastal engineering projects. The design
process should be based upon the appropriate level of professional engineering
competence, a sufficiently broad scientific understanding of the coastal environment
relevant to the project, the concepts of ecological sustainability, and an understanding of
social and community values and aspirations.

The design process itself will involve the consideration of different options for
achieving the project goals. The practitioner’s technical and economic competence will
be applied to assess the relative merits of these options. This will involve a consider-
ation of the level of risk of failure and the consequences of that failure, such as
structural collapse with or without loss of human life, inability to function as required,
environmental damage, excessive cost, nonacceptance by the community, etc. While
some aspects of risk assessment will be based upon statistical and economic analyses,
others will depend upon subjective factors such as community attitudes concerning the
value of human life and of the coastal environment. Not only the risks involved in a
project need to be identified but also the party which will be responsible for managing
and bearing the consequences of each risk.

While communities are becoming increasingly aware of environmental matters, the level
of education, concern and interest on any particular aspect is likely to be varied within
any group. This variation needs to be acknowledged and incorporated into the choice of
public consultation methods and approaches used for a project. Within the constraints of
the resources made available to them, coastal engineers are responsible for providing
clear and accurate information about proposed projects to assist clients, communities
and approving authorities in decision making.

Specialist consultants and public agencies may have resources to provide or assist in
obtaining a broader and deeper environmental knowledge, especially in value assessment
and comparison. However, it should be recognised that the increasing operation of
community power structures, different perceptions of relevant issues, varied and
changing community expectations, all mean that the consultation process will be
increasingly an open-ended one in which the option adopted at a specific site at a given
time will not necessarily be a predictable one.

Nevertheless, for any engineering project the primary responsibility for identifying
environmental considerations rests with the coastal engineer who should ensure that the
project is undertaken with due regard to ecological as well as economic sustainability.

The coastal engineering methodology explained in the following sections has been
compiled to provide overall guidelines for all coastal engineering projects. However, it
should be recognised that not all projects will require or can afford wide-ranging
consultation, extensive investigations or detailed consideration of many design options.
In all cases the necessary amount of consultation, investigation and design should be
determined considering both the likely capital cost of the project and its potential to
cause continuing undesirable environmental or other impacts. For small projects an
experienced coastal engineer can often make informed judgements about the likely upper
limits of various physical processes and other aspects of the project, hence avoiding the
need for extensive investigations and unnecessarily high extra project costs.
Nevertheless, it is important for the coastal engineer to seek appropriate
professional advice concerning other aspects of a project so that the decision-
making process is based upon accurate, clear and complete information.

Not all coastal engineering projects fit easily into conventional engineering practice. For
example, a boat access channel and small harbour previously dredged through a coral
reef surrounding a small island had caused environmental degradation of the adjoining
reef-flat and loss of sediment from the island. Any solution to these problems had to be

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implemented with minimal environmental disturbance. Both the project and its budget
were small but the physical and ecological systems are both complex and extensive.
There were no surveys of reef-top topography to the required accuracy and detail, and no
systematic data was available concerning prevailing waves and currents. The site is
remote and in a world heritage area under continuing use and observation by tourists,
scientists and marine park rangers, all of whom rely on the existing facilities for access.
When confronted with such a complex situation and with limited resources for
investigation, design and construction, it is inevitable that some compromises must be
made in the development of an appropriate solution.

Cape Tribulation, Daintree

National Park (Qld - EPA)

6.2 Conceptual Design

Conceptual design begins with the formulation of the overall purpose and the significant
requirements of a particular project. It then proceeds to document in specific but
unquantified terms the strategies and assets to be used to satisfy the objectives of the
undertaking, be it a management program, a new development, or a structure. The types
of outputs from a conceptual design would be flow charts of processes and procedures,
development plans, schematic diagrams of the project, environmental assessment
analyses and processes, the degree of community involvement, measures for
environmental impact amelioration, definition of dredging areas and disposal sites, the
location of source areas for materials, maintenance and repair needs, etc. At this stage
there still may be several options under consideration.

It is during the conceptual design phase that ecological sustainability is incorporated in

the process instead of as an add-on or a test at the completion of the project.

Checklist – Conceptual Design

• Has the need for the project been clearly stated and tested?
• Are there any aspects of the project superfluous to that need?
• Is this a suitable approach to the problem?
• Is this an appropriate use for the site?
• Has the environmental robustness of the site been considered in lo-
cating the project?
• What are the likely environmental impacts/benefits and which of
these are of most concern/consequence?
• Does the proposed design incorporate Ecologically Sustainable De-
velopment principles appropriate for the coast?
• What are the likely visual and social impacts?
• Have relevant external factors, including other projects, affecting
the project been considered?
• Have relevant options been considered?
• Are the proposals sufficiently flexible to allow meaningful public
consultation and what form will this consultation take?

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6.3 Public Consultation

Public consultation should provide an opportunity for all groups with a perceived
interest in any aspect or impact of the project to become involved. These may include
individuals likely to be directly affected by the project, the local community, special
interest groups, indigenous people, local government and state government agencies
charged with specific responsibilities such as coastal management, coastal industries,
water quality, cultural and heritage values, natural and living resources.

Public consultation is best initiated early in the process. In some cases this will be
before a specific concept has been developed so that site specific issues and
environmental constraints and objectives can be defined first. For other cases, where the
nature of the project has been determined by other factors, the best time would be
immediately after the formulation of the concept of the project (works or program). At
this time enough information has been formulated to serve as a kernel upon which to
engage the interest of the stakeholders. Importantly though, the proponent will not yet
have an overly large commitment to a particular concept, nor will the other stakeholders
feel that they are being presented with a fait accompli. In situations where formal public
consultation processes are specified (e.g. in regard to environmental impact statements),
those requirements may be the prime factor determining the public consultation process.

Some of the questions raised during early public consultation may not be able to be
answered definitively and some of the counter proposals may need to be dealt with on
the basis of experience and judgement. Nevertheless, it is likely that suggestions or
strategies arising during public consultation can be incorporated to the overall benefit of
the project.

Checklist – Public Consultation (a) Project Matters

• Have any flaws been uncovered in the basic reasoning behind the con-
cept?
• Has the relative ranking of the environmental attributes been changed?
• Are there any sites of significance to indigenous people?
• Does the project affect any sites of particular natural heritage value or
cultural significance?
• Are there any previously unidentified concerns?
• Are there any non-tradeable attributes?
• Does the community have a strong positive or negative response to
any particular option?

Checklist – Public Consultation (b) Process Matters

• Is the proposed consultation process appropriate for the project?
• Have genuine stakeholders been identified and consulted?
• Has consultation with stakeholders been effective and acceptable to
them?
• Have indigenous people been consulted in a culturally sensitive way?
• Is there provision for continuing consultation as the project develops?
• Have the important concerns been addressed?
• Is there a need for mediation to deal with unresolved differences?

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6.4 Investigations
6.4.1 Scope
Coastal engineering requires an understanding of the dynamic interactions of the water,
land, sediments, suspended matter, soluble particulates, and flora and fauna in the
coastal zone. While some of these fields are beyond the expertise of the practising
coastal engineer and will require input from biologists, geologists, botanists, planners,
and other professionals, the coastal engineer is nonetheless required to have an
appreciation and general understanding of their importance to sustainable management
of the coastal zone. In many cases the coastal engineer may be responsible for project
management and sourcing or commissioning studies from specialists in other disciplines.
Following identification of the task (Conceptual Design) and a general public acceptance
of the direction of the project, including the community’s input into that direction,

• collection and collation of data,

investigations into the project are ready to commence. These should involve:

• identification of all the physical, chemical and biological aspects of coastal dynamics rele-

• setting design criteria,

vant to the project,

• scenario modelling and assessment of design options,

• environmental impact assessment,
• early consideration of licenses and approvals required,
• costs of options.

These investigations are not independent and results of “later” stages of investigation
may raise aspects not identified earlier. For example, when setting design criteria it may
be found that additional data is needed before modelling studies and assessment of
design options against the criteria can be carried out.

Investigations always should be carried out with an awareness of likely changes of

• full range of natural fluctuations in environmental conditions,

conditions over the life of the project. Examples of such possible changes include:

• environmental changes including land use, catchment runoff or sea level rise,
• planning and/or management changes,
• increased production, trade or use of larger vessels, etc requiring expansion of facilities,
• structural changes such as deterioration in materials – concrete spalling, steel corrosion or

• increasing contamination of marinas and harbours,

geotextile abrasion,

• social and cultural changes such as new or changing community needs and developing
cultural significance of the project or parts of it.

All investigations provide information to be used by the coastal engineer in a manner

appropriate for the particular project, for the environment in which it is located and the
community which will use it. No amount of investigation, modelling or simulation can
provide absolute certainty of outcomes and the coastal engineer will always need to
make informed judgements based on his or her personal experience and knowledge of
good engineering practice.

6.4.2 Data
An understanding of the coastal zone dynamics in the region of interest requires the
collection and collation of data, both historical and present day. This data must be
meaningfully interpreted and then used to consider alternative scenarios and design
options. The listing below summarises the physical, chemical and biological data which
could be required for coastal engineering projects. It will be necessary also to determine
if the project will affect areas or artefacts of natural heritage value, cultural significance
or engineering heritage value.

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Data Relevant to Coastal Engineering Projects

•
Physical Data

•
water level – tides, floods, storm surge, wave set-up and sea level change,

•
waves – short period, long period, seiche, coastally trapped and tsunami,

•
wind – over water and over land,
beach erosion – short term fluctuations and long term shoreline movements in-

• cliff erosion rates (e.g. from aerial photographs/historical surveys),

cluding onshore, offshore and alongshore transport,

• rainfall/runoff – in estuaries, rivers and the ocean,

• currents – local wind and wave-generated, flood and tidal, continental shelf and

• beach and surf zone morphology, seabed bathymetry,

oceanic,

• sediments – grain size, mineralogy, carbonate and organic content,

• geotechnical properties of subsurface strata,
• water quality – sources, dilution and advection of pollutants, effluent outfall p er-
formance, stormwater.

• natural materials, including acid sulphate soils,

Chemical Data - sources, distribution and concentrations of:

• industrial chemicals and waste (e.g. heavy metals, PCBs, etc),

• agricultural chemicals (e.g. pesticides, fertilisers, etc),
• human effluent and waste pollutants,
• contaminants on beaches, in bathing areas and on the shoreline generally (e.g.

• sediment chemistry,
litter, toxic organisms, oil, etc),

• salinity and temperature in estuarine and nearshore waters.

• flora (e.g. mangroves, wetland plants, algae, seagrasses, etc)

Biological Data

•
• fauna (e.g. marine and land animals and birds, benthic organisms, etc)
- species diversity, population numbers, distribution and condition,

•
• presence of rare, endangered or threatened species,
- species diversity, population numbers, distribution and condition,

• evidence of biological influence on coastal sediment movement,

• identification of biological indicators for water quality.

The specific data required for a given project will depend upon the nature of both the
project and the local coastal environment. This data needs to be identified together with
both the area and the duration over which it is required.

Tide gauge and wave recorder

in Moreton Bay (Qld - EPA)

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Data will be available in various formats, some of which are more convenient to use than

• books, reports and other published and unpublished papers,

others. Formats include:

• historical records in archives,

• maps, charts, plans, drawings,
• instrumental recordings and analyses of such recordings,
• sedimentological or biological samples,
• aerial photographs, satellite imagery,
• geographical information systems (GIS) or other data bases,
• personal knowledge of people familiar with the area.

Such data may have to be assembled from many sources. In some cases it will be
available on computer disc or via the internet; in others it may have to be extracted
painstakingly from old documents, microfilm or microfiche. In many cases its reliability
may be questionable or the data source, such as a map, chart or GIS, may be a composite
of data obtained from different sources at different times with different accuracies. In all
such cases, an assessment must be made as to the suitability of the available data. If it is
found to be unsuitable, the possibility and cost of replacing or expanding it with more
reliable or more extensive information needs to be considered.

For example, if wave data is required, then the nearest recording site to the project site
must be identified and assessed as to its spatial relevance. If the recorder site is an
offshore deepwater one on an open coast and wave directional information is available,
then it is probable that the data can be transposed alongshore to the vicinity of the
project site and then transformed using numerical modelling techniques into shallow
water data at the project site. On the other hand, if the available wave data is specific to
a site other than the project site, then it may be necessary to resort to using
meteorological data to hindcast waves at the project site, with the available data at the
remote site being used to calibrate and verify the hindcasting technique used.

The temporal relevance of the data must also be assessed. The longest wave data set
available in Australia is of the order of 35 years, which is barely adequate for the design
of significant coastal structures. Many data sets are considerably shorter in length and
some may be inconsistent in quality. Hence hindcasting techniques will be required to
extend these records, assuming that meteorological (wind speed, direction, duration and
fetch length) data is available for longer periods – 50 years or more are available at
some sites. Other data such as rainfall may be available for as long as 100 years or more.
However, some hydrological or meteorological data sets may not extend to the present
(nor to the future) because of cost cutting by data collection agencies in recent times.
Biological data is seldom available over any extended period. Indeed, while the SOMER
1995 report provides baseline data for future comparison, there is little reliable data
available at most sites to assess the natural variability of marine ecosystems let alone
their tolerance to disturbance by human activities.

However, long term physical data such as rainfall, runoff, wind velocity, sea
temperature, salinity or biological data from coral head growth may be used as
indicators of climatic variations or trends over a longer period of time and hence may
allow some extrapolation of the length of other shorter term data time series.
Deficiencies in the spatial extent of data usually can be remedied by project specific
data collection programs covering all relevant quantities over an appropriate short-term
time frame.

Coastal engineering involves working at the land-sea interface and usually includes both land-
based and marine activities. Maps and plans for land-based activities generally have elevations
referred to Australian Height Datum (AHD), whereas those for marine activities generally
require the depth of water available for navigation and hence have elevations referred to a low
water datum such as Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) (see Appendix 3). Older maps, plans and
charts may use other datums. A consistent elevation datum is essential for each project and
particular care should be taken when comparing historical elevation data from various maps and
charts.

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Allowance for different definitions for the meridian, e.g. true, magnetic or grid north
and use of consistent map projections and grid coordinate origins is also important. The
previous Australian Geodetic Datum (AGD) (based upon a mathematical surface of the
earth designed to fit the Australian region) has recently been replaced by the Geocentric
Datum of Australia (GDA); a geocentric datum that is directly compatible with satellite
based navigation systems. GDA and AGD co-ordinates vary by about 200m. However the
change from AGD to GDA, does not affect levels defined by Australian Height Datum
(AHD).

The quality of data is an important aspect for the design of engineering projects
undertaken in the coastal zone. Data is necessary for both risk assessment and evaluation
of the consequences of accepting a risk level. Investment in quality data and long-term
data programs is an investment in reducing the uncertainty of risk, resulting in more
appropriate design criteria and parameter selection. The outcome of this investment
should be a reduction in the capital costs of projects and elimination of expensive
failures. Where project requirements demand the acquisition of new original data, the
coastal engineer should also be conscious of the long-term value of that data for future
uses, whether public or private, and seek to ensure that scientific method is applied and
adequate quality control and archival procedures are put in place.

6.4.3 Coastal Dynamics

As outlined in Section 4.4, it is essential to define the extent of the overall coastal
system affected by and affecting the proposed project. The extent of the system involved
will depend, among other things, upon the size and nature of the project. The latter will
also determine the quantity of data and the extent of data analysis required to identify
the significant aspects of the system's coastal dynamics.

When the coastal system and its characteristics have been identified (see Section 4.4),
the coastal dynamics and environmental qualities in the vicinity of the local site(s)
should be identified from an engineering and scientific assessment of the available data.
In most cases it will be found that there is insufficient data or that, while data on one
aspect, for example tides, is adequate, there is virtually nothing known about other
aspects, for example, the local ecosystems or the extent of interchange between inshore
and offshore waters.

Hence it often will be necessary to undertake further investigations and specific data
acquisition programs to obtain sufficient understanding of the coastal dynamics of the
local area, both affected by and affecting the project. Information obtained from such

•
studies could include:

•
magnitude and frequency of winds, waves, water levels, currents,

•
coastal processes and shoreline changes over appropriate time frames,

•
rainfall, runoff, flushing of semi-enclosed waters,

•
water quality and factors affecting it,

•
marine, coastal and estuarine ecosystems,
environmental and other aspects of special value.

Data acquisition programs should, wherever possible, be planned to take account of the
full range of natural fluctuations, as well as potential changes in intensity and frequency
of events resulting from climate change.

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Coastal protection at Prince

Street Cronulla NSW. Note
the large rip cell. (NSW -
PWD)

6.4.4 Design Criteria

"Design" is the traditional name given to the process by which an engineering solution is
investigated and developed in response to a stated objective, so as to provide a required
amenity or to solve or prevent a particular problem. Coastal engineering design
outcomes need not lead to construction or physical intervention but might commonly
result in planning or other decisions which satisfy the stated objectives. The criteria for
such a design will vary enormously depending upon the problem but will always involve
performance requirements or criteria of some type, which may be multi-faceted. The
design process is therefore targeted towards ensuring that the solution does not "fail"
within the context of those requirements.

The criteria for design of a coastal project should be based principally on the adopted
planning horizon, the perceived acceptable risk of "failure", the consequences of that
failure and relevant social, environmental and economic considerations.

The planning horizon, or the period of time for which the outcome is required, may
differ significantly depending upon the type of problem or project being considered. A
consideration of the effects of chronic coastal erosion on a beach might adopt a very
long planning horizon if the intent is to "permanently" protect a particular amenity, i.e.
a zero risk of failure. However, when faced with sea level rise or a naturally receding
shoreline, permanence may not be feasible without significant cost or even be possible
at all. The cost of meeting the desirable planning horizon might be expressed in terms of
capital expenditure that would be needed to construct a defensive or other
interventionist system. Equally, the cost might be in terms of the resuming or setting
aside of extensive tracts of land which have high desirability and amenity for the present
generation. Alternatively, the cost might relate to the value in preserving the local
ecosystem. Any design will inevitably be a compromise based on a philosophy of
acceptable risk to the perceived benefit. Design decisions made by the responsible
authorities must therefore be agreed and appropriately communicated, across generations
if necessary, to ensure that all stakeholders are continually aware of the assumptions of
the decisions, the data upon which they are based and the possible consequences. By
ensuring provisions are made also for obtaining more and better data, greater knowledge
and enhanced predictive capability of coastal processes, subsequently updated decisions
will accord with the principles of ecologically sustainable development.

As a separate example, the functional life of a particular coastal structure or facility

might reasonably be limited to a specific period of time, say 20 years. This may be
justified on the basis of a known limited resource or need, or a firm expectation of
redevelopment. Alternatively, predicted rising maintenance costs or new technology
could dictate replacement or removal after this approximate period of time. If the
consequence of "failure" of such a facility during the 20-year period is deemed
relatively costly in terms of human life, infrastructure or the environment it would be
necessary to target a solution yielding a relatively low probability of failure. On the
other hand, if failure of the facility is deemed to result in minimal inconvenience, then
the risk of failure could be set significantly higher. Again, the stakeholders must be
fully involved in any such philosophical decisions.

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Risk analysis must therefore play an integral part in the planning of coastal activities
and the design of coastal structures. The acceptable risk of failure within the assumed
planning horizon, or "design life", combined with the estimated probability of a threat to
the performance of the facility, will have a significant bearing on the capital and/or
operating cost - either social, environmental or economic - of the project.

The principal threats to stability of coastal features, both natural and built, take the form
of short-term environmental loadings, such as winds, currents or waves. Because of the
seasonal tendency for such events, the concept of the "return period", typically in years,
has been favoured as a practical expression of the risk of their occurrence. The return
period is simply the average time between equalling or exceeding a given magnitude of
an event but is often misunderstood. By considering that the inverse of the return period
is the average annual probability of exceedance, this reveals the important issue for
design against any type of threat - the adopted level of risk. For clarity, the return
period herein is termed the average recurrence interval to better convey its true
meaning, e.g. a 100 year average recurrence interval event has a 1/100 chance of being
exceeded in any one year.

Threats to sustainability - such as sea level rise - might be seen to be much longer term
but return period is still a relevant concept. However, because of the relatively short
databases upon which return periods have been estimated, traditionally (50-100 years at
best), a common misconception is that adopting design return periods which are
significantly longer than these values is not only unnecessary but inaccurate and
inappropriate. Setting aside for the moment the difficulty and accuracy of establishing
such estimates, particularly within the context of possible climate change, the important
concept here is the actual level of risk.

Conveniently, the above considerations can be conceptually combined in a statistical

description which greatly assists the decision making process. Originally termed
"encounter probability" (Borgman 1963), the following principal parameters of:

Threat: Average Recurrence Interval, T (yr)

Exposure: Planning Horizon or Design Lifetime, N (yr)
Acceptability: Risk of Encounter within that Lifetime, R (%)

−N
T=
ln (1 − R /100 )
can be related by: .

This equation provides the appropriate average recurrence interval of the threat (T ) to
be considered in the design if, within the planning horizon of N years, the acceptable
risk of encounter (or possible failure at that level of threat) is chosen to be R . It is
readily apparent from the summary of values presented below in Table 1 that relatively
high values of the average recurrence interval T will be required to limit the potential
for failure of typical projects below a level of 10% over their lifetime. For example, if a
structure is to have a 5% risk of encountering an event magnitude which is equalled or
exceeded at least once during the next 50 years, then the design extreme event is one
with a 975-year (say 1000-year) average recurrence interval. In fact, there is
approximately a 64% chance of equalling or exceeding the magnitude of the 50-year
average recurrence interval event in any consecutive period of 50 years. Expressed in
another way, in the next 50 years there is a 5% chance that the 1000 year average
recurrence interval event or greater will occur, but a 64% chance that the 50 year event
or greater will occur.

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Table 1 - Design Average Recurrence Interval T in Years

% Risk of Planning Horizon in Years ( N )

Encounter 1 10 20 50 100 500
( R)
99 0.2 2.2 4.3 11 22 109
90 0.4 4.3 8.7 22 43 217
64 1.0 10 20 49 98 489
50 1.4 14 29 72 144 721
20 4.5 45 90 224 448 2241
10 9.5 95 190 475 949 4746
5 19 195 390 975 1950 9748
1 99 995 1990 4975 9950 49750

A design need not completely fail when it encounters the design event. For example,
rubblemound breakwaters are commonly designed to accept up to 5% damage of their
armour layer during the design storm. This is a long way from complete failure and this
type of structure is likely to withstand a storm of much greater average recurrence
interval before total failure occurs. Indeed where failure depends upon the simultaneous
occurrence of two or more extreme conditions, such as large waves and high water
levels, the probability of total failure may be very small. However, it is important to
consider whether or not the proposed solution will fulfil all its performance
requirements. The breakwater's strength may withstand the design wave conditions yet it
may still not provide the required protection to shipping sheltering behind it owing to
overtopping by waves or unfavourable wave refraction. The breakwater configuration
might also redirect wave energy under severe storm conditions and cause increased
erosion on adjacent beaches.

The estimation of average recurrence intervals of design threats (e.g. winds, waves,
currents, storm surge, sediment transport rates) is a highly specialised activity normally
involving the use of sophisticated numerical models and is reliant on local data to
demonstrate accuracy in prediction. When the database for determining design threats is
limited in extent and/or duration, design should be based on one of two conditions.
Either a conservative view of threats (e.g. loadings, strengths, transport rates) should be
taken by erring on the safe side of uncertainty, or the design explicitly should allow for
possible later modifications in response to updated estimates of risk. Depending on the
consequences of failure, so-called soft options could be used. These would include
devices that can be modified or removed if unsuccessful or reinforced to be more
durable if proven to be the right solution. This might avoid the high capital cost of
potentially conservative over-design, but procedures must be put in place to monitor and
document the design performance. The stakeholders also must be agreeable to the design
philosophy, accepting that ongoing change and maintenance costs are likely.

Other criteria which need to be considered in the investigation of engineering options

include mandatory design constraints (structure height, width, town planning
regulations, etc) environmental impacts, socio-economic consequences, visual impacts
and community acceptance. Most of these issues are addressed in Environmental Impact
Statements (EIS) (see Section 6.4.6).

6.4.5 Modelling
Scenario modelling to investigate a number of engineering options is usually undertaken
to determine the effectiveness of each alternative. This process may include numerical
and physical modelling and both qualitative and quantitative output with a preliminary
assessment of impacts. Implementation, social and maintenance costs of each option are
then determined and a short list of favoured options put forward.

Whenever any modelling is undertaken, it is essential that the limitations of the model
results be clearly understood by the model user and also clearly communicated to clients

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and all interested parties. A model, either numerical or physical, of a particular process
must reproduce the relevant aspects of that process reliably. This implies that the model
must be soundly based upon relevant theory and have been properly calibrated using
data which is derived from either the system being studied or a similar one. Moreover,
the calibrated model should be verified by testing it using different sets of appropriate
data.

Physical scale model of sand

bypassing at river training
walls

(CRC - Coastal Zone, Estuary

and Waterway Management)

Choice of appropriate models and modelling strategies to investigate specific matters is

essential. This requires informed professional judgement since virtually all coastal
systems and their processes are too complex to be modelled in their entirety, regardless
of the resources available.

The increasing availability of “user-friendly” software with attractive dynamic graphical

outputs is allowing nontechnical persons to gain a better understanding of model
outputs. However, it needs to be emphasised that these outputs are very much dependent
upon the inherent assumptions made in formulating the model and in the reliability and
suitability of the input data used to calibrate, verify and operate the model. Numerical
modelling techniques, correctly used, are an essential tool for assessing the performance
of various engineering options for most projects. However, if applied by inexperienced
or untrained operators, they have the potential to produce either misleading or possibly
completely wrong results. An appropriately qualified experienced engineer should
overview and interpret model outputs.

6.4.6 Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) may be defined as the process for the orderly
and systematic evaluation of a proposed project including its alternatives and objectives
and its effect on the environment, including the mitigation and management of that
effect. At the Commonwealth level EIA is of an advisory nature unless the project
affects Commonwealth waters or land. For most States and Territories, EIA (or its
equivalent), is an integral part of the planning approval process. Each State or Territory
has its own specific requirements.

The environmental impact assessment concept has been adopted by the Commonwealth
and all State and Territorial government authorities. The document in which this
assessment is made most commonly is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) although other equivalent terms are also used. The principal aim of the EIS is to
identify environmental issues to be taken into account in decision making by all
interested parties associated with the project. Under all EIA procedures, the
responsibility for preparation of the document rests with the proponent of the proposed
project.

The EIS should include a number of options. The “do-nothing” option is generally included, in
part to serve as a benchmark. The document is then subject to another set of consultations with
the stakeholders. Following the completion of the EIS the client, consultant, approval authori-
ties and the general community will have additional information to assist in making a decision
as to the worth of the project and, if it proceeds, which options are the most suitable. Monitor-
ing, amelioration measures and other environmental management needs associated with these
options also will have been identified.

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An EIS is normally only produced for major projects. However, in many situations, there
are administrative or legal requirements for statements of environmental effects for
smaller projects or those not having significant impacts. Good engineering practice
requires a suitably scaled version of the EIS process for smaller projects, irrespective of
the designated procedures required for development approvals.

6.4.7 Licenses and Approvals

The licensing and approval procedures and requirements of all spheres of Government, as well
as other public regulatory authorities, should be considered at all stages of a project, but espe-
cially prior to detailed design. Approvals required will range from overall planning approval to
specific approvals under Local Authority building regulations. Environmental licenses will in-
clude noise, dredging, marine discharges, seadumping etc. Appropriate contractual provisions,
including requirements that contractors comply with all relevant license conditions, should be
included in project documentation. Licences required and approval procedures, etc vary in dif-
ferent States and Local Authorities and from time to time. Practitioners need to ensure that they
are fully informed concerning the current requirements of all regulatory authorities with juris-
diction over their project's life.

6.4.8 Costs
Project budgets should include adequate provision for environmental investigation and
analyses, consultation, design, documentation and environmental monitoring and
reporting. The achievement of desired outcomes in an efficient manner should be
considered throughout all processes, in order to achieve optimal use of generally limited
resources.

The costs of undertaking appropriate investigation for coastal engineering projects are
often a small proportion of the total project costs. In some cases environmental
complexity or uncertainty may require relatively more costly investigations than is
normally the case. However, pressure to reduce the effort and cost of investigations can
lead to false economy whereby, owing to inadequate knowledge of the coastal processes,
sub-optimal designs may result in increased capital or maintenance costs and may
adversely affect the environment in ways not fully understood at the time of the decision
to proceed with the project. Equally, inadequate knowledge resulting in sub-optimal
designs may inhibit approval with financial costs associated with delays and may even
result in proposals with high community value being rejected.

Checklist – Investigations
• Is the available data sufficient to define adequately the relevant envi-
ronmental parameters and impacts?
• If the data is not sufficient, can the additional data required be obtained
with available resources within a reasonable time frame?
• Is the proposed program of investigation appropriate for the project, i.e.
does it cover all relevant matters, and is its cost consistent with the ex-
pected overall project cost?
• If additional data cannot be obtained, does the increased risk and/or
cost associated with this lack of data make the project nonviable?
• Are there specific natural heritage values or culturally significant pre-
cincts or artefacts, particularly any relevant to indigenous people or of
engineering heritage value, which impose constraints on the project?
• Has the overall coastal system been clearly defined?
• Are the coastal dynamics within that system clearly and well under-
stood?
• Have acceptable design criteria been defined for the important aspects
of the project including its integrity, function, impacts, acceptability?
• Has the effectiveness of various options been determined?
…

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• Has the reliability of modelling activities been tested?

• Have areas of scientific uncertainty been appropriately addressed?
• Has the environmental impact of the project been assessed and costed in
an appropriate manner?
• Has the EIS identified environmentally sensitive issues not previously
considered?
• Have licenses and approvals required before the project can be imple-
mented been identified?
• Have intergenerational equity issues been addressed?
• Have viable and acceptable options been properly costed?
• Can a preferred option be identified?

6.5 Detailed Design

Traditional practice has been to undertake the tasks of design and construction
separately. Following acceptance of the preferred engineering solution, detailed design
commences to develop and refine all aspects of the project. This is followed by the
preparation of contract documents and the calling of tenders for construction of the
project. During this process, explicit construction methods and materials will be
identified, together with expected maintenance and performance monitoring
requirements. This approach is outlined in the following sections.

There is an increasing use by public authorities of integrated private sector delivery of

projects, otherwise known as infrastructure partnership or build-own-operate-transfer
(BOOT) approaches. Under this arrangement developers, their contractors and
consultants are invited to provide an integrated design, construction, operation and
maintenance service. In the implementation of this approach the responsibilities for
various parts of the design, documentation and construction phases, as well as their
sequence and details, may vary from those described herein.

• development of a Functional Specification for the facility, specifying design and p erform-
Detailed design generally includes:

• detailed analysis of all site conditions and design concepts, alternatives and optimisation,
ance criteria,

• numerical and physical modelling,

• selection of construction materials,
• consideration of construction techniques,
• cost estimation of the project,
• detailed documentation and plans,
• development of a maintenance program,
• a removal or reinstatement plan if applicable.

As an example, a breakwater is to be designed for the development of a port facility.

Preliminary design is usually based on numerical modelling and accepted relationships
for armour stability, wave run-up, overtopping volumes, head, trunk and toe design, etc.
These relationships are not exact and, depending on the project site, may over-estimate
or under-estimate the designed components. Physical modelling can then be used to
refine the design and optimise costs (e.g. reduce armour size and crest level) and
provide design details for which limited research data has been published (e.g. wave
overtopping). All these actions more precisely define the operational or failure mode and
hence reduce the associated risk.

Detailed project cost estimating may need to consider cost/benefit or net present value
analyses, which could include capital, maintenance, operating and possible
removal/modification costs. Where costs are still highly uncertain, sensitivity analyses
based on scenario testing or probabilistic budgeting and scheduling should be used to
determine the upper and lower bounds and the possible median outcome to allow setting

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of contingency allowances. It is important that the project financier understands the

basis upon which the project cost estimate has been made, has been appraised of the
degree of uncertainty and therefore agrees to the adopted philosophy.

Construction materials and techniques require careful consideration in the detailed

design and will affect the overall cost of the project. For the breakwater example,
material considerations include source of armour rock (i.e. quarry location) and
available quantity and quality of this rock. Availability of construction equipment and
the constructability of the design should be assessed. In addition, placement techniques
and placement tolerances need to be considered in some detail. Such issues are
fundamental to the detailed design and can cover a broad range of issues depending on
the type and scope of the project. Construction techniques and construction materials are
considered in Section 6.7.

Detailed plans showing all dimensions and aspects of the project need to be prepared.
Drawings need to be of appropriate quality to communicate all physical aspects of the
design to the client, approving authorities, potential contractors and the community in
general. Depending on the scope of the design, the drawings also may include setting out
details for construction. To avoid confusion, all references to elevations should be to the
same datum and examples given of conversions from one datum to another (e.g. AHD to
Chart Datum).

Maintenance requirements, following development of the project, need to be included in

the detailed design. Too often maintenance requirements are not communicated well
enough between the developer, consultant and the Principal or final owner. This is
particularly the case where a development may change ownership or an authority may
have a turnover in personnel without due advice on their duties to maintain the facilities.
Maintenance may also include ongoing monitoring programs which may be stipulated as
part of the EIS (e.g. long term changes in water quality) or simply be a requirement to
assess the performance of the engineering design (e.g. beach erosion control).
Maintenance requirements in the coastal zone are discussed in Section 6.8.

A design report which describes the project requirements, the design concept, data used,
assumptions made, procedures and outcomes is a worthwhile effort at this stage in the
project. It serves the discipline of ensuring that what the designer thought was being
done was actually being done. It can also be the method by which an engineering peer
review is undertaken. Review of specific aspects of the design by other professionals
and general review of its acceptability by various stakeholders also should be obtained
where appropriate.

Checklist – Detailed Design

• Is the design clear and concise; does it address all issues relevant
to the project?
• Does the design reflect the needs of the Functional Specification?
• Are the selected construction materials and techniques appropriate
for the marine environment at the site?
• Does the cost estimate for the final design include all factors re-
quired to construct/implement the project?
• Has all necessary design documentation been prepared?
• Has an appropriate maintenance program been developed and
costed?
• Does the design complement regional coastal management policy
including the ecological sustainability of the coast?
• Is the final design acceptable to the community?

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6.6 Contract Documentation

Following the detailed design of a project and receipt of planning approvals from the
relevant authorities, the project and tasks are documented to facilitate tendering and
construction.

Contracts are generally structured so that the delivery of the completed project at a
specified time and cost is the responsibility of the contractor. As such, the contractor
accepts the legal, financial and managerial obligations of the project. It is essential that
the contractor not only has a good understanding of construction contracts to ensure the
sound management and operation of a project but also is experienced in working in a
marine environment. Similarly, it is equally important that the engineers who assist in
the formulation of the contract document have a good understanding of both the marine
environment and construction contracts to ensure the document is not deficient in some
technical or legal aspect, or prove to be burdensome to the contractor and ultimately the
project.

Most government and large engineering consulting firms have standard contract documen-
tation which may be used on almost all projects with the inclusion of a section on Techni-
cal Specifications prepared exclusively for each project. Contracts are generally struc-
tured so that payments to the contractor are based on one of the following three methods

• Lump Sum – pay an agreed fixed sum of money for the completion of a project con-
(or a combination):

forming to the plans and specifications.

• Unit Price – pay an agreed sum of money for each unit of work completed on a project
(e.g. dredging charged at cost per cubic metre rate).
• Cost Plus Fee – reimbursement of all costs plus additional management fee. This is
used where the scope of the work cannot be well defined. It is more difficult to control
the contractor and is less popular than Lump Sum and Unit Price Contracts.

Guidelines for the development of general contract documentation can be found in numer-
ous coursework study programs and textbooks. However, careful consideration needs to be
given to some unique factors which affect work in the coastal zone. Downtime and delays
in construction project schedules can occur due to numerous environmental influences

• unfavourable wave conditions,

such as:

• strong or unfavourable currents,

• strong winds,
• elevated water levels and/or flooding,
• rainfall,
• unacceptable environmental disturbance,
• continuing coastal processes may infill dredged excavations or remove deposited sedi-
ments (beach replenishment) during the contract period.

In the maritime environment other special conditions may also apply, such as navigation
or vessel passage allowances, which can cause significant delays in project schedules.

Contract documentation needs to provide for agreements as to how risks will be shared.
Criteria for and methods of assessing high likelihood downtime and delay conditions

• extremes in operating conditions, e.g. waves, winds,

need to be addressed. Examples of such high likelihood conditions might include:

• latent conditions, e.g. rock, soft sediments, debris, discovery of unexpected sites or ar-

• changed conditions, e.g. results of storms – sediment scouring and deposition, damage
tefacts of cultural significance,

to partially constructed works, or to equipment.

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Storm damage at Wamberal

(NSW - PWD).

The risks of working in the coastal zone are significantly greater than those for similar
land based projects. The Principal needs to consciously identify each of the risks which
may reflect on a particular project and then decide the level of risk sharing to be borne
by both the Principal and the Contractor. However, the Principal may decide, for
example, that all risks should be borne by the Contractor, in which case the tendered
prices are likely to be higher to reflect the greater proportion of risk to which the
Contractor is exposed.

Checklist – Pre-Construction
• Is the form of the contract suitable for the project?
• Does it conform with the relevant Australian or FIDIC standard form of
contract?
• Does the contract contain any unnecessary or irrelevant clauses?
• Is the contract written and compiled so as to minimise the possibility of
subsequent legal conflicts?
• Does the contract take account of the special conditions which affect
work in the coastal zone?
• Does the contract define clearly how risks will be shared?
• Have possible construction methods been evaluated for environmental
impact?
• Does the contract include penalties for environmental damage during
construction?
• Does the selected contractor have a good occupational health and safety
and environmental record?
• Is the contract fair and reasonable to all concerned parties?
• Is the level and type of insurance appropriate?

6.7 Construction (Techniques & Materials)

6.7.1 Techniques
The techniques employed in coastal zone projects range from the very low to the very
high capital intensive systems. Typical of the low capital intensive projects are those

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initiated and executed by local community groups with some aid from government.
These use very little capital but have quite a large input of volunteer labour. For projects
such as dune restoration which may extend over several years, this method is the most
appropriate. On the other hand projects which depend for their viability upon an early
cash flow generally tend to employ large quantities of capital borrowed for short term or
else raised as equity. Such projects often will use highly specialised construction
techniques and equipment which may have limited availability and long lead times.

6.7.2 Materials
Selection of materials for use in the coastal zone is dependent on an extensive number of

• type and purpose of structure,

criteria of which the most important are listed in the following broad categories:

• structural integrity of material,

• material costs and availability,
• maintenance and serviceability,
• construction and installation techniques,
• aesthetic and environmental suitability.

These matters are discussed in the Supplement D on Construction Materials for the
Marine Environment.

Checklist – Post Construction

• Has the contractor complied with all environmental requirements?
• Was the design easily built?
• Could improvements have been made to the construction method?
• Could improvements have been made to the contract?
• Was the project completed to the satisfaction of the principal?

6.8 Maintenance and Performance Monitoring

6.8.1 Maintenance
Maintenance of projects is driven by economics (e.g. cost to replace/repair versus cost to
maintain), design life of the project, consequences of failure and aesthetics. Conditions
in the coastal zone are abrasive, corrosive, subject to extremes of natural conditions and
forces, as well as attack by marine and terrestrial organisms. Neglecting maintenance in
the coastal zone will lead to deterioration of the facility and ultimately its failure to
perform its designated tasks.

Maintenance of coastal zone projects and facilities can generally be classified into three

• built-in maintenance,
categories:

• routine maintenance,
• event-driven maintenance.

In some circumstances there may be no requirement for specific maintenance

allowances. This may be the case where the project design life is of short duration (e.g.
temporary groyne) or the cost to rehabilitate or replace is more economical than
maintenance measures.

Built-in maintenance – is a preventative maintenance method adopted during the

construction phase of a project. Material selection and protective techniques are
important criteria reflecting on both the initial capital outlay and maintenance of a
project.

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Built-in maintenance methods are generally employed on projects where the design life
of the project is of significant duration and the costs can be justified. These systems
usually require some form of ongoing monitoring and routine maintenance. However, the
routine maintenance is considerably less than that of a similar project without built-in
maintenance.

This type of maintenance can be effective in extending the life of a facility, where the
design life is controlled by material or structure durability in the coastal zone.

Several examples of built-in maintenance on engineering projects in the coastal zone

• cathodic protection of steel piles,

are:

• impressed current protection of concrete reinforcement,

• selection of larger than required grain size for beach replenishment,
• installation of trash removal systems in storm water drains.

Routine maintenance – involves regular monitoring of the completed project and being
pro-active in the prevention of deterioration by providing maintenance on a routine
basis. Routine maintenance also includes projects such as maintenance dredging,
mechanical beach cleaning and storm water trash rack cleaning.

Routine monitoring or inspection includes periodic measurements of the performance of

cathodic protection systems, inspection of paint systems, beach surveys for sand
replenishment projects, dune stabilisation projects, breakwater inspections and
hydrosurveys for dredging programs etc. Maintenance is undertaken or implemented
when the monitoring identifies the requirement for maintenance.

Routine maintenance should be treated as an ongoing investment in the project in an

endeavour to achieve the project’s desired goals and for it to be functional for its entire
design life.

Event-driven maintenance – involves maintenance or repair following storm events.

For example, replacement of dislodged rocks from a breakwater following a storm or, in
some instances, repeat replenishment of a beach after a major storm has passed. This
action is undertaken in addition to routine maintenance to ensure that repair of any
damage or necessary maintenance is carried out immediately, rather than to address the
maintenance or repair at the next programmed routine inspection.

Sandbags at Maroochydore
for beach stabilisation (QLD
- EPA

Unforeseen maintenance may occur where inappropriate planning, design or construction

methods have been employed or when unforeseen events occur. For example a concrete
mix may be incorrectly specified during the design process or the curing process may be
inadequately controlled resulting in cracking and exposure of reinforcement to chloride
attack. Unforeseen maintenance can be avoided when due care is exercised.

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6.8.2 Performance Monitoring

Monitoring of the performance of a project is important from both a client, consultant
and contractor perspective. The client pays for a project to be undertaken based on a
clear set of outcomes and levels of quality assurance. Usually the contract
documentation will provide performance clauses relating to the design and construction
phases of a project including a 6 to 12 month monitoring period for which the
responsibility of the project performance is held by the design engineer and the
contractor. During this period, any inadequacies in the project are rectified by the
engineer and/or contractor.

Performance monitoring is a tool used in quality assurance (Section 7) and can be a

useful mechanism for improving design and construction methods.

• biological monitoring for a project's impact on water quality,

Performance monitoring may include:

• beach and dune surveys for effectiveness of erosion control,

• breakwater surveys for subsidence or rock displacement,
• general workmanship.

In many cases project approval will include the requirement that an appropriate
environmental monitoring program be developed and implemented commencing before
the project begins, continuing during its implementation and for a specified duration
after its completion. Publication of interesting/unusual projects is encouraged as a
means of improving the knowledge base and benefiting the coastal engineering
profession.

Checklist – Performance and Maintenance

• Is the project performing satisfactorily and meeting design guidelines?
• Is the maintenance scheme effective in preserving the functionality of
the project?
• Are the chosen construction materials proving suitable for the marine
environment?
• Is the community satisfied with the outcomes of the project?
• Are there any unforeseen environmental impacts?
• Has consideration been given to publicising interesting or unusual fea-
tures of the project?

6.9 Removal and Life Cycle Planning

Life cycle planning or, as it is sometimes known, life cycle costing, is a means of
incorporating all the costs of a project in one accounting. These costs will include
capital, operating, maintenance, levies and charges, and the residual value of any assets
involved. The item most frequently overlooked is the one of residual value. While this
may not be critical for projects where there is a positive residual value, there are
circumstances where the asset at the end of its useful life may have a high negative
residual value. In other words, while the asset may no longer be serviceable, it may be
expensive to remove.

The failure to account for this negative residual value in planning can impose
unexpected financial burdens upon organisations such as Local Government or Public
Utilities. Where life cycle planning is undertaken and where this includes the
programmed removal of the asset, a cash flow can be calculated which distributes the
cost of the project equitably over its lifetime.

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The environmental impacts of the removal and disposal process also need to be carefully
considered.

Checklist – Removal and Life Cycle Planning

• Have all operating, maintenance and removal costs been determined?

• Have possible removal and disposal methods been identified?
• Will the environmental impacts of removal be acceptable?

Additional questions for existing structures before removal:

• Is the structure culturally significant?
• Does it have significant engineering heritage value?
• Should it be restored, reconstructed or removed?

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7. STANDARDS, CODES AND QUALITY

ASSURANCE
In Australia, there are few specific Standards and/or Codes addressing investigations,
design and/or construction for coastal projects. This is due to the complexity of coastal
processes and the wide variability of Australian coastal. Some of the available
Australian Standards and Codes may only be applicable to specific States, regions or
jurisdictions. International or country-specific Standards and Codes may provide
guidance but should be used with caution.

The principle upon which Quality Assurance is based is one which gives a purchaser
confidence in the quality of the product produced by the supplier. This is achieved by
the supplier having a manual and a set of documented procedures against which each
project is checked off through its several phases. The manual gives organisation-wide
operational requirements, while the procedures deal with particular activities within the
organisation. The Quality System is subject to regular audit and certification by
organisations registered to undertake this function.

Quality assurance is an organisation-based system. It cannot be applied to a project

within an organisation which does not already have a quality assurance system.

The International Standards Organisation issued the ISO 9000 series of standards
applying to quality assurance (ISO 9000 to ISO 9004) in 1987. Standards Australia has
adopted the ISO system in its entirety as a set of Australian standards (ASNZS ISO 9000
to ASNZS 9004):

The most important aspect of Quality Assurance is that all aspects of any project are
implemented carefully at a sufficiently high standard of workmanship to ensure that the
project fulfils all its planned uses and meets all required environmental standards. The
maintenance of a quality assurance system is a means towards achieving this end result.
It is not an end in itself.

Checklist – Standards, Codes and Quality Assurance

• Have any relevant Standards and/or Codes been consulted and applied if
necessary?
• Are all aspects of the project being monitored by an appropriate quality
assurance system?
• Is the quality assurance system achieving the standards of quality re-
quired for the project?

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8. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ethics, Responsibilities and Duty of Care
DEH 1992, National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development, Dep. Env. and
Heritage, Ecologically Sustainable Development Steering Committee, Endorsed by
the Council of Australian Government, December, 1992, ISBN 0 644 27253 8.
www.deh.gov.au/esd/national/nsesd/strategy/.
Greene, D. 1997, Towards Sustainable Engineering Practice – Engineering Frameworks
for Sustainability, Inst. Eng. Aust., Publ. No. 18/97, Barton, ACT, 100p, ISBN 1
85825 675 4.
IEA 2000, Code of Ethics, Inst. Eng. Aust., Barton, ACT,
www.engineersaustralia.org.au/about-us/res/downloads/ Code_of_Ethics_2000.pdf.
NCEE 1992, Environmental Principles for Engineers, Inst. Eng. Aust., National Commit-
tee on Environmental Engineering, Barton, ACT, 26p.
NCEE 1994, Policy on Sustainability, Inst. Eng. Aust., National Committee on Environ-
mental Engineering, Barton, ACT, 2p.

Coastal Environment
Cairns, L.B. 1996, Australian Natural Heritage Charter - Standards and principles for the
conservation of places of natural heritage significance, Aust. Heritage Commission
/ Aust. Committee for IUCN, Sydney, 20p, ISBN 0 642 264201.
Chapman, D.M., Geary, M., Roy, P.S. and Thom, B.G. 1982, Coastal Evolution and
Coastal Erosion in New South Wales, Coastal Council of New South Wales, Sydney,
341p, ISBN 0 7240 6582 2.
Davies, J.L. 1972, Geographical Variation in Coastal Development, Oliver & Boyd, Edin-
burgh, 204p. ISBN 0 05 002597.
Gill, E.D. 1982, Eight Coasts of Australia, CSIRO Inst Energy & Earth Resources, Div.
Appl. Geomechs, Tech. Rep. No. 199, 66p, ISBN 0643 026894.
Gordon, A.D. and Lord, D.B. 1980, An Approach to Understanding Coastal Processes,
Proc 17th Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering, Sydney, Australia, ASCE, New York,
Vol. 2, 1235-1254. Also Published in Inst. Eng. Aust. Civ. Eng. Trans., Vol. CE23,
178-185.
Gourlay, M.R. and Hacker, J.L.F. 1987, Coastal and Estuarine Process Investigations:
Some Guidelines from a Study of the Pioneer River Estuary, North Queensland,
Preprints 8th Australasian Conf Coastal and Ocean Eng, Launceston, Tas., Inst.
Eng. Aust. Nat. Conf. Pub. 87/17, 315-319, ISBN 0 85825 358 5.
Hamon, B.V. and Tranter, D.J. 1971, The East Australian Current, Australian Natural
History, 11, 129-133.
Harper, B.A. and Robinson, D.A. 1997, Storm Tide Threat in Queensland, Pacific Coasts
and Ports '97 – Proc 13th Australasian Coastal and Ocean Eng Conf & 6th Austral-
asian Port & Harbour Conf, Christchurch, NZ, Univ. Canterbury, Centre Advanced
Eng., Vol. 2, 1053-1058, ISBN 0 908993 16 1.
IEA 1984, Estuaries – Position Paper No 1, Inst. Eng. Aust., Qld Div, Brisbane, 4p.
IPCC 2001, Climate change 2001 – synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II
and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Cambridge University Press, 398pp, ISBN 0 521 80770 0. (See also the de-
tailed reports of each Working Group.)
Mitchell, H.L. and Silvester, R. 1981, Tides Around the Australian Coastlines, Inst. Eng.
Aust. Civ. Eng. Trans., Vol. CE23, 289-296.
NWPASS 2000, National Strategy for the Management of Coastal Acid Sulphate Soils,
National Working Party on Acid Sulphate Soils (NWPASS), NSW Agriculture, Wol-
longbar, Agricultural Institute, Wollongbar, NSW, 39p, ISBN 0 7310 98420
Proh, D.L. and Gourlay, M.R. 1997, Interannual Climate Variations and Tropical Cy-
clones in the Eastern Australian Region, Pacific Coasts and Ports '97 – Proc 13th
Australasian Coastal and Ocean Eng Conf & 6th Australasian Port & Harbour
Conf, Christchurch, NZ, Univ. Canterbury, Centre Advanced Eng., Vol. 2, 681-686,
ISBN 0 908993 16 1.
Pullan, R., ed. 1983, Guide to the Australian Coast, Readers Digest, Surrey Hills NSW,
479p, ISBN 0 909486 97 2.
Radok, R. 1976, Australia's Coast, Rigby, Adelaide, 100p, ISBN 0 7270 0229 5.

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 Coastal Engineering Guidelines

Sammut, J, and Lines-Kelly, R. 1997, An introduction to Acid Sulphate Soil, Dept Env.,
Sport and Territories, ISBN 0 642 245339.
Tanner, E. 1991, East Australian Current: Oceanographic Analysis, Aust Oceanogr. Data
Centre, Sydney, Document 91/5, 17p.
Ward, T., Butler, T.E. and Hill, B. 1998, Environmental Indicators for National State of
the Environment Reporting - Estuaries and the Sea, Australia, State of the Envi-
ronment (Environment Indicators Reports), Department of the Environment, Can-
berra.
Zann, L.P. 1995, (SOMER Report) Our Sea, Our Future – Major Findings of the State of
the Marine Environment Report for Australia, DEST, Canberra, 112p, ISBN 0 642
17391 5.

Coastal Development
Coltheart, L. 1997, Between Wind and Water – A History of the Ports and Coastal Water-
ways of New South Wales, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 208p, ISBN 0 86806 598 6.
DEST 1985, Living on the Coast – The Commonwealth Coastal Policy, Department of En-
vironment, Sport and Territories, Australia, 70p, ISBN 0 642 227721.
Gourlay, M.R. 1996, History of Coastal Engineering in Australia, in Kraus, N.C. (ed),
History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering, ASCE, New York, 1-88, ISBN 0 7844
0196 9.
Marquis-Kyle, P. and Walker, M. 1992, The Illustrated Burra Charter - Making good de-
cisions about the care of important places, Australia ICOMOS, Sydney, 84p, ISBN
0 646 12403.

Coastal Engineering Methodology

Bea, R.G. 1990, Reliability Based Design Criteria for Coastal and Ocean Structures, Inst.
Eng. Aust., National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 221p, ISBN 0
85825 518 9.
Borgman. L 1963, Risk Criteria, Jnl of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division,
ASCE, Vol. 89, No. WW3, Aug, pp 1-35.
Gordon, A.D. 1997, Coastal Zone Management – Cut Lunch Science, with Attitude, Pa-
cific Coasts and Ports '97 – Proc 13th Australasian Coastal & Ocean Eng Conf and
6th Australasian Port & Harbour Conf, Christchurch, NZ, Univ. Canterbury, Centre
for Advanced Eng., Vol. 1, 27-32, ISBN 0 908993 15 3.
NCCOE 1991, Guidelines for Responding to the Effects of Climate Change in Coastal En-
gineering Design, Inst. Eng. Aust., National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engi-
neering, Barton, ACT, 50p, ISBN 85825 564 2.
NCCOE 1993, At What Price Data?, Inst. Eng. Aust., National Committee on Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, Barton, ACT, 25p, ISBN 85825 596 0.
NCCOE 2004, Guidelines for Responding to the Effects of Climate Change in Coastal and
Ocean Engineering – 2004 update, Eng. Aust., National Committee on Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, Barton, ACT, 76 p, ISBN 0 85825 750 5.
Riby, J. 1998, Design conditions for Coastal Works - practical experience of coastal risk
assessments. Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers Mun. Eng,. Vol. 127, pp39-45.
Simm, J. 1998, Construction Risk in Coastal Engineering, Thomas Telford, London, 230p,
ISBN 0 7277 2686 2.
Veri-Tech Inc. 2004, Coastal Engineering Manual, www.veritechinc.net/products/cem/.
WES/CERC 1984, Shore Protection Manual, US Department of the Army, Waterways Ex-
periment Station/Coastal Engineering Research Cen, Vicksburg, Miss. Two Vol-
umes. (being superseded by Coastal Engineering Manual, Veri-Tech Inc. 2004).

Selected On-Line World Wide Web Resources (as at October 2004)

Australian Coastal Atlas, www.environment.gov.au/marine/coastal_atlas/index.html
Australia Greenhouse Office, www.greenhouse.gov.au
Australian Oceanographic Data Centre, www.aodc.gov.au/
Bureau of Meteorology, Australia, www.bom.gov.au
Aust Govt Dept of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry, www.affa.gov.au
CSIRO Division of Marine Research www.marine.csiro.au

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Dept Environment & Heritage (Aus) Coasts and Oceans, www.deh.gov.au/coasts/

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, www.gbrmpa.gov.au
NCCOE - The Institution of Engineers, Australia, www.engineersaustralia.org.au/nccoe
NSW Dept of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources, Coast
www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/coast/index.html
Qld Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Management, Coasts and Oceans,
www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/coast_and_oceans/
US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Coastal and Hydraulics Labora-
tory, chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/

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Appendix 1

POLICIES, PROGRAMS and ASSOCIATED

PUBLICATIONS
National, NSW and WA current December 2004
Queensland current November 1999
other States and Territories current September 1998

(Updates to this appendix will be published on the NCCOE website from

time to time)

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A1. POLICIES AND PROGRAMS

A1.1. National Policies and Programs
The Commonwealth Coastal Policy that existed in the late 1990s is being replaced in
part by Framework for a National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone
Management – an intergovernmental policy released under the auspices of the Natural
Resource Management Ministerial Council. The prime focus of the Framework is to
conserve biodiversity, improve coastal water quality and protect the economic base of
coastal areas. This is to be achieved through a two level approach – (1) managing
national scale issues by coordination of across-government jurisdictions and (2)
managing regional issues by complementing State and Territory initiatives.

One of the key themes identified is the catchment-coast-ocean continuum in which the
aim is to draw together existing policies and programs such as Natural Heritage Trust,
National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality and Australia’s Oceans Policy. It
also recognises international agreements such as World Heritage Convention,
agreements on migratory birds, International Maritime Organisation agreements, Law of
the Sea and the Global Program of Action for Protecting the Marine Environment from
Land-based Sources of Pollution.

The second key theme is the identification of coastal issues for national collaboration
including sources of pollution, managing climate change, introduced pests, allocation
and use of coastal resources and capacity building.

The framework is to be implemented under a plan that lists priorities, objectives,

timeframes and responsibilities.

There are several other Australian government or national policies that affect coasts and

• The Natural Heritage Trust – is an overarching policy that provides funding for
oceans. They are listed on the web site of Department of the Environment and Heritage.

environmental projects at the community level, regional level (under the Natural
Resource Management scheme) and state/national levels. At the community level it
continues the support for Coastcare. Projects that were started under the Coasts and
Clean Seas Program are being continued directly under NHT. The Coastal Resource

• The Framework for Marine and Estuarine Water Quality Protection was developed as a
Atlas can be accessed through www.deh.gov.au/coasts/atlas/.

response to the United Nations’ Global Program of Action for protecting the marine
environment from land-based sources of pollution. It identifies pollutants affecting the
coasts as nutrients, sediments, acid sulphate soils, organochlorines, heavy metals, oil
and hydrocarbons, and pathogens. For any of these pollutants the framework aims to
provide project funding for priority coastal areas. The program implementing this

• Australia’s Ocean Policy – provides a framework for the integrated and ecosystem-
policy has been released under the title - The Coastal Catchments Initiative.

based planning and management for Australia’s marine jurisdictions, extending from
the coast to the limit of the Australian Economic Exclusion Zone. Its implementation is
based on Regional Marine Plans, the first of which are South-east (Victoria, Tasmania
and parts of South Australia and NSW), Northern (Northern Territory and Gulf of
Carpentaria) and Torres Strait. The implementation document for the South-east

• The National Water Quality Management Strategy - is concerned with marine as well
Regional Marine Plan was released in 2004.

as freshwater quality. One of its main functions in achieving the objective of

“sustainable use of the nation’s water resources by protecting their quality while

• The National Strategy for Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity – has as

maintaining economic and social development” is by publishing guidelines.

one its aims the minimisation of impact of climate change on marine, estuarine and

• The National Greenhouse Strategy – includes a national framework for adaptation to

coastal ecosystems.

• The Wetlands Policy of the Commonwealth Government of Australia – aims to build

climate change with coastal and marine environment and resources being a key sector.

wetland conservation (including those in the coastal zone) into the daily business of

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the Commonwealth Government. It also aims to work in partnership with

State/Territory and local governments to assist with their wetlands policies.

It is apparent that with the demise of the Commonwealth Coastal Policy there has been a
defocusing of coastal attention at the national policy level. However as listed above
there are a number of policies and frameworks of relevance and one or more can be
drawn upon to provide guidance in any particular situation. Publications relevant to
these policies and programs are listed in Section A2.1.

A1.2. State/Territory Policies and Programs

In Australia, the States and Territories have responsibility for land management and
regional planning and, hence, for most matters affecting coastal planning and
management. They have a number of strategies and policies to guide and influence
coastal management. Much of the detail flowing from these strategies and policies has
been fixed in State law.

The strategies and policies are designed to coordinate activities between all bodies with
a management interest and/or statutory role in the coastal zone. Each State and Territory
has its own unique set of guidelines for coastal planning and management. A brief
description of each follows.

A1.2.1. New South Wales

The New South Wales Coastal Policy was released by the NSW Government on 11th
November 1997 and is due to be revised in 2005.

The NSW Coastal Policy enshrines the principles of ecologically sustainable

development for the NSW coast. It focuses on the need to balance population growth and
economic development against the conservation of valuable coastal ecosystems while
recognising and preserving the cultural and heritage values of the coast. The aim of the
policy is to provide a coordinated framework for managing the unique physical,
ecological, cultural and economic attributes of the coast in an environmentally sensitive
way.

The policy is supported by a list of strategic actions, which identify the key methods for
achieving the policy objectives. Prime responsibility for implementing the policy is
shared between State Government agencies and Local Councils.

Coastal zone management in NSW requires the interaction of a wide range of Federal,
State and Local Government agencies. The roles and interactions of these various bodies
have changed considerably since 2000 with a major restructure of natural resource
management in NSW. At present coastal zone management in NSW includes key roles

• Local Councils,
provided by:

• Catchment Management Authorities,

• Lands NSW,
• Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (incorporating the for-

• Department of Environment and Conservation (incorporating the former Environment

mer Planning NSW and Department of Land and Water Conservation),

• NSW Waterways,
Protection Authority, National Parks and Wildlife Service),

• Department of Primary Industries (incorporating the former NSW Fisheries, Depart-

• Department of Commerce,
ment of Agriculture, NSW Forests, Department of Mineral Resources),

• Marine Parks Authorities,

• The Sydney, Hunter and Illawarra Ports Authorities,
• Hunter Water,
• Sydney Water,
• State Emergency Services (SES).

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Following the formation of the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural

Resources in 2003, the NSW Coastal Council, along with numerous other committees
and commissions, was abolished. It has been replaced by a Natural Resources Advisory
Council and a Natural Resources Commission to address all maters relating to natural
resource management for NSW.

The Natural Resources Advisory Council's (NRAC) role is to provide a high level forum
for stakeholder participation in natural resource management and advice to Government.
The Council comprises key stakeholders from community, industry and environmental
groups currently involved in natural resource management and will be led by an
independent Chairperson appointed by the Minister. It is responsible for advising the
Minister for Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources.

The Natural Resources Commission (NRC) will provide the Government with
independent advice, and develop statewide natural resource management standards and
targets. It is headed by an appointed Commissioner assisted by Deputy Commissioners.
It is responsible for identifying key knowledge gaps and setting statewide standards for
delivery of natural resource outcomes through the newly established Catchment
Management Authorities.

State Government agencies and local councils charged with responsibility for
implementation of the NSW Coastal Policy are required to report progress in
implementing the policy through their annual reports (state agencies) and state of the
environmental reports (Local Government).

Local councils are the planning, management and consent authority for landuse within
their own areas, including land that may be subject to coastal hazards. The State
provides financial assistance to Local Government in undertaking this role.

Implementation of the Coastal Policy is achieved through the preparation by Local

Governments of Coastal Zone Management Plans in accordance with State Government
Guidelines. Currently, the relevant guidance is provided through the Coastline
Management Manual (1990) and draft Estuary Management Manual (1992). These
manuals are being redrafted to reflect recent changes in agency structures in NSW and
amendments to the various controlling legislation. They will be combined into a single
Coastal Zone Management Manual, re-uniting the coastal and estuary management
processes and encouraging the preparation of shire-wide Coastal Zone Management
Plans.

Amendments to the NSW Coastal Protection Act were gazetted in 2002 strengthening
this role. These amendments included amongst other things, a process for formal gazettal
of completed CZMPs, to enable the Minister to direct a Council to prepare a plan for a
specific location, revision of the procedure for determination of mean high water mark
boundaries to remove anomalies resulting in reduced foreshore access and the remaking
of the regulation requiring the Minister's concurrence to any open coast development
below HWM on unzoned lands.
Key State Agencies contributing to coastal zone management in NSW include:
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (NSW)

• the land use planning and development control functions of the former Planning NSW,
DIPNR was formed in 2003 incorporating:

• the core natural resource management functions of the former DLWC,

• the strategic planning team from the Transport Ministry, and
• the Infrastructure Co-ordination Unit, formerly part of the Premier's Department.

DIPNR drives, coordinates and streamlines land-use and transport planning,

infrastructure development and natural resource management in New South Wales. Its
stated goal is to improve economic performance, environmental sustainability and
quality of life for the NSW community through better land use and natural resource
management supported by well timed, quality infrastructure.

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In January 2004, 13 Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) were formally

constituted as statutory authorities with a responsible and accountable board. The CMA
boards report directly to the Minister for Infrastructure and Planning and Minister for
Natural Resources. The CMA chair and board members, were selected through an open
and public recruitment process and appointed by the Minister. Staffing for the CMAs
was drawn from a pool of existing Department of Infrastructure, Planning
and Natural Resources (DIPNR) employees.

The CMAs engage regional communities in the key natural resource management issues

• preparing catchment action plans and associated investment strategies, in consultation

facing their catchment. Specific functions of the CMAs include:

• ensuring these catchment action plans integrate and build on the current catchment
with local government and the catchment communities,

• recommending and managing incentive programs to implement catchment action plans

blueprints and regional vegetation management plans,

• providing landholders, including indigenous landholders, with access to data needed to

and maximise environmental outcomes,

• allocating funds to support development of PVPs and for PVP-based incentive pro-
prepare Property Vegetation Plans (PVPs) and implement catchment action plans,

• certifying or facilitating certification of PVPs,

grams,

• monitoring performance against catchment action plans and certified PVPs,

• providing education and training on natural resource management, especially vegeta-

• developing transparent procedures for the CMA to consider and resolve local disputes
tion management,

• any other responsibilities delegated by the Minister.

related to implementing the catchment action plans, and

Responsibilities for Minor Ports, the NSW waterways program, and River entrances
which formerly sat with DLWC were divested to Lands NSW in 2004. Both the Coastal
and Estuary Management Programs and their associated grants programs remain within
DIPNR.

A key initiative of DIPNR is the preparation of Regional Planning Strategies. These are
now being prepared for priority areas, including the Sydney greater metropolitan region
and the NSW Coast. These regional strategies will be developed by the government in
partnership with local government and local communities and informed by a strategic
assessment of the region to test the impacts of different development scenarios.
Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW)

• to work towards a healthy environment cared for and enjoyed by the whole NSW com-
The stated objectives for DEC are:

• manage natural and cultural heritage across the state,

munity,

• promotes sustainable consumption, resource use and waste management,

• regulate activities to protect the environment,
• conduct biodiversity, plant, environmental and cultural heritage research to improve
decision making.

• programs to reduce waste, toxicity, litter and illegal dumping,

The Department's responsibilities include:

• air and water quality, noise control, chemical and radiation regulation,
• national parks and reserves, biodiversity and threatened species, Aboriginal cultural

• Sydney's Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain, Mount Annan and Mount Tomah Botanic
heritage, historic sites and pest management,

Gardens.
Department of Primary Industries (NSW)
Department of Primary Industries commenced on 1 July 2004 with the amalgamation of
Mineral Resources, NSW Agriculture, NSW Fisheries and State Forests of NSW. The

• Minerals - the sustainable development and management of the State's mineral re-
stated objectives of DPI are:

sources and the regulation of mining operations. The DPI focuses on safe and respon-

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sible mining, optimal resource recovery, and maintaining effective environmental man-

• Agriculture - addresses agriculture, natural resource management for the food and fibre
agement and rehabilitation.

• Fisheries - sustainable commercial fishing and aquaculture, conservation of aquatic

industries and rural communities of New South Wales.

• Forests - State forests, commercial forestry and other trading activities of the Depart-
biodiversity, habitat protection and rehabilitation, and quality recreational fishing.

ment.

A1.2.2. Victoria
The Victorian Coastal Council was appointed in August 1995 as the principal body for
the strategic planning and management of the Victorian coast, and to provide advice on
coastal issues to the Minister for Conservation and Land Management. During November
1997 the Council released the Victorian Coastal Strategy which now has been adopted
by the Victorian Government.

The main agencies nominated to coordinate implementation of the Victorian Coastal

Strategy are the Coastal Council, three Regional Coastal Boards and the Department of
Natural Resources and Environment. There are many other public agencies and
authorities which have either a statutory role or management interest in the coast

• Municipal Councils,
including:

• Environment Protection Authority,

• Marine Board of Victoria,
• Parks Victoria,
• Department of Infrastructure - Planning and Transport,
• Water businesses.

While historically, Municipal Councils have had an active role in planning and
management of landuse activities in their own area (including the coastal zone), they
have not had responsibilities for land below the High Water mark. This responsibility
has to date been under the control of the Department of Natural Resources and
Environment. The Victorian Coastal Strategy recommends the Municipal Councils'
authority be extended to 600 m offshore from the High Water Mark. This will in effect
provide Municipal Councils with greater control of planning and landuse in the coastal
zone including land subject to coastal hazards.

It is envisaged that the Victorian Coastal Strategy will be reviewed every five years to
ensure it remains relevant and effective.

A1.2.3. South Australia

The South Australian Policy on Coast Protection and New Coastal Development was
prepared by the Coast Protection Board and endorsed by the South Australian
Government in May 1991.

This document has been progressively superseded by the introduction of an amendment

to the State’s Development Plan under the 1993 Development Act, which is administered
by the Department for Transport, Urban Planning and the Arts and also Local Councils.
The amendment introduced the Regional Coastal Areas Policies in 1994 which have
since been actively incorporated into Development Plans at individual council level.

In South Australia Local Councils are usually the planning, management and consent
authorities of landuse in their own areas, including land subject to coastline hazards.
State Government funding through the Coast Protection Board is used to assist Local
Councils with public coast protection projects.

The planning, management and consent guidelines for the coastal regions are based on
the individual council section of the Development plans which include coastal principles
from the Regional Coastal Areas Policies Plan Amendment Report. The Coastal
Management Branch of the Department of Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs
provides input to these Development Plan Amendments which usually are prepared for

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Councils by planning consultants. The Coastal Management Branch provides coastal

management advice to Local Councils on an ongoing basis.

A1.2.4. Tasmania
The Tasmanian State Coastal Policy came into operation in October 1996.
Implementation of the State Coastal Policy is to be coordinated through the State
Coastal Advisory Committee, which will be established in 1998. The makeup of the
Committee has not yet been formalised but it will have broad State and Local
Government, and community stakeholder representation.

To ensure integration between planning schemes and other plans affecting the coastal
zone, all planning authorities (including local councils, Marine Boards, the Secretary of
the Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries and other agencies developing plans
which cover all or any part of the coastal zone) are required to consult with the Marine
Resources Division (Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries), the Marine Board
responsible for the area subject to the plan and the Department of Environment and Land
Management.

The main processes for implementation of this Policy will be land use planning controls,
marine farming development plans, and local council strategic and operational plans.

The State Coastal Policy is to be reviewed in 1999 and thereafter at approximately 5

year intervals.

A1.2.5. Queensland
During 1991, management of the Queensland coast was reviewed in a discussion paper
which proposed a coastal management strategy involving governments and the
community. A key outcome of this initiative was the Coastal Protection and
Management Act 1995 which was proclaimed in early 1996.

In accordance with the Act a Coastal Protection Advisory Council was established to
provide advice to the Minister of Environment and Heritage concerning a wide range of
coastal issues. Among other things the Advisory Council is to monitor the integration of
coastal zone management in Queensland being carried out by a range of State
Government departments, agencies and local government, as well as to liaise with and
have regard to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

Management of the coastal zone in Queensland is primarily the responsibility of the

Minister for Environment and Heritage and the Environmental Protection Agency, with

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission,

other administrative authority responsibilities held by:

• Department of Natural Resources,

• Department of Communication and Information, Local Government, Planning and

• Department of Primary Industries,

Sport,

• Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

• Queensland Fish Management Authority,
• Beach Protection Authority,
• Local Governments.

The Act provides for the development of coastal management plans. A State Coastal
Management Plan will establish state-wide objectives, principles, policies and
arrangements for coastal management. These policies are to be implemented at the local
level through regional coastal management plans. These will identify key coastal issues
including places of significant ecological, cultural, heritage or scenic values, and areas
important for maintaining coastal processes.

At this stage the Act does not provide for approvals of coastal development which
continue under other laws such as the Beach Protection Act until integrated planning
legislation takes effect.

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A1.2.6. Western Australia

In Western Australia, a number of State government agencies operate under a variety of
Acts and have tasks of planning and managing the States coastline in a manner intended
to minimise potential economic problems arising from the use of the coast for recreation
and development. The Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC) is the State's
principal agency for coastal management. Under the umbrella of the Planning
Commission the Coastal Planning and Co-ordinating Council has been established to
advise the Commission on coastal planning strategies and plans.

In line with the above, and during 1996, the Western Australian Planning Commission
released for public comment a document, Coastal Planning and Development in Western
Australia: Towards a Policy Framework. In the development of this document the
Planning Commission recognised the important role of coastal management in both
strategic and statutory planning processes.

The document outlines the development of three levels of coastal plans within the

• Regional Plans, Structure Plans and Strategies,

framework of the policy, namely:

• Local Area Coastal Management Plans,

• Foreshore Management Plans.

These plans are to be developed by the local government authorities with considerable
liaison with and to the satisfaction of the Western Australian Planning Commission.
Implementation and jurisdiction of the coastal plans is the responsibility of the local
government authority.

In June 2003 the Western Australian Planning Commission released the Statement of
Planning Policy No 2.6 – State Coastal Planning Policy. This policy was prepared under
Section 5AA of the Town Planning and Development Act 1928.

• coastal seabed, reefs, rocky outcrops and headlands, beaches, foreshores, dunal sys-
This policy applies to the coast throughout Western Australia, including:

• nearshore and marine waters,

tems, mangroves, wetlands and flats subject to sea action and coastal processes,

• all islands within the State lying seawards of the mainland, and
• land use and development abutting the coast.

The policy does not apply to estuaries that are predominantly riverine in character.

• protect, conserve and enhance coastal values, particularly in areas of landscape, na-
The policy objectives are to:

• provide for public foreshore areas and access to these on the coast,
ture conservation, indigenous and cultural significance,

• ensure the identifications of appropriate areas for the sustainable use of the coast for
housing, tourism, recreation, ocean access, maritime industry, commercial and other

• ensure that the location of coastal facilities and development takes into account
activities, and

coastal processes including erosion, accretion, storm surge, tides, wave conditions,
sea level change and biophysical criteria.

Local and regional planning strategies, structure plans, schemes, subdivisions, strata
subdivisions and development applications, as well as other planning decisions and

• public interest,
instruments relating to the coasts should include considerations of:

• coastal Foreshore Reserve,

• coastal Strategies and Management Plan,
• environment,
• development and settlement, and
• physical processes setback.

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The determination of the setback for physical processes is outlined in detail and

• physical nature of the coast,

considers 1:100 year planning horizon,

• impacts of extreme storm sequence,

• impacts of chronic erosion or accretion, and
• impacts of Climate Change.

The purpose of the policy is to inform and guide the WAPC in the undertaking of its
planning responsibilities, and in integrating and co-ordinating the activities of State
agencies that influence the use and development of land on the coast. The policy will
also guide Local Governments, other agencies, the Town Planning Appeal Tribunal and
State Government in those aspects of State planning policy concerning the protection of
the coast that should be taken into account in planning decision-making.

A1.2.7. Northern Territory

The Northern Territory Coastal Management Policy was gazetted in 1985. Authority of
the policy is under the Minister for Lands, Planning and Environment. Implementation
of the Coastal Management Policy is managed and coordinated by an Interdepartmental
Coastal Management Taskforce.

The major aim of the policy is to integrate the conservation and development of the
coastal zone to optimise the social and economic benefits for present and future
generations.

Any uses likely to have a significant environmental impact will be subject to the
Environmental Assessment Act provisions.

A2. ASSOCIATED PUBLICATIONS

A2.1. National Policy and Program Publications
For updated publications on policies, programs, guidelines etc. consult the web site of
Department of Environment and Heritage, www.deh.gov.au. The following documents
provide historical information that in many cases remains relevant.

ABARE 1993, Use of economic instruments in integrated coastal zone management,

Report prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
AGC Woodward-Clyde 1993, Summary report: coastal industry in Western Port,
Kwinana and Gladstone, Report prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Altman J C, Ginn A and Smith D E 1993, Existing and potential mechanisms for
indigenous involvement in coastal resource management, Report prepared for Coastal
Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
AMSA 1993, Protection of the sea: conventions and legislation in Australia, AMSA
Canberra.
ANZECC 1992, Australian water quality guidelines for fresh and marine waters,
National Water Quality Management Strategy, ANZECC, Melbourne.
ATIA 1993, Code of environmental practice, ATIA, Melbourne.
Brodie J E, Arnould C, Eldredge L, Hammond L, Holthus P, Mowbray D and Tortell P
1990, State of the environment in the South Pacific Region, UNEP Regional Seas
Reports and Studies, no. 127, SPREP Topic Review No.40, UNEP, n.p.
Brown V A and Burke G 1993, Between the devil and the deep blue sea: meeting the
information and research needs of Australia’s coastal managers, Consultancy report
prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Council of Nature Conservation Ministers 1985, Summary report of the second technical
workshop on selection and management of marine and estuarine protected areas,

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Canberra College of Advanced Education Field Station, Jervis Bay, ACT, February 15-
21, CONCOM, Canberra.
DASET 1992, A draft policy for Commonwealth responsibilities in the coastal zone,
Canberra.
Davis G and Weller P 1993, Strategic management in the public sector: managing the
coastal zone: consultancy report, Prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
DITAC 1989, Oceans of Wealth? A report by the review committee on marine industries,
science and technology, AGPS, Canberra.
Holm M C 1993, An overview of legal issues relevant to coastal zone management in
Australia: consultancy report, Prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
HORSCERA 1991, The injured coastline: protection of the coastal environment, AGPS,
Canberra.
IEA 1992, Australian states, coastal flooding and erosion policies, Institution of
Engineers Australia National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Barton,
ACT.
National Greenhouse Response Strategy 1992, AGPS, Canberra.
NRMMC 2004, National Biodiversity and Climate Change Action Plan, Dept. Env. &
Heritage for Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, Canberra.
National Oceans Office 2004, South-east Regional Marine Plan, NOA, Hobart.
Pitts D 1993, Analysis of strategic planning processes and initiatives for coastal zone
management: consultancy report, Prepared by Environment, Science and Services for
Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
RAC 1992, Coastal Zone Inquiry: background paper, AGPS Canberra.
RAC 1992, Government approaches to coastal zone resource management, Information
Paper no. 1, AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, A national coastal action plan: the draft conclusions and recommendations of
the Coastal Zone Inquiry, AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Coastal Zone Inquiry: draft report, AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Coastal Zone Inquiry: draft report: summary and interim conclusions, AGPS,
Canberra.
RAC 1993, Coastal zone management objectives, Information Paper no. 5, AGPS,
Canberra.
RAC 1993, Integrated resource management, Information Paper no. 6, AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Options for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander involvement in the
management of Australia’s coastal zone: draft discussion paper, RAC, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Recommendations from previous reports and inquiries relevant to the coastal
zone, Information Paper no. 2, AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Resources and uses of the coastal zone, Information Paper no. 3, AGPS,
Canberra.
RAC 1993, Values and attitudes concerning the coastal zone, Information Paper no. 4,
AGPS, Canberra.
RAC 1993, Water quality management: five case studies, Compiled by RAC in association
with five independent consultants for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Sinnamon V 1992, Gulf of Carpentaria coast and river management: and Aboriginal
agency perspective, in Proceedings of Queensland Environmental Law Association annual
conference, Great Keppel Island, Brisbane.
Smyth D 1993, A voice in all places: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander interests in
Australia’s coastal zone: revised edition, Prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, AGPS,
Canberra.

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Taberner J & Freehill Hollingdale and Page 1993, Legislative options for national coastal
zone management: consultancy report, Prepared for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Ward T, Butler E and Hill B, 1998, Environmental Indicators for National State of the
Environment Reporting, CSIRO Div. Marine Res., for Environment Australia, Canberra.
Zann L P, 1995, Our Sea, Our Future, Major findings of the State of the Marine
Environment Report for Australia, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority for Dep.
Env. Sport and Territories, Canberra.

A2.2. State/Territory Policy and Program Publications

A2.2.1. New South Wales
Nature Conservation Council of NSW 1992, Management policy and marine policy.
NSW Department of Planning 1990, The New South Wales coast: government policy,
Cabinet Office , Dept of Planning, Sydney.
NSW Department of Planning 1993, North coast: draft urban planning strategy, Dept of
Planning, Sydney.
NSW Department of Planning 1994, Draft revised coastal policy for NSW, Coastal
Committee of New South Wales, Sydney.
NSW Government 1990, Coastline Management Manual, Sydney, ISBN 0 7305 7506 3.
NSW Government 1992, Estuary Management Manual, Sydney, ISBN 0 7310 0933 9.
RAC 1993, New South Wales case study: coastal zone management in the north coast
region: shires of Byron, Ballina and Maclean, Prepared by NSW Government for Coastal
Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Standing Committee on State Development 1989, Coastal development in New South
Wales: public concerns and government processes, Discussion Paper No. 2.
Standing Committee on State Development 1991, Coastal planning and management in
New South Wales: a framework for the future, Volume 1, Report No 4.
Standing Committee on State Development 1992, Coastal planning and management in
New South Wales: the process for the future, Volume 2, Report No 8.

A2.2.2. Victoria
RAC 1993, Victorian case study: coastal management and decision making processes in
the Western Port Region, Prepared by AGC Woodward-Clyde and Victorian Government
for Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Rogers J 1992, The role of committees of management on coastal Crown land management
in Victoria: a case study of Andersons Inlet, MA thesis in Environmental Science, Monash
University, unpub.
Shire of Flinders 1993, Foreshores beyond 2000: final report, Shire of Flinders, Rosebud,
Victoria.
Victorian Coastal Council 1997, Victorian Coastal strategy, Department of Natural
Resources and Environment, Melbourne, ISBN 0 7306 67537.
Victorian Department of Conservation and Environment 1989, Coastal Management in
Victoria, Department of Conservation and Environment.
Western Port Regional Planning and Co-ordination Committee 1992, Western Port Bay
strategy: a proposal strategy plan for the protection and development of Western Port,
Victoria, Prepared for the Minister for Planning and Environment, Western Port Regional
Planning and Co-ordination Committee, Western Port.

A2.2.3. South Australia

Department of Environment and Planning South Australia 1991, Regional coastal areas
policies: supplementary development plan by the Minister, Department of Environment
and Planning, Adelaide.

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RAC 1993, South Australian case study: coastal management and decision making
processes in the York Peninsula area, Prepared by South Australian Government for
Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Report of the Review of the Management of the Adelaide Metropolitan Beaches, July
1997. Reference Group appointed by the Minister for the Environment and Natural
Resources, the Hon. David Wotton, MP.
South Australian Coast Protection Act Review Committee 1992, Review of South
Australian Coast Protection Act 1972: green paper, Report of Ministerial Review
Committee, South Australian Coast Protection Board, The Committee, Adelaide.
South Australian Coast Protection Board 1992, Coastline: coastal erosion ,flooding and
sea level rise standards and protection policy, no.26, South Australian Coast Protection
Board, unpub.

A2.2.4. Tasmania
RAC 1993, Tasmanian case study: coastal management and decision making processes in
the Huon-Channel area, Prepared by Tasmanian Dept of Environment and Planning for
Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Tasmanian Department of Environment and Planning 1991, Tasmania’s coast: footprints
in the sand, Tasmanian Dept of Environment and Planning, Hobart.
Tasmanian Department of Environment and Planning 1992, Planning for sustainable
development: land use planning and approvals package, Dept of Environment and
Planning, Hobart.

A2.2.5. Queensland
GBRMPA 1992, Draft twenty-five year strategic plan for the Great Barrier Reef World
Heritage Area 1992-2017, GBRMPA, Townsville.
Gold Coast City Council 1992, Draft planning scheme, Gold Coast.
Holden A 1992, The Cape York Peninsula Land Use Strategy (CYPLUS): Aborigines and
the public participation process, Report prepared for CYPLUS and Cape York Land
Council, A Holden and Associates, Brisbane, unpub.
Queensland Government 1989, Green Paper: review of estuarine and coastal management
procedures in Queensland , S R Hampson, Government Printer, Queensland.
Queensland Government 1991, Green Paper: coastal protection strategy: proposals for
managing Queensland coast, V R Ward, Government Printer, Queensland.
Queensland Premiers Department 1989, Review of coastal and estuarine management
procedures in Queensland: a discussion paper, Premiers Dept, Brisbane.
RAC 1993, Queensland case study: coastal zone management in the Cairns area, Prepared
by Environment Science and Services & Queensland Government for Coastal Zone
Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Williams S 1993, Arafura Sea meeting (Manbuynga-Rulyapa): ownership, management
and uses issues, Draft paper for the State of the Marine Environment Report, GBRMPA,
Townsville, unpub.

A2.2.6. Western Australia

Oma V P, Clayton D M, Brown J B and Keating C 1992, Coastal rehabilitation manual,
Western Australia Dept of Agriculture, Perth.
RAC 1993, Western Australian case study report: Geographe Bay, Prepared by Western
Australian Dept of Planning and Urban Development & Meridian Environmental for
Coastal Zone Inquiry, RAC, Canberra.
Western Australia State Planning Commission 1987, Policy no. DC6.1: Country coastal
planning policy, State Planning Commission, unpub.
Western Australia State Planning Commission 1988, Perth metropolitan region coastal
development policy (draft), State Planning Commission, unpub.

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Western Australian Department of Planning and Urban Development 1991, Report on the
community workshop for the Horrocks Beach coastal management plan, Dept of Planning
and Urban Development, Geraldton.
Western Australian Department of Planning and Urban Development 1992, Port Hedland:
coastal plan for public comment, Dept of Planning and Urban Development, Perth.
Western Australian Department of Planning and Urban Development 1993, Bunbury-
Wellington regional plan, Dept of Planning and Urban Development, Perth.
Western Australian Planning Commission 1988, Coastal planning and development in
Western Australia: Towards a policy framework (draft), Perth, August 1996,
ISBN 0 7309 5739 3.

A2.2.7. Northern Territory

Coastal Management Committee for the Northern Territory 1992, Northern Territory
coastal management policy: an integrated approach to conservation development and
management of the Northern Territory coast, Northern Territory Government, Darwin.
Mulrennan M 1993, Towards a marine strategy for Torres Strait (MaSTS), Prepared with
assistance from P Jull, M Sullivan and N Hanssen, ANU, NARU and Torres Strait Island
Coordinating Council, Darwin.
Northern Territory Department of Lands and Housing 1990, Darwin regional land use
structure plan 1990, Dept of Land and Housing, Darwin.

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Appendix 2

ENGINEERS AUSTRALIA
CODE OF ETHICS

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CODE OF ETHICS

Members of the Engineers Australia, are committed to the Cardinal Principles of the

• to respect the inherent dignity of the individual,

Code:

• to act on the basis of a well informed conscience, and

• to act in the interest of the community,

and to uphold its Tenets.

The Tenets of the Code of Ethics * are:

1. Members shall place their responsibility for the welfare, health and safety of the commu-
nity before their responsibility to sectional or private interests, or to other members;

2. Members shall act with honour, integrity and dignity in order to merit the trust of the
community and the profession;

3. Members shall act only in areas of their competence and in a careful and diligent manner;

4. Members shall act with honesty, good faith and equity and without discrimination towards
all in the community;

5. Members shall apply their skill and knowledge in the interest of their employer or client
for whom they shall act with integrity without compromising any other obligation to these
Tenets;

6. Members shall, where relevant, take reasonable steps to inform themselves, their clients
and employers, of the social, environmental, economic and other possible consequences
which may arise from their actions;

7. Members shall express opinions, make statements or give evidence with fairness and hon-
esty and only on the basis of adequate knowledge;

8. Members shall continue to develop relevant knowledge, skill and expertise throughout
their careers and shall actively assist and encourage those with whom they are associated
to do likewise;

9. Members shall not assist in or induce a breach of these Tenets and shall support those
who seek to uphold them if called upon or in a position to do so.

*
Guidance on the interpretation of the EA Code of Ethics can be found in the following publication:
IEA 2000, Code of Ethics, Inst. Eng. Aust., Barton, ACT, 8p, www.engineersaustralia.org.au/about-
us/res/downloads/ Code_of_Ethics_2000.pdf.

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Appendix 3

GLOSSARY OF COASTAL ENGINEERING TERMS

Selected from Appendix A Glossary of Terms in Shore Protection Manual

Volume 2, US Department of the Army, Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion/Coastal Engineering Research Center, Vicksburg, Miss., 1984 and
adapted for Australian conditions.

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ACCRETION. May be either NATURAL or ARTIFICIAL. Natural accretion is the buildup of

land, solely by the action of the forces of nature, on a BEACH by deposition of water- or
airborne material. Artificial accretion is a similar buildup of land caused by human action,
such as the accretion formed by a groyne, breakwater, or beach fill deposited by
mechanical means.
ADVECTION. The transport of material, e.g. water, sediment or pollutant, by mean flow.
ALONGSHORE. Parallel to and near the shoreline, usually referred to as LONGSHORE
ARMOUR UNIT. A rock or concrete block designed to form the outer protective layer for a
breakwater or seawall.
BAR. A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material
built on the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents.
BARRIER BEACH. A bar essentially parallel to the shore, the crest of which is above normal
high water level. Also called BARRIER ISLAND.
BARRIER LAGOON. A bay roughly parallel to the coast and separated from the open ocean by
barrier islands. Also, the body of water encircled by coral islands and reefs, in which case
it may be called an atoll lagoon.
BATHYMETRY. The measurement of depths of water in oceans, seas, and lakes; also
information derived from such measurements.
BEACH BERM. A nearly horizontal part of the beach or backshore formed by the deposit of
material by wave action. Some beaches have no berms, others have one or several.
BEACH REPLENISHMENT. The process of replenishing a beach with material (usually sand)
obtained from another location. Also referred to as Artificial Nourishment.
BED FORMS. Any deviation from a flat bed that is readily detectable by eye and higher than
the largest sediment size present in the parent bed material; generated on the bed of an
alluvial channel by the flow; eg DUNES, RIPPLES.
BORE. A very rapid rise of the tide in which the advancing water presents an abrupt front of
considerable height. In shallow estuaries where the range of tide is large, the high water
is propagated inward faster than the low water because of the greater depth at high water.
If the high water overtakes the low water, an abrupt front is presented, with the high-
water crest finally falling forward as the tide continues to advance.
BREAKWATER. A structure protecting a shore area, harbour, anchorage or basin from waves.
The most common breakwaters are in the form of a sloping wall protected by rocks or
concrete armour units.
BYPASSING, SAND. Hydraulic or mechanical movement of sand from the accreting updrift
side to the eroding downdrift side of an inlet or harbour entrance. The hydraulic
movement may include natural movement as well as movement caused by human action.
CAUSTIC. In refraction of waves, the name given to the curve defined by the condition that
adjacent wave orthogonals are tangents. The occurrence of a caustic always marks a
region of crossed orthogonals and high wave convergence.
CAY A sedimentary island formed on a coral reef platform and composed of reef-derived
sediments. Also referred to as Key (United States usage).
CHART DATUM (or PORT DATUM). The plane or level to which soundings (or elevations) or
tide heights are referenced. To provide a safety factor for navigation, some level lower
than MEAN SEA LEVEL is generally selected for hydrographic charts, such as MEAN
LOWER LOW WATER or INDIAN SPRINGS LOW WATER or LOWEST
ASTRONOMICAL TIDE.
CLAPOTIS. The French equivalent for a type of STANDING WAVE. It is usually associated
with the standing wave phenomenon caused by the reflection of a nonbreaking wave train
from a structure with a face that is vertical or nearly vertical. Full clapotis is one with
100 percent reflection of the incident wave; partial clapotis is one with less than 100
percent reflection.

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CONTINENTAL SHELF. The zone bordering a continent and extending from the low water line
to the depth (usually about 180 metres) where there is a marked or rather steep descent
toward a greater depth.
CONTROLLING DEPTH. The least depth in the navigable parts of a waterway, governing the
maximum draft of vessels that can enter.
CORE. A vertical cylindrical sample of the bottom sediments from which the nature and
stratification of the bottom may be determined.
CRENULATE BAY. Asymmetric equilibrium planform of a beach between two headlands or
other fixed objects, indicating the direction of net littoral drift. Also called zeta bays.
CURRENT, COASTAL. One of the offshore currents flowing generally parallel to the shoreline
in the deeper water beyond and near the surf zone; these may be related to tides, winds,
continental shelf waves or ocean water properties.
CURRENT, EBB. The tidal current away from shore or down a tidal stream. Usually associated
with the decrease in the height of the tide.
CURRENT, FLOOD. The tidal current toward shore or up a tidal stream. Usually associated
with the increase in the height of the tide.
CURRENT, LITTORAL. Any current in the littoral zone caused primarily by wave action; eg,
LONGSHORE CURRENT, RIP CURRENT.
CURRENT, LONGSHORE. The littoral current in the breaker zone moving essentially parallel
to the shore, usually generated by waves breaking at an angle to the shoreline.
CURRENT, TIDAL. The alternating horizontal movement of water associated with the rise and
fall of the tide caused by the astronomical tide-producing forces.
CUSP. One of a series of low mounds of beach material separated by crescent-shaped troughs
spaced at more or less regular intervals along the beach face.
DEEP WATER. Water sufficiently deep not to affect the propagation of surface waves. It is
usual to consider water of depths greater than one-half of the surface wavelength as deep
water.
DELTA. An alluvial deposit, roughly triangular or digitate in shape, formed at a river mouth.
DIFFRACTION (of water waves). The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted laterally
along a wave crest. When a part of a train of waves is interrupted by a barrier, such as a
breakwater, the effect of diffraction is manifested by propagation of waves into the
sheltered region within the barrier's geometric shadow.
DOLPHIN. A cluster of PILES.
DUNES. (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. (2) BED FORMS
smaller than bars but larger than ripples that are out of phase with any water-surface
gravity waves associated with them.
EDGE WAVE. An ocean wave parallel to a coast, with crests normal to the shoreline. An edge
wave may be STANDING or progressive. Its height diminishes rapidly seaward and is
negligible at a distance of one wavelength offshore.
ESTUARY. (1) The part of a river that is affected by tides. (2) The region near a river mouth in
which the fresh water of the river mixes with the salt water of the sea.
FATHOM. Unit measuring water depth used on older navigation charts. 1 Fathom = 6 feet =
1.829 metres
FETCH. The area in which SEAS are generated by a wind having a fairly constant direction and
speed. Also GENERATING AREA.
FOREDUNE. The first dune behind a beach formed by deposition of sand blown from the beach
by wind. Also known as frontal dune.
FORESHORE. The part of the shore, lying between the crest of the seaward berm (or upper
limit of wave wash at high tide) and the ordinary low-water mark, that is ordinarily
traversed by the uprush and backrush of waves as tides rise and fall.

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FREEBOARD. The additional height of a structure above design high water level to prevent
overflow. Also, at a given time, the vertical distance between the water level and the top
of the structure.
FRINGING REEF. A coral reef attached directly to an island or continental shore.

given fluid flow. It is given as Fr = V /

FROUDE NUMBER. The dimensionless ratio of the inertial force to the force of gravity for a
g L , where V is fluid velocity, L is a length,
usually the water depth, and g is gravitational acceleration.

GENERATING AREA. See FETCH.

GEOMETRIC SHADOW. In wave diffraction theory, the area outlined by drawing straight lines
paralleling the direction of wave approach through the extremities of a protective
structure. It differs from the actual protected area to the extent that the diffraction and
refraction effects modify the wave pattern.
GEOMORPHOLOGY. That branch of both physiography and geology which deals with the form
of the Earth, the general configuration of its surface, and the changes that take place in
the evolution of landform.
GRAVITY WAVE. A wave whose velocity of propagation is controlled primarily by gravity.
GROYNE. A shore protection structure built (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap
littoral drift or retard erosion of the shore.
GROUP VELOCITY. The velocity of a wave group. In deep water, it is equal to one-half the
velocity of the individual waves within the group.
HIGH WATER OF ORDINARY SPRING TIDES (HWOST). A tidal datum appearing in some
British publications, based on high water of ordinary spring tides.
HIGHER HIGH WATER (HHW). The higher of the two high waters of any tidal day. The single
high water occurring daily during periods when the tide is diurnal is considered to be a
higher high water.
HINDCAST. To generate wave statistics from historical wind or air pressure data using
computer wave models.
HOOK. A spit or narrow cape of sand or gravel which turns landward at the outer end.
HYDRAULICALLY EQUIVALENT GRAINS. Sedimentary particles that settle at the same rate
under the same conditions.
INDIAN SPRING LOW WATER (ISLW). The approximate level of the mean of lower low
waters at spring tides, used principally in the Indian Ocean and along the east coast of
Asia.
INTERNAL WAVES. Waves that occur within a fluid whose density changes with depth, either
abruptly at a sharp surface of discontinuity (an interface), or gradually. Their amplitude is
greatest at the density discontinuity or, in the case of a gradual density change,
somewhere in the interior of the fluid and not at the free upper surface where the surface
waves have their maximum amplitude.
JETTY. (1) A wharf structure projecting from the shoreline. (2) A breakwater or training wall
built to stabilise a river mouth or tidal inlet entrance (United States Usage) See
TRAINING WALL
KNOT. The unit of speed used in navigation equal to one nautical mile per hour
(1 knot = 0.515 m.s − 1 ).
LENGTH OF WAVE. The horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves
measured perpendicularly to the crest.
LITTORAL. Of or pertaining to a shore, especially of the sea.
LITTORAL DRIFT. The sedimentary material moved in the littoral zone under the influence of
waves and currents.
LITTORAL ZONE. In beach terminology, an indefinite zone extending seaward from the
shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone.

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LONGSHORE. Parallel to and near the shoreline; also referred to as ALONGSHORE.

LONGSHORE TRANSPORT RATE. Rate of transport of sedimentary material parallel to the
shore. Usually expressed in cubic metres per year. Commonly synonymous with
LITTORAL TRANSPORT RATE.
LOWEST ASTRONOMICAL TIDE. The lowest tide level which can be predicted to occur under
average meteorological conditions and any combination of astronomical conditions.
LOW WATER OF ORDINARY SPRING TIDES (LWOST). A tidal datum appearing in some
British publications, based on low water of ordinary spring tides.
MANGROVE. A tropical tree with interlacing prop roots, confined to low-lying salt or brackish
areas.
MARSH, SALT. A marsh periodically flooded by salt water.
MEAN HIGH WATER SPRINGS (MHWS). Long term average of the heights of two successive
high waters during those periods of 24 hours (approximately once a fortnight) when the
range of the tide is greatest, at full and new moon.
MEAN LOW WATER SPRINGS (MLWS). Long term average of the heights of two successive
low waters over the same period as defined for MHWS.
MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW). The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period.
For shorter periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations
and reduce the results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All high water heights
are included in the average where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Only the
higher high water heights are included in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So
determined, mean high water in the latter case is the same as mean higher high water.
MEAN HIGH WATER NEAPS (MHWN). Long term average of the heights of two successive
high waters when the range of the tide is least, at the time of first and last quarter of the
Moon.
MEAN HIGHER HIGH WATER (MHHW). The average height of the higher high waters over a
19-year period. For shorter periods of observation, corrections are applied to eliminate
known variations and reduce the result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
MEAN LOW WATER NEAPS (MLWN). Long term average of the heights of two successive
low waters over the same period as defined for MHWN.
MEAN LOWER LOW WATER (MLLW). The average height of the lower low waters over a 19-
year period. For shorter periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate
known variations and reduce the results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
MEAN SEA LEVEL. The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over
a 19-year period, usually determined from hourly height readings. Not necessarily equal
to MEAN TIDE LEVEL.
MEAN TIDE LEVEL. A plane midway between MEAN HIGH WATER and mean low water. Not
necessarily equal to MEAN SEA LEVEL. Also half-tide level.
MEDIAN DIAMETER. The diameter which marks the division of a given sand sample into two
equal parts by weight, one part containing all grains larger than that diameter and the
other part containing all grains smaller.
MIXED TIDE. A type of tide in which the presence of a diurnal wave is conspicuous by a large
inequality in either the high or low water heights, with two high waters and two low
waters usually occurring each tidal day. In strictness, all tides are mixed, but the name is
usually applied without definite limits to the tide intermediate to those predominantly
semidiurnal and those predominantly diurnal.
MONOCHROMATIC WAVES. A series of waves where each wave has the same length and
period.
NEAP TIDE. A tide occurring near the time of quadrature of the moon with the sun. The neap
tidal range is usually 10 to 30 percent less than the mean tidal range.
NEARSHORE (zone). In beach terminology an indefinite zone extending seaward from the
shoreline well beyond the breaker zone. It defines the area of nearshore currents.

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OFFSHORE. In beach terminology, the comparatively flat zone of variable width, extending
from the breaker zone to the seaward edge of the Continental Shelf.
OFFSHORE CURRENT. (1) Any current in the offshore zone. (2) Any current flowing away
from shore.
OFFSHORE WIND. A wind blowing seaward from the land in the coastal area.
ONSHORE WIND. A wind blowing landward from the sea in the coastal area.
ORBITAL CURRENT. The flow of water accompanying the orbital movement of the water
particles in a wave. Not to be confused with wave-generated littoral currents.
ORTHOGONAL. On a wave-refraction diagram, a line drawn perpendicularly to the wave
crests.
OUTFALL. A structure extending into a body of water for the purpose of discharging sewage
(often treated), storm runoff, or cooling water.
OVERTOPPING. Passing of water over the top of a structure as a result of wave runup or surge
action.
PARTICLE VELOCITY. The velocity induced by wave motion with which a specific water
particle moves within a wave.
PERCHED BEACH. A beach or fillet of sand retained above the otherwise normal profile level
by a submerged breakwater or reef.
PHASE VELOCITY. Propagation velocity of an individual wave as opposed to the velocity of a
wave group.
PHI GRADE SCALE. A logarithmic transformation of the Wentworth grade scale for size

particle diameter: φ = − log 2 d , where d is the particle diameter in mm.

classifications of sediment grains based on the negative logarithm to the base 2 of the

PILE. A long, heavy timber or section of concrete or metal to be driven or jetted into the earth
or seabed to serve as a support or protection.
PILE, SHEET. A pile with a generally slender flat cross section to be driven into the ground or
seabed and meshed or interlocked with like members to form a diaphragm, wall, or
bulkhead.
PLUNGE POINT. The final breaking point of the waves just before they rush up on the beach.
POCKET BEACH. A beach, usually small, in a bay or between two littoral barriers.
PORT DATUM. See CHART DATUM
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE. States that the lack of full scientific certainty should not be
used as a reason for postponing a measure to prevent degradation of the environment
where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage.
PROTOTYPE. In laboratory usage, the full-scale structure, concept, or phenomenon used as a
basis for constructing a scale model or copy.
RADIUS OF MAXIMUM WINDS. Distance from the centre of the eye of a TROPICAL
CYCLONE to the place where surface windspeeds are maximum.
REFLECTED WAVE. That part of an incident wave that is returned seaward when a wave
impinges on a steep beach, barrier, or other reflecting surface.
REFRACTION (of water waves). (1) The process by which the direction of a wave moving in
shallow water at an angle to the contours is changed: the part of the wave advancing in
shallower water moves more slowly than that part still advancing in deeper water, causing
the wave crest to bend toward alignment with the underwater contours. (2) The bending of
wave crests by currents.
REFRACTION COEFFICIENT. The square root of the ratio of the distance between adjacent
orthogonals in deep water to their distance apart in shallow water at a selected point.
When multiplied by the shoaling factor and a factor for friction and percolation, this
becomes the WAVE HEIGHT COEFFICIENT.

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REFRACTION DIAGRAM. A drawing showing positions of wave crests and/or orthogonals in a

given area for a specific deepwater wave period and direction.
REVETMENT. A facing of stone, concrete, etc., built to protect a scarp, embankment, or shore
structure against erosion by wave action or currents.
RIPARIAN. Pertaining to the banks of a body of water.
RIPPLES (bed forms). Small bed forms with wavelengths less than 0.3 metre and heights less
than 0.03 metre.
RUBBLE-MOUND STRUCTURE. A mound of random-shaped and random-placed stones
protected with a cover layer of selected stones or specially shaped concrete armour units.
(ARMOUR UNITS in a primary cover layer may be placed in an orderly manner or
dumped at random.)
SALT MARSH. A marsh periodically flooded by salt water.
SEA STATE. Description of the sea surface as affected by wind-generated wave action. Also
called state of sea.
SEAWALL. A structure separating land and water areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion
and other damage due to wave action.
SEICHE. (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed waterbody that continues, pendulum
fashion, after the cessation of the originating force, which may have been either seismic
or atmospheric. (2) An oscillation of a fluid body in response to a disturbing force having
the same frequency as the natural frequency of the fluid system. Tides are now considered
to be seiches induced primarily by the periodic forces caused by the Sun and Moon.
SEMIDIURNAL TIDE. A tide with two high and two low waters in a tidal day with
comparatively little diurnal inequality.
SHALLOW WATER. Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves are noticeably
affected by bottom topography. It is customary to consider water of depths less than one-
half the surface wavelength as shallow water.
SIGNIFICANT WAVE. A statistical term relating to the one-third highest waves of a given
wave group and defined by the average of their heights and periods. The composition of
the higher waves depends upon the extent to which the lower waves are considered.
Experience indicates that a careful observer who attempts to establish the character of the
higher waves will record values which approximately fit the definition of the significant
wave.
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT. The average height of the one-third highest waves of a given
wave group.
SIGNIFICANT WAVE PERIOD. An arbitrary period generally taken as the period of the one-
third highest waves within a given group.
SOLITARY WAVE. A wave consisting of a single elevation (above the original water surface),
whose height is not necessarily small compared to the depth, and neither followed nor
preceded by another elevation or depression of the water surfaces.
STANDING WAVE. A type of wave in which the surface of the water oscillates vertically
between fixed points, called nodes, without progression. The points of maximum vertical
rise and fall are called antinodes or loops. At the nodes, the underlying water particles
exhibit no vertical motion, but maximum horizontal motion. At the antinodes, the
underlying water particles have no horizontal motion, but maximum vertical motion. A
standing wave may be the result of two equal progressive wave trains travelling through
each other in opposite directions. Sometimes called CLAPOTIS.
STILL-WATER LEVEL. The elevation that the surface of the water would assume if all wave
action were absent.
STORM SURGE. A rise above normal water level on the open coast due to the action of wind
stress on the water surface. Storm surge resulting from a TROPICAL CYCLONE also
includes that rise in level due to atmospheric pressure reduction as well as that due to
wind stress. (WAVE SETUP is a separate and additional rise in water level within the
SURF ZONE which is not incorporated within STORM SURGE.)

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STORM TIDE. The coastal water level resulting from the combined effect of a storm surge and
the normally occurring astronomical tide.
SURF BEAT. Irregular oscillations of the nearshore water level with periods on the order of
several minutes.
SURF ZONE. The area between the outermost breaker and the limit of wave uprush.
SUSPENDED LOAD. The material moving in suspension in a fluid, kept up by the upward
components of the turbulent currents.
SWALE. The depression between two beach ridges.
SWASH. The rush of water up onto the beach face following the breaking of a wave. Also called
UPRUSH.
SWELL. Wind-generated waves that have travelled out of their generating area. Swell
characteristically exhibits a more regular and longer period and has flatter crests than
waves within their fetch.
THALWEG. In hydraulics, the line joining the deepest points of an inlet or stream channel.
TIDAL PERIOD. The interval of time between two consecutive, like phases of the tide.
TIDAL PLANES. Water level datums associated with various definitions of mean and extreme
high and low tides.
TIDAL PRISM. The total amount of water that flows into a harbour or estuary or out again with
movement of the tide, excluding any freshwater flow.
TIDAL RANGE. The difference between the height of high tide and the next succeeding or
preceding low tide.
TOMBOLO. A bar or spit that connects or "ties" an island to the mainland or to another island.
TRAINING WALL. A wall or breakwater constructed to direct current flow in a river or estuary.
See JETTY 2.
TROPICAL CYCLONE. An intense tropical storm in which winds move in near circular paths,
spiralling inward towards a calm centre of low atmospheric pressure. Maximum surface
wind velocities (10 minutes average) equal or exceed 33.5 m.s − 1 (65 knots). Also known
as Hurricane or Typhoon.
TSUNAMI. A long-period wave caused by an underwater disturbance such as a volcanic
eruption or earthquake. Commonly miscalled “tidal wave”.
UPRUSH. The rush of water up onto the beach following the breaking of a wave. Also called
SWASH.
WAVE GROUP. A series of waves in which the wave direction, wavelength, and wave height
vary only slightly. See also GROUP VELOCITY.
WAVE HEIGHT. The vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough. See also
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT.
WAVE HEIGHT COEFFICIENT. The ratio of the wave height at a selected point to the
deepwater wave height.
WAVE HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION. The probability distribution of wave heights in a given wave
record.
WAVE PERIOD. The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength. The
time for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point. See also SIGNIFICANT WAVE
WAVE SETUP. A localised increase in still water level from the point of wave breaking, across
the surf zone and to the shoreline.
WAVE SPECTRUM. The distribution of wave energy in a given wave record as a function of
frequency.
WIND WAVES. Any wave generated by wind.

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COASTAL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
for working with the Australian coast
in an ecologically sustainable way

Supplement A - Beach Replenishment

Woorim, Bribie Island (Qld EPA)

Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement A

Supplement A - Beach Replenishment

This Supplement has been prepared by the National Committee on Coastal and Ocean
Engineering (NCCOE) of The Institution of Engineers, Australia, to assist professional
engineers in the application and use of the Coastal Engineering guidelines for working
with the Australia Coast in an ecologically sustainable way.

CONTENTS
A.1. PURPOSE AND APPLICATIONS OF BEACH REPLENISHMENT 3
A.2. INVESTIGATIONS 3
A.2.1 Scope 3
A.2.2 Understanding the Beach Processes 3
A.2.3 Source of Replenishment Material 5
A.2.4 Method of Replenishment 5
A.2.5 Environmental Impacts 6
A.3. DESIGN 6
A.4. MONITORING 7
A.5. MANAGEMENT ISSUES 8
A.6. REFERENCES 9
A.6.1 Theory and Manuals 9
A.6.2 Case Studies 9

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Supplement A Coastal Engineering Guidelines

A.1. Purpose and Applications of Beach Replenishment

Beach replenishment, also known by the terms beach nourishment and beach fill, is the
artificial addition of sand or gravel to the coast to improve beach condition, or to create
a beach. Beach condition generally refers to recreational and amenity aspects of a beach
and also to the capacity of a beach to act as a buffer against storm erosion, coastal
recession or tidal inundation to protect the land behind.

In Australia, beach replenishment is used generally to provide both coast protection and
amenity, particularly in situations where the recreational amenity of the coast is
important, such as highly developed urban foreshores. In situations where coast
protection is necessary, beach replenishment is weighed against other coast protection
measures such as seawall, groyne and offshore breakwater construction as well as
planned retreat. Replenishment may also be used in conjunction with these other
measures with the aim of limiting project capital cost, minimising environmental
impacts and extending the time before further replenishment is necessary.

Entirely artificial beaches may be created using beach replenishment methods, usually
for amenity purposes. These often require construction works such as groynes at the
ends of the beach to contain sand within the replenishment area to extend the life of the
artificial beach.

While sand is the most commonly used material for beach replenishment, gravel, shingle
and shellgrit may also be used, depending on material availability, “native” material at
the site and the purpose of the project.

Coast protection purposes include increasing the beach buffer against episodic (storm)
erosion, counteracting sediment losses which have resulted in cumulative erosion
(recession), and raising the dune height to avoid inundation of low lying land behind
the dunes. Any combination of these conditions may play a role for a given site and an
assessment of these aspects is important. In the two erosion cases, but particularly
where the coast is actively receding, “maintenance” replenishment is usually required
following the initial work, and as an ongoing activity.

In future strategies for accommodating the probable sea level rise (and littoral system
modifications) that will occur along many coasts as a result of climate change, active
coastline maintenance involving beach replenishment is likely to continue to play a
role.

A.2. Investigations
A.2.1 Scope
Investigations for beach replenishment projects will provide information useful in
assessing the appropriate strategy, and hence the volume of replenishment material
needed to provide the benefits sought, the stability or otherwise of the replenished
beach and hence requirements for repeat replenishments as well as the suitability of
replenishment for the site.

Investigations should also incorporate an appropriate level of environmental data

collection, assessment, monitoring and reporting.

A.2.2 Understanding the Beach Processes

Central to the assessment of beach replenishment suitability for amenity or coast
protection purposes, and for design and costing of a replenishment program, is a good
understanding of beach and coastal processes. Of principal interest are considerations of
morphology, “native” beach sediment, storm-induced variations and sediment budgets
which relate to long-term stability. Aspects to be considered include morphology,
sediment characteristics, storm-induced variations and the sediment budget.

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Morphology

Understanding the local coastal morphology is essential for defining the nature and

• How was the coast formed?

extent of the coastal system affected by the beach replenishment project:

• Is there a sediment supply, such as a river or sand moving onshore from nearshore

• Is the beach a pocket beach or part of a more extensive littoral system?

deposits?

• Where are the boundaries of the relevant littoral system?

• Has the beach profile shape been monitored?
• Are there any sediment sampling/sieving analyses?

Determine active width and depth of the beach and nearshore zone, from beach profiles,
bathymetric mapping and various analysis techniques (e.g. Hallermeier 1981).

Sediment characteristics

Sediment characteristics of the existing “native” beach indicate the ambient conditions.
The design and effectiveness of a beach replenishment project require appropriate

• Composite sampling methods to represent material across the breadth of the active
sampling of the “native” beach sediment material:

• Sediment grading from sieve analysis to determine appropriate representative sizes

beach face.

(e.g. φ 8 4 , φ 1 6 and φ 5 0 based on the logarithmic phi unit for the grain size parameters

• Sediment density (e.g. variation between silica and carbonate materials) is required
generally used in methods for assessing sediment characteristics).

• Determination of fall velocity distribution, preferably directly using a settling

for fall velocity calculations.

column.

Storm-induced variations

Determine the episodic beach erosion likely to result from storm events. Methods

• Assessment of beach profile records - where long-term and frequently monitored

available include:

• Analysis of aerial photographs, taken before and after erosion events, can provide
records exist this is the most reliable method.

• Empirical methods such as Velinga (1983), Swart (1976), Edelman (1973).

estimates of erosion distances and volumes.

• Numerical methods such as SBEACH (Larson and Kraus 1989).

Sediment budget

A serious attempt should be made to predict the movement of the deposited material.

• Use aerial photographs, archival survey records, analysis of any long-term beach
Techniques could include:

• From an understanding of the beach morphology, develop an estimate of sediment

profile monitoring to identify and quantify any erosion/accretion trends.

• Compare sediment sinks and sources to identify likely imbalances in the system.
sources, sinks and modes and rates of transport.

• Determine probable causes for any erosion/accretion imbalances and consider

possible increases or reductions to these. For example, a sediment-starved receding
shore may recede more rapidly with an anticipated sea level rise; an eroding area
downdrift of a structure may recover as sediment bypasses the structure either
naturally or artificially.

Local benefits to beach condition are often provided by sand bypassing around harbour
or river entrances. Bypassing may not strictly be considered a beach replenishment
method as additional beach material is not added to the littoral system. However, where
longshore sand budgets are unbalanced, bypassing will alleviate erosion downdrift of

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Supplement A Coastal Engineering Guidelines

structures. Bypassing should be considered in any proposal to interrupt the longshore

transport of sand in a littoral system.

The understanding of beach processes requires both investigations and long-term

monitoring of both the behaviour of the beach and the driving environmental forces,
particularly waves.

A.2.3 Source of Replenishment Material

Determining the “borrow” source for replenishment material requires assessment of
both material characteristics and suitability, and the cost and feasibility of winning,
transporting and placing the material as well as potential environmental impacts.
Consideration needs to be given to sediment characteristics, methods of replenishment

• Ideally material for beach replenishment should have a similar grading and
and possible impacts, as discussed below:

composition to that on the native beach, or be slightly coarser. If finer material is

• A coarser material will generally provide better storm protection, and less volume
used, losses may be so rapid that the material should be excluded from consideration.

may be required. However, if the replenishment material is much coarser than the
native material, a steep and more reflective beach may form and this can result in
less sand on the lower part of the beach. This may detract from the recreational

• Proportion of fines (commonly < 0.1 mm) should be low to minimise turbidity at the
amenity of the beach.

placement site. If dredging is used to win the material, fines content is also
important in considering the turbidity produced at the source site. Environment
protection licenses may be required for high turbidity marine discharges. Turbidity
control methods may need to be considered at source and deposit sites if fines
content is high and better quality sand is not available; possible methods at protected
sites include bunding and silt curtains. Non-marine or onshore deposits used for
beach replenishment may require washing which could be expensive.

A.2.4 Method of Replenishment

Various methods of winning, transporting and placing material are available. Those

• Dredging - generally using a trailer suction dredge with sand pumped ashore or
commonly used are:

barged to nearshore or, for shorter distances from protected locations, a cutter
suction dredge, with or without booster stations. Dredge availability may be an
important aspect for project timing since the cost of establishing equipment on site
may often be a large proportion of the overall cost. Examples include trailer suction
dredge replenishment for the southern Gold Coast beaches, Hampton Beach in
Melbourne and Adelaide metropolitan beaches. A cutter suction dredge was used at
the Gold Coast in 1974 to dredge sand for Surfers Paradise from the protected waters

• Trucking from onshore beach accumulation areas or relict deposits, for placement
of the Broadwater.

within and above the tidal beach; an example is replenishment of Adelaide

• Collecting from onshore accumulation by scraper or excavator; an example is the

metropolitan beaches in South Australia.

• Collecting from nearshore or harbour entrance deposits by jet pump or adapted

Mandurah Entrance and Dawesville Cut in Western Australia.

systems and pumping to deposit site; examples are Nerang Entrance in Queensland
and Portland Harbour in Victoria.

Operating conditions and plant suitability will need to be considered in the selection of
the plant, the placement methods and consequently location on the profile of the
replenishment material. Operational issues for selection or assessment of suitable

• Wave and wind climate and potential dredge downtime.

methods include:

• Depths of deposit for dredging and for discharge if using barges.

• The distance between source and discharge sites.
• Tides may limit beach width for along-beach trucking/pumping methods, and soft
sand can present difficulties for trucks.

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A.2.5 Environmental Impacts

Potential physical impacts can arise from removal of material. Material for
replenishment needs to be sourced from outside the active littoral system unless part of
a bypassing or sand “recycling” program. In the latter case sand budgets and continuity
of sediment source need to be closely assessed.

Consideration also needs to be given to potential detrimental impacts of removal of

material which could include changes to bathymetry affecting wave climate at the shore.
For example, removal of shoals which provide wave protection to leeward area, or
excavation of deep dredge pits or scarps which may affect wave refraction or reflection.

Potential impact on the ecological sustainability or heritage values of the source site

• An initial assessment of the vulnerability of site ecology to long-term damage from

requires the following considerations:

• Common precautions are that removal of material should not preclude re-
the method of material removal is prudent.

establishment of area. For instance, although reshaped, sufficient depth of the

original material should remain for recolonisation by marine/terrestrial vegetation

• Consideration of groundwater depth and stormwater runoff may be important for land
and biota.

• Seasons when marine organisms are most vulnerable to turbidity or bird nesting is
sites.

most likely to be disturbed need to be considered in the context of other constraints

• Consideration of whether heritage areas such as shipwrecks, marine parks or

and impacts.

aboriginal sites exist at or near the site.

The impact of beach replenishment work on coastal residents is generally short-term

and outweighed by the amenity advantages. It is prudent to plan to avoid times of high
beach use and to minimise noise and other impacts on coastal residents. A public
information program to explain the project and encourage public understanding,
acceptance and confidence is recommended.

A.3. Design
Beach replenishment design needs to be more flexible to availability constraints and
uncertainty in performance than many other aspects of coastal engineering. Although
the design should include a determination of a minimum volume of material required for
a project, this estimate, especially for a previously unreplenished beach, is based on
techniques with a high degree of uncertainty. The designer should be aware that repeat
replenishment may be required and that the initial fill volume will be a compromise
between delaying the need for a repeat replenishment and the high initial cost and
possible loss rates from a large initial project.

The design may need to include hard engineering works such as groynes, seawalls,
offshore breakwaters, or artificial surfing reefs to improve the efficiency of the
replenishment.

The establishment costs of equipment to undertake beach replenishment are generally

high, and equipment is often limited both in time of availability and in performance
capabilities, such as depth of working, and optimal volumes transported. Beach
replenishment design and implementation need to be flexible to take advantage of
opportunities as they arise.

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Supplement A Coastal Engineering Guidelines

• Consideration of whether replenishment is to provide a buffer against storm erosion

Keeping in mind the flexibility required, the design analyses include:

events, to replenish the full beach width against coastal recession, to provide a dune

• Placement of material on specific portions of the active beach (dune, beach berm,
to avoid inundation or to increase recreational beach width.

intertidal, nearshore), depending upon the reasons for replenishment and the methods
available. Understanding the effect of placement location and likely spreading or
movement of the material will assist in assessing the performance of the beach

• Determination of the volume necessary to fill the active width of the beach or the
replenishment.

dune for a short-term erosion buffer. Consider measured/estimated erosion rates,

storm cut estimates, longshore variability such as that produced on beaches with

• Estimation of the “overfill ratio” (allowance for losses from the initially placed
strong rips.

replenishment material). It is noted that “overfill ratio” provides an indication of the

• Allowance for volume losses in designing the project. Storm take will generally be
relative usefulness of potential borrow materials.

higher for a replenished beach than a natural one, especially if the replenished beach
width is short compared with fill volume. An allowance may be useful to represent
the more rapid realignment at ends of the beach fill length compared with the centre

• Appreciation of the likely variations in material compaction and in situ density

of the replenishment length.

between source site, transport volume in hoppers or trucks, initial placement and

• Selection of the most appropriate time to implement the beach replenishment

compaction as the material is reworked at the deposit site by the sea.

program taking account the local coastal processes and probable seasonal weather
conditions.

It is essential that the need for repeat replenishments be recognised. Frequency of

repeat replenishments can be estimated, although is best assessed from monitoring of
previous replenishment projects at the site. The effect of extreme storms or a net loss of
sand by transport out of the system on actual timing of repeat replenishments is one of
the uncertainties of beach replenishment and is an important aspect which needs to be
recognised in the project management.

The design should be mindful of the effects on particular types of beach usage such as
swimming, surfing, fishing, etc.

A.4. Monitoring
Reliable replenishment design and therefore cost assessment relies on good monitoring
of long-term beach behaviour. Assessment of past monitoring at source and deposit sites
should be supplemented by continuing surveys as appropriate.

• dune and beach profiles to wading depth,

Measurements and studies previously undertaken may include:

• full active beach profiling or surface modelling,

• photogrammetric analysis of aerial photos,
• water quality (principally turbidity),
• wave climate,
• sediment sampling and sieve analyses.

• Bathymetric and land survey to determine volume changes, either for contract
Monitoring during replenishment may include:

management purposes or to supplement dredge/truck count volume estimates. (Note

• Water quality at source and deposit sites; license provisions may apply.
that hopper/trucked density is different from in situ deposit densities.)

• Monitoring of benthic/terrestrial environment, extent of disturbance.

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Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement A

Ongoing monitoring of replenishment performance will include beach volume and

• profiles/bathymetric survey/aerial photos,

environmental aspects such as:

• re-establishment of benthic/terrestrial organisms,

• turbidity.

• monitoring sand volume changes across the active beach (dune, beach berm,
Ongoing assessment of requirements for repeat replenishment:

• buffer dune volume monitoring,

intertidal and nearshore),

• development and application of trigger criteria for repeat replenishment.

A.5. Management Issues

Management issues for beach replenishment projects include project evaluation and
project implementation aspects. For beach replenishment projects at urban areas,
consultation will be of particular importance. This will include conveying the
advantages, disadvantages and uncertainties of replenishment clearly to decision makers
and the community in general.

Management issues will vary from broad philosophical considerations, such as the
inclusion of large associated works, to minor details for practical implementation.
Crucial to these will be advance consideration of the relevance and importance of likely
issues and allocation of resources for their appropriate resolution.

• the use of economic techniques to compare various coast protection methods. Need
Management issues may include:

to identify and attempt to assess social/tourism/economic/environmental benefits of a

• the availability of information on possible environmental impacts and on ecological

beach as well as coast protection benefits and construction and maintenance costs,

• consultation with the public, local and or State governments, beach user groups,
vulnerability. Information on measures to minimise environmental impact,

• support from key groups,

residents groups, commercial groups,

• development approval requirements,

• seasonal recreational beach use including school and public holidays, and major

• possible disturbance to recreational or commercial fishing operations,

events,

• the intensity and duration of a replenishment campaign,

• management of potential sand drift with fencing and/or planting,
• the need to maintain stormwater outlets during replenishment to ensure outlets are

• the possible need to close beaches during replenishment,

not buried, water does not pond nor create backwater flow conditions,

• possible early adjustment of the profile. Movement of sand from a replenished beach

• noise from machinery,

to the nearshore zone can give the perception of project failure.

• possible softness or unevenness of newly deposited uncompacted sand,

• different sand texture and rock/shell content of replenished beach compared with the
“native” beach.

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Engineers Australia
Supplement A Coastal Engineering Guidelines

A.6. References
A.6.1 Theory and Manuals
CERC, 1984, Shore Protection Manual (abbreviated herein as “SPM”) US Army Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC). This publication is being
replaced by Coastal Engineering Manual – an electronic text.

Couriel, E.D., Wilson, J.R., 1991, Applications for predictive Models for Storm Cut
Estimates, Proc, 10th Australasian Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Auckland, 2-6 Dec. 1991, pp159-164.

Edelman, T., 1973, Dune Erosion During Storm Conditions, Proc. 13th Coastal
Engineering Conf. ASCE, pp 1305-1311.

Hallermeier, R.J., 1981a, A Profile Zonation for Seasonal Sand Beaches from Wave
Climate, Coastal Engineering, 4, pp 253-277.

Hallermeier, R.J., 1981b, Seaward Limit of Significant Sand Transport by Waves: an

Annual Zonation for Seasonal Profiles. US Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Centre Rep. CETA 81-2, Jan.

Houston / Pilkey debate, various issues of Shore and Beach and Journal of Coastal
Research.

James, W.R., 1975, Techniques in Evaluating Suitability of Borrow Material for Beach
Nourishment, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Tech. Memo. No. 60, Dec.

Larson, M. and Kraus, N.C., 1989, SBEACH: Numerical Model for Simulating Storm-
Induced Beach Change - Report 1: Empirical Foundation and Model Development. US
Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, Vicksburg, Miss., Tech. Rep. CERC-89-9.

National Research Council (USA), 1995, Beach Nourishment and Protection, National
Academy Press.

Pilarczyk, K.W. and van Overeem, J., 1986, Manual on Artificial Beach Nourishment,
Rijkswaterstaat, CUR and Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Annexe II, pp18-25.

Swart, D.H., 1976, Predictive Equations Regarding Coastal Transports, Proc. 15th
Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, pp 1113-1132.

Velinga P., 1983, Predictive Computational Model for Beach and Dune Erosion during
Storm Surges, Proc. Coastal Structures ‘83 conf., ASCE, pp 806-819.

A.6.2 Case Studies

Acer Wargon Chapman, 1994, Tweed River Entrance Maintenance Dredging and
Associated Nourishment of Southern Gold Coast Beaches: Environment Impact
Statement / Impact Assessment Study, Oct.

Cowper, N.T. and Nankervis, L., 1997, Innovative Sand Shifter Technology for
Maintaining Clear Ocean Entrances Year Round: Sands Bypassing at Port of Portland,
Victoria, Australia, Proc. Combined Australasian Coastal Engineering and Ports
Conference, Christchurch, 7-11 Sept., pp 871-875.

Gourlay, M.R., 1996, History of Coastal Engineering in Australia published in: Kraus,
N.C.(ed), History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering, ASCE, New York, pp 1-88.

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Engineers Australia
Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement A

Hutton, I.M., 1987, Dawesville Channel - Ocean Entrance. Preprints: 8th Australasian
Conference Coastal and Ocean Eng., Launceston, Tas., Inst. Eng. Aust. Nat. Conf. Publ.
No. 87/17, pp 330-334.

Lord, D., Watson, P., Kelleher, B.E., and Avis, P., 1995, Offshore Dredging for Beach
Nourishment; Shoal Bay, NSW, Proc. 12th Australasian Coastal and Ocean Engineering
Conf., 28 May -2 June 1995, Melb., pp 439-443.

Murray, R.J., Robinson, D.A, and Soward, C.L., 1994, Southern Gold Coast Beach
Nourishment Project: Implementation, Results, Effectiveness, Terra et Aqua, 56, Sept,
pp12-23.

Murray, R.J., Brodie, R.P., Jackson, L.A., Porter, M., Robinson, D.A., Lawson, S. and
Perry, M.P., 1995, Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project: Principles and
Progress, Proc. 12th Australasian Conf. on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, The
Institution of Engineers Australia, Melbourne, 29 May - 2 June, pp 7-12.

Patterson, D.C. 1986 in Pilarczyk, K.W. and van Overeem, J., Manual on Artificial
Beach Nourishment, Rijkswaterstaat, CUR and Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Annexe II,
pp 18-25.

Tyshing, R., 1997, Concept Design of Hampton Beach, Proc. Combined Australasian
Coastal Engineering and Ports Conference, Centre for Advanced Engineering,
University of Christchurch, Christchurch, 7-11 Sept.

Watson, P., 1997, Port Stephens Sand Nourishment Projects Evaluation, Monitoring
and Sustainability, Proc. Combined Australasian Coastal Engineering and Ports
Conference, Christchurch, 7-11 Sept.

A-10 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering

Engineers Australia
COASTAL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
for working with the Australian coast
in an ecologically sustainable way

Supplement B – Marinas

Anchorage, Port Stephens

Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement B

Supplement B - Marinas
This Supplement has been prepared by the National Committee on Coastal and Ocean
Engineering (NCCOE) of The Institution of Engineers, Australia, to assist professional
engineers in the application and use of the Coastal Engineering guidelines for working
with the Australia Coast in an ecologically sustainable way.

CONTENTS
B.1. PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES OF MARINAS 3
B.2. INVESTIGATION 3
B.2.1 Data 3
B.2.2 Environmental Impacts 4
B.3. DESIGN 4
B.3.1 Design Standards 4
B.3.2 Breakwater Configuration 4
B.3.3 Navigation 5
B.3.4 Mooring/Berthing Arrangement 5
B.3.5 Marina Ancillary Facilities 6
B.4. CONSTRUCTION 6
B.5. MAINTENANCE 7
B.6. REFERENCES 8

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Supplement B Coastal Engineering Guidelines

B.1. Purpose and Principles of Marinas

For the purpose of this document a marina is defined as a complex at which recreational
vessels are moored in a sheltered environment, from which land based (dry) access is
provided to the vessel. It does not include ports (i.e. commercial vessel moorings) or
other mooring structures (e.g. piles) from which dinghy access is required. However, it is
acknowledged that marinas are often contained within ports, and also contain other
ancillary recreational boating services which may include dinghy access moorings.

Sheltering of vessels from the natural elements (principally wind, waves and currents)
may be provided by a number of engineering options and, to a significant extent, these
(options/environmental influences) dictate the layout of the marina. Sheltering techniques

• naturally protected embayments,

include:

• mass armour breakwaters,

• sea walls,
• jetties (skirt),
• floating breakwaters,
• wave screens.

Similarly, engineering design of mooring arrangements and access to vessels varies and is
usually dependent on environmental considerations such as wave climate, tide range,
water depth and cost of construction. In general, access to vessels is provided by the

• wharves, quaywall berths,

following, or a combination of the following:

• jetties,
• floating pontoons .

Marinas are multi-functional facilities and, depending on their scale, provide a number of
services to vessel owners which, in addition to sheltered storage and convenience of

• services to marina berths including water, electricity, fuel and telephone,

location, may include:

• security against accidental and deliberate damage,

• security against theft slipway and boat ramp facilities,
• vertical lifts,
• dry storage,
• repair workshops and personnel,
• refuelling facilities,
• waste discharge facilities,
• chandlery, restaurants, showers and toilets,
• a range of services providing competent advice on all aspects of vessel operation and
safety requirements.

B.2. Investigation
Prior to the design of a marina, investigations are required to determine the physical
nature of the proposed site together with developing an understanding of the coastal
processes and their interaction with the coastal zone environment.

B.2.1 Data
To undertake these tasks, data needs to be sourced from historical records and/or a data
collection program put in place to address data inadequacies.

•
In general, it is envisaged that the following data is required for the design of a marina:

•
wind (magnitude, direction, seasonality and extremes),

•
waves (amplitude, period, direction, seasonality and extremes),

•
currents (magnitude, direction and periodicity),

•
tides, floods, storm surges, and greenhouse induced sea level rise,
shoreline surveys, hydrographic surveys, and aerial photography,

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• geotechnical investigations (bed material, grain size, bearing capacity, depth to

• coastal zone ecology and marine biology,

bedrock, stability etc),

• stormwater drainage to the site,

• water quality,
• current usage and values of the site,
• previous reports and investigations in the region,
• planning constraints,
• location and availability of services,
• design vessel sizes and numbers,
• financial viability assessment.

B.2.2 Environmental Impacts

In assessing possible environmental impacts due consideration should be give to a wide

• water quality - waste, spillages,

range of effects including:

• aesthetics/visual impacts,
• noise and artificial lights,
• traffic, both land and sea,
• construction,
• reflected waves on adjoining properties,
• changes to sediment processes,
• siltation/turbidity,
• flora and fauna, especially benthic communities.

Assessment may require application of computer or physical modelling to complement

simpler analytical investigative techniques.

B.3. Design
B.3.1 Design Standards
Numerous state and international publications are available to provide guidelines to assist
in the design of marinas. Designers should be familiar with the Australian Standards -
AS 3962 2001 - Guidelines for Design Of Marinas. A brief listing of a number of relevant
publications is listed at the end of this supplement.

A considerable number of engineering issues need to be addressed regarding the design of

water-based and waterfront facilities of marinas. A short summary of each of the major
design criteria is discussed below.

B.3.2 Breakwater Configuration

With the exception of naturally protected embayments, sheltering of marinas is usually

• rock armour,
achieved by the construction of breakwaters. Breakwater types include:

• sheet pile walls and caissons,

• jetties, skirts,
• floating breakwaters.

The breakwater structure often forms a part of the marina mooring arrangement. For
example, a floating breakwater will generally have mooring berths on its leeward side.

The selection of a breakwater type is strongly influenced by the site conditions and
budgetary constraints. For example the choice between a floating and mass armour
breakwater is dependent on the wave climate, water depth, currents, bed material (bearing
capacity and mobility), availability of suitable rock armour, etc.

The engineering design of breakwaters is not addressed in this Supplement. Frequently,

design requires use of physical modelling to optimise structural details, forces and
performance.

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Supplement B Coastal Engineering Guidelines

Breakwater layout and configuration involves a trade-off/optimisation process between

using either long breakwaters with no dredging or shorter breakwaters with a dredged
basin to provide the required protected area and water depth.

B.3.3 Navigation
When designing a marina consideration needs to be given to navigation channels to
facilitate vessel movements when entering/exiting the marina and berthing.

Marina Entrance Width – The navigable channel width of the marina entrance is

• marina sheltering: a wider entrance will allow higher wave energy to enter the
dependent upon a number of major factors:

• directions and magnitudes of winds, waves and currents affect the manoeuvrability of
sheltered zone,

• alignment of the marina entrance,

vessels - narrow channels may also induce higher currents,

• size and types of vessels using the marina entrance,

• number of vessels using the marina entrance,
• water quality: tidal flushing and water circulation may be important, particularly for
impermeable breakwater structures.

Channel Width – The width of navigation channels inside the marina is more strongly
influenced by the size, type and number of vessels than wind, waves and currents. In
general, channel width is described as a function of vessel design length.

Channel Depth – Depth of navigation channels is referenced to Low Water Datum. The
primary considerations for channel depth are vessel draft and required minimum keel
clearance. In general, the draft of sail vessels is considerably greater than power boats.

• wave/swell action: wave steepness and direction are influenced by water depth,
Other depth considerations include:

• siltation and maintenance dredging,

• infrastructure constraints: a deep channel close to the shoreline or a breakwater may

• bed material: ease of dredging,

require more costly foreshore work,

• maintenance dredging requirements, i.e., desirability or otherwise of initial over-

dredging of channels and basins.

It should be noted that dredging may alter the local wave climate (by changing wave
penetration and reflections) and this should be taken into consideration during the design
process.

B.3.4 Mooring/Berthing Arrangement

• orientation of walkways and berths to provide protection from wind, waves and
When designing a berthing arrangement the following criteria need to be considered:

• connections between floating elements,

currents,

• fatigue of connections, service ducts, cables and pipework,

• for floating marinas and pontoons, stability of floating units,
• forces on structures (walkways and piles), including wind, waves, currents and boat

• tidal range and level: influence on design deck levels, mooring arrangements and
impacts,

• number of berths,
whether to have fixed or floating access,

• type and size of vessels: width and length and manoeuvrability of vessels,
• vessel access,
• provision of services,
• construction materials: these affect the cost of construction, maintenance and

• construction tolerances required for installation of prefabricated units,

aesthetics,

• the availability and suitability of proprietary berthing systems,

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Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement B

• maintenance dredging requirements,

• future expansion of facilities.

B.3.5 Marina Ancillary Facilities

As noted in Section B.1, marinas are multifunctional and usually will include slipways,
boat ramps, waste discharge and refuelling facilities. Engineering design considerations
for slipways and boat ramps will include the size of vessels, water depths and frequency
of use.

Water quality issues and compliance with environmental regulations also need to be
considered. Vessel waste discharge and refuelling spills need to be contained and
contamination of the waterway during slipway repairs (antifouling paints etc) must be
avoided. Contaminated storm water should not be allowed to discharge into the marina or
its vicinity. There should be adequate flushing of the marina basin, which can generally
be designed to optimise tidal exchange without affecting navigation.

Heavy foreshore traffic may lead to degradation and erosion of the shoreline and remedial
or preventative measures such as revetments may be necessary.

The aesthetic value of the marina site needs to be maintained and due consideration given
to neighbours and other local residents.

The financial viability of the proposed installations is also an important design issue. The
consequences of the project failing to be fully completed should be considered in regard
to the vulnerability of works partially constructed, interim public safety and the
practicality of works restarting under new ownership after a period of time.

B.4. Construction
Marine and marina projects differ from land based construction in that they generally
require quite specialised equipment and also need to contend with waves, exposed wind
fetches, currents, fluctuating tide levels (resulting in periodic submergence and exposure
of surfaces) and underwater operations. This generally leads to higher costs and
downtime compared to conventional land-based construction activities.

Marinas encompass both land based and marine construction. Land based activities are
generally referenced to Australian Height Datum (AHD) which approximates Mean Sea
Level, whereas depth of navigation is usually referred to a Low Water datum such as
Indian Springs Low Water (ISLW) or Chart Datum (CD). (see Appendix 3). Great care
should be therefore be taken when “setting out” to ensure all marks are referenced to the
same datum and that the correct offsets are applied to levels.

Piles are generally an integral part of a marina and are fabricated from either timber,
steel or concrete. The choice of pile material is usually a function of cost, maintenance
and aesthetics. Piles used in marina structures differ to those for ports in that forces and
loads on marina piles are significantly smaller. As such, smaller piles with lower design
capacities are driven into the bed using smaller operating plant than is commonly utilised
in port construction.

Prefabrication, rather than on-site fabrication of marina components, and in particular

concrete units, is recommended. Concrete units to be placed in the marine environment
need to meet rigid manufacturing standards. These standards can be best achieved in a
controlled environment such as a factory complex where environmental conditions may
be controlled, rather than on a construction site. Furthermore, construction space at
marinas is often at a premium and minimal disturbance of existing ground cover at the
site is advisable to reduce sediment runoff and water quality deterioration.

Construction dredging and maintenance dredging are common practices at many marinas.
During dredging operations, sediments are suspended through the water column.
Precautions should be taken to reduce the impact area of sediment suspension by
introducing appropriate measures such as silt or sediment skirts. Consideration also needs
to be given to the disposal of dredged material and the likelihood that the sediments may

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contain contaminants. In some cases environmental and water quality monitoring may be
required prior to, during and after dredging operations, particularly in cases where
adverse impacts are a concern (e.g. adjacent oyster farms etc).

Dredging operations should be restricted to the smallest possible area and undertaken
over the shortest possible time period to reduce the likelihood of impacts on the
environment. Different types of dredges are also available (i.e. grab, suction, cutter
suction) of which one may be more suitable for a particular application (e.g. reduce
sediment suspension, shallow and deep water depths, high current and/or wave climate,
confined space, high dredge volume, etc).

Precautions should also be undertaken to ensure sediment runoff from land-based

construction activities does not adversely impact on the marine environment. Disturbance
of soils should be kept to a minimum and sediment traps installed to capture silt loads.

B.5. Maintenance
The most aggressive marina environment and region of severe corrosion potential is the
inter-tidal zone between high and low water. Maintenance of marinas is an ongoing

• periodic dredging of navigation channels and mooring basins,

process which in terms of engineering considerations could include:

• repair of breakwaters due to storm damage and other environmental influences,

• pile survey inspections including repair/replacement,
• inspection of mooring systems,
• cathodic protection,
• antifouling and removal of growth from structures,
• repair of structures due to vessel impact,
• prevention of corrosion above the water line,
• water quality monitoring.

The frequency of maintenance dredging is essentially a function of the infilling rate,

dredged channel width and depth, and required channel width and depth for navigation.
Careful consideration should be given to the disposal of dredged material to minimise
environmental and aesthetic impacts and to ensure spoil does not re-enter the dredged
areas.

Timing of pile inspections is dependent on the type of material used and the local marine
environment. For steel piles, cathodic protection is sometimes employed for protection
below the water line. Regular monitoring (6 monthly) of the cathodic system and
replacement of the sacrificial anodes is generally sufficient preventative maintenance.
Timber piles may be attacked by marine borers and fungi and should be inspected on a
regular basis (2 to 5 years). Timber piles should be turpentine or other species proven to
be durable in a marine environment or (in practice) from species capable of accepting
protective treatments. Timber piles may be repaired by encapsulation methods, but for
most marinas it may be more economical to replace the pile. Concrete piles should be
inspected on a regular basis (2 to 5 years) for evidence of cracks, vessel damage, rust
stains and concrete scaling. Repairs to damaged piles (by specialist concrete consultants)
should be undertaken immediately to prevent the onset of corroding reinforcement or
“concrete cancer”.

Mooring systems for floating marinas may consist of pile (addressed above) or chain
anchorage systems. Chain anchorage systems are generally cathodically protected and
should be inspected for corrosion at regular six monthly intervals and inspected for wear
due to abrasion at least annually.

Removal of growth from structures should be undertaken on an as needs basis for

aesthetic purposes and to reduce drag forces from waves and currents. This may be done
by means of hand rakes or underwater divers.

Prevention of corrosion above the water line is achieved by choice of material and/or
protective covers. Materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, PVC, rubber, plastics and
fibre-reinforced plastics may be suitable for particular applications. Similarly paints,

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anodising and hot dip galvanising may provide suitable protective cover. A more
complete description of the suitability of materials is provided in the supplement on the
use of materials in the marine environment.

B.6. References
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 1994, Environmental guidelines for marinas in
the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Townsville, Queensland, ISBN 0 6421 7426 1.
Merrick, J.R and Cardew, R., 1996, A bibliography of marinas in Australia, Macquarie
University, 2nd Ed.
NSW Dept of Public Works 1985, Marina guidelines: Interim Edition, Fishing/Tourist
Port Advisory Committee, May 1985, Report 85015, ISBN 7240 2851 X.
NSW Dept of Public Works 1990, Design guidelines for wharves and jetties, August
1990, Report 88062, ISBN 0 7305 5189 X.
NSW Dept of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1996, Marinas and related facilities. Practice
Guideline; Preparation of an environmental impact statement, July.
PIANC 1994, Floating breakwaters: A practical guide for design and construction, PTC
2, Report of working group no. 13, Supplement to bulletin 85, ISBN 2 87223 052 1.
PIANC 1997, Review of selected standards for floating dock designs, Special report of
the SPN Commission, Supplement to bulletin 93, ISBN 2 87223 080 7.
Qld Department of Harbours and Marine 1986, Small craft facilities, Queensland:
Planning and design of new private marinas on the Queensland coast, Queensland, ISSN
0815 4708.
SA Department of Environment and Planning 1991, Marina guidelines for the planning
and development of coastal marinas in South Australia, Marina Assessment Advisory
Committee, Adelaide.
Standards Australia 2001, Australian Standard AS3962-2001: Guidelines for design of
marinas, North Sydney, NSW, ISBN 0 7337 4133 9.
US Environment Protection Authority 1985, Coastal marinas assessment handbook,
Atlanta, USA, EPA 904/6-85-132.

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COASTAL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
for working with the Australian coast
in an ecologically sustainable way

Supplement C - Outfalls

Plume Studies for Ocean Outfall NSW Coast (NSW - PWD)

Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement C

Supplement C - Outfalls
This Supplement has been prepared by the National Committee on Coastal and Ocean
Engineering (NCCOE) of Engineers Australia, to assist professional engineers in the
application and use of the Coastal Engineering guidelines for working with the
Australia Coast in an ecologically sustainable way.

CONTENTS

C.1. PURPOSE OF OUTFALLS 3

C.2. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 4
C.3. IMPACTS 4
C.3.1 Areal Extent 4
C.3.2. Impacts on Beneficial Uses 4
C.3.3 Water Quality Properties 4
C.3.4 Oceanic Properties 4
C.4. INVESTIGATIONS 5
C.4.1 Scope 5
C.4.2 Receiving Water Properties 5
C.4.3 Effluent Properties 5
C.4.4 Pre-Construction Baseline Data 6
C.5 DESIGN 6
C.5.1 Design Principles 6
C.5.2 Near-field Design 6
C.5.3 Far-field Design 7
C.5.4 Combining Dilution Results 7
C.5.5 Accounting for Variability 8
C.5.6 Functional Design 8
C.6 CONSTRUCTION 9
C.6.1 Outfall Types 9
C.6.2 Fabrication 9
C.6.3 Trenched Pipeline Outfalls 9
C.6.4 Tunnels and Drilled Outfalls 10
C.6.6 Environmental Impacts 10
C.7. POST-CONSTRUCTION MONITORING 10
C.7.1 Purpose 10
C.7.2 Performance Aspects 10
C.7.3 Impact on Biota 10
C.8 REFERENCES 11

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C.1. Purpose of Outfalls

It is a common practice to use coastal waters (ocean or estuary) as a means of returning
the byproducts of onshore activities to the environment. Any water is returned to the
hydrological cycle and nutrients to the food chain. However, certain substances in
certain circumstances can have an adverse impact on the environment unless good
practice is followed. The structures through which these byproducts are conveyed to the
receiving waters are termed outfalls. They generally consist of a single or multiple pipe
system, and the materials so discharged can be stormwater, industrial waste, heated
processed water typically from power stations, sewage or sewage effluent from
treatment plants. There are more than 50 outfalls discharging sewage from Australian
cities and other coastal communities to the ocean. Many coastal river basins have more
than one ocean outfall. The outfalls range from small (less than 5 ML/day Average Dry
Weather Flow), to very large (more than 50 ML/day ADWF). They discharge at
different locations: shorebased outfalls discharging either above or below low tide
level; nearshore outfalls discharging in water depths less than 10 metres; and offshore
outfalls discharging significant distances offshore in depths from 10 to 80 metres.

Outfalls, where utilised, form an integral component of a broader sewage/waste

byproduct management system. A wide range of options for different outfall types
coupled to different levels of treatment are available. All options should be considered
in selection of appropriate waste management and disposal systems if the objectives of
prevention of public health risks, achievement of ecologically sustainable development
and optimisation of economic costs and benefits are to be achieved.

Understanding of the overall environmental impact and effectiveness of different

sewage/waste management strategies (e.g. ocean outfalls, high treatment levels,
irrigation of effluent, potable re-use) is limited. Public confidence in outfalls
significantly suffered in the 1980s with the Australia-wide reporting of excessive
pollution of Sydney's beaches due to primary treated effluent being discharged in large
volumes at shoreline outfalls. Since improvements in treatment, industrial trade waste
management implementation and replacement of shore-based outfalls by offshore
deepwater outfalls, the Sydney performance has improved to the extent that pollution
levels and environmental impacts meet EPA licence and international standard
guidelines.

In the main, small to moderate outfall discharges in coastal communities beyond major
cities incorporate secondary or tertiary treatment coupled to shore-based outfalls or
even discharges to estuaries or rivers.

In any evaluation for sewage/waste management, it is essential that all options and
option combinations be considered. There is not a single "right" answer applicable to all
locations, the issues are complex and tradeoffs will be required whichever option is
chosen.

In general, the ultimate goal of potable re-use is acknowledged. However, it is equally

acknowledged that full scale potable re-use is many years away and that in some cases
ocean outfalls may be the least–worst interim solution. Health risks and likelihood of
environmental and ecological impacts are higher for discharges to estuaries or rivers
than to the ocean. Many community and environmental groups are increasingly
expressing concerns regarding sewage/waste disposal (irrespective of treatment levels)
to local rivers or estuaries.

Increasingly, strategies are being developed to reduce the loading upon outfalls by
reducing the input to the system (trade waste management, improved treatment), and/or
increasing on-land disposal and/or recycling of the effluent (potable and non-potable).

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C.2. Principles Of Operation

The operation of outfalls is directed in most instances at mixing the effluent as quickly
as possible with the receiving waters in order to reduce its concentration to an
environmentally acceptable level. These practices are based upon the hypothesis that
most effluents will in fact be recycled by oceanic processes. Consistent with this
hypothesis regulating authorities are moving to reduce, and eventually totally remove
from effluents, certain non-degradable substances such as heavy metals and some
pesticides.

C.3. Impacts
C.3.1. Areal Extent
Most outfalls are located at distances between zero and three km from the shoreline and
their impact is generally limited to those particular areas. Estuarine and river outfalls
are normally located close to the shoreline.

Effluent from outfalls has an impact upon the water column which is most marked at the
terminal end of the outfall which may incorporate a multi-port diffuser section. Any
possible impacts decrease with increase in distance from the diffuser because of
dispersion. There may be long term impacts upon the benthos near the outfall diffuser
whilst construction activities can have short term impacts on the benthos and on the
water quality throughout the water column.

C.3.2. Impacts on Beneficial Uses

The following is a list of beneficial uses which may be impacted in a negative fashion
by outfalls if careful professional practice were not followed in their investigation,

• water contact sports,

design, construction and operation:

• recreational boating,
• benthic species diversity,
• fisheries,
• general aesthetics,
• industrial water use,
• the marine working environment.

The impacts on these beneficial water body uses generally would be the result of some
degradation in environmental quality caused by the effluent. Most impacts in fact would
occur within the vertical water column with the notable exception of those affecting
benthic species diversity.

C.3.3. Water Quality Properties

• disease factors, bacteria and viruses,

Ocean water quality will be degraded during effluent disposal by the following factors:

• heavy metals,
• bio-chemical oxygen demand,
• organochlorides,
• nutrients,
• turbidity,
• grease and oil,
• odours,
• floating debris,
• plankton blooms (restricted to estuaries),
• unnatural colour.

C.3.4. Oceanic Properties

The potential impacts of outfalls on the marine environment are moderated by the
following physical properties of the ocean environment:
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•
•
bathymetry,

•
sea bed geology,

•
regional water circulation patterns,

•
local and temporal variations to the above,

•
wind stress,

•
wave climate,

•
density structure,
turbulent mixing.

C.4. Investigations
C.4.1. Scope
Investigations into outfalls require measurements or estimates of both the properties and
dynamics of the receiving waters and the quantity and properties of the effluent. A
prediction is then made of the performance of an outfall of a particular type in mixing
the effluent with the ocean and of the effluent's subsequent trajectory in the ocean
waters.

C.4.2. Receiving Water Properties

The properties and dynamics of the receiving waters should be measured or assessed
over at least one year in order to accommodate all seasonal effects. A longer period of
measurement would enable an assessment to be made of inter-annual variations.
However, it is not always possible to extend the data collection program for more than
one year, but if it were, a three year period would be the next step to be considered. The
properties measured over the sampling period should include water temperature,
salinity, suspended sediment, turbidity, and oceanic flow fields. Measurement of the
physical properties at intervals of two to four weeks would be reasonable, and an
extensive ocean flow field measurement should be undertaken at least once every
month. The representativeness or otherwise of the measurement period would be
assessed using whatever long term climate data is available for the area.

The flow field measurement should be extensive enough to cover significant features
both upcoast and downcoast from the outfall site and normally would involve a distance
of some 5 km each side of a large outfall. The measurement field should also extend
seaward (if an ocean outfall) to the estimated offshore limit of any effluent field. The
monthly measurements over this domain should be detailed enough to define the surface
flow field with typical velocities. Techniques for making these measurements could
include Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs), towed current meters logged in
association with GPS position fixing systems, or drogues deployed over the area at the
beginning of each test and tracked either by survey or by fast boat using a GPS system.
In situ long term recording current meters (or ADCPs) can be used to supplement the
flow field measurements but are not generally sufficient in themselves to provide the
data required, largely because of the great number that would be needed to give a good
spatial coverage of the receiving waters.

In addition to the regional flow field measurements it is desirable to have local velocity
measurements made at the site of the outfall. When the outfall terminates at or near the
shoreline this can be done using dye tracing by field hands located on the shore.
However, with an extended ocean outfall (deep water with high initial dilutions) it
would be necessary to have at least one in-situ recording current meter to collect the
data required.

C.4.3. Effluent Properties

The properties of the effluent that are needed include estimates of average and peak
flows, temperature, salinity, suspended sediment concentration, and concentration of
prescribed substances such as faecal coliforms, BOD, pH, nutrients, metals,
organochlorides, grease and oils, etc (these are generally set by licensing authorities).
These properties are highly variable and hence the probability distribution derived from
many measurements is required.

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C.4.4. Pre-Construction Baseline Data

In addition to data required principally for the evaluation of the physical and chemical
oceanography of outfall performance, there is a need to collect data pertinent to the
biological environment. In the first place these data may influence the siting and design
of the outfall. A second use would be the definitive description of the biological
environment prior to the installation of the outfall. Post-construction monitoring would
then reveal any environmental impact resulting from its construction and operation. In
the longer term such environmental impact assessment could be useful in establishing a
general impact data base for ocean outfalls.

From a biological environmental viewpoint the benthos warrant most attention, with
lesser effort directed at plankton and nektos. In addition, commercial marine species
warrant specific attention from the point of view of public health and species survival.

The assemblage of species found will depend on the marine climate. Within Australia
this varies from the tropical to the sub-arctic, on the time of year and on the local
physical environment such as current speed, nature of the seabed, wave climate and
turbidity, all of which should be recorded during the surveys. Again, one year would
seem to be the minimum duration of monitoring required so as to include seasonal
variations.

C.5. Design
C.5.1. Design Principles
Most outfalls discharge a liquid which is less dense than sea water. In the past, simple
outfalls have had operational difficulties because of this. On occasions they tended to
produce a density stable effluent field which only slowly dispersed and resulted in high
concentrations of effluent in the local ocean waters.

In recent years successful ocean outfalls have been designed on the basis of two
principles:
1. high efficiency high energy diffusers that mix with ocean water in the area
immediately adjacent to the outfall – initial near-field dilutions in the range of 200
to 2000 being typical;
2. location of the outfall such that the effluent field becomes engaged in the general
ocean current field rather than in a local circulation where a buildup of effluent
could occur – i.e. deepwater offshore outfalls rather than shoreline locations.

The above principles will often, but not always, apply to outfalls in estuaries. The most
notable exceptions are those estuarine outfalls which aim to have effluent advected to
the ocean within one ebb tidal cycle. Here it is often more beneficial to have minimum
near-field mixing with the effluent field being contained and advected from the estuary
via the natural entrance to the ocean.

C.5.2 Near-field Design

The geometry and location of the termination (diffuser section) of the outfall needs to
be designed so that significant mixing with the ocean waters will occur within tens of
metres of the outfall. This can be achieved either by a high velocity jet in the near
surface region, or by discharging the effluent in deep water where its density difference
will cause it to rise through the ocean water column effecting mixing. On occasions
both techniques have been used at the one site. In addition, multiple jet manifolds have
been used in order to reduce the discharge from one particular jet, discharge velocity
being one of the principal determining factors for nearfield dilution.

The design of simple single port outfalls can draw upon a wide body of research work
concerning the dispersion and mixing of jets with density differences in a variety of
current fields. Numerical models are also available to deal with multiple port diffuser
outlets. Some more complicated layouts warrant physical model testing in which the
density difference is incorporated in the model.

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The rise of the mixed plume can likewise be treated using numerical or physical
modelling. It is worth noting that on occasions with a density stratified ocean it is
possible for the effluent plume to reach equilibrium with the water column without
reaching the surface. The most frequent cause for such density stratification is a
variation of temperature with depth. This phenomenon produces a submerged effluent
field and is amenable to calculation with the more sophisticated numerical models.
Whether a submerged field is a desirable outcome is a matter for individual evaluation,
taking into account the nature of the effluent.

An associated problem which can be found in deep outfalls with multiple port/nozzle
diffusers is that of purging the system of ocean water when starting up after an
extended shut down. The flow required to purge such a system exceeds the flow
required for stable operating conditions. The failure to purge can result in effluent flow
through some nozzles and the flow of seawater into the system through others. This
reduces the effectiveness of the system in diluting the effluent. This problem has been
the subject of research in recent years and the process is generally understood, although
it may be that this problem is best treated using physical hydraulic models (Wood, Bell
and Wilkinson, 1993).

C.5.3. Far-field Design

The design of an outfall in order to achieve mixing of the effluent with the general
ocean circulation can be achieved by a number of means. The outfall can be located at
the seaward limit of a prominent headland and discharge at or near the water surface in
such a way as to achieve a reasonable initial dilution. The subsequent effluent field will
generally be incorporated in the broader ocean circulation. Data collection as outlined
in "Investigations" would be needed to establish this fact. A second option would be an
extended pipeline generally on the bed or buried in a shallow trench, terminating at a
point sufficiently seaward so that the effluent was beyond the influence of local
circulations. A third option applicable only to very large outfalls would consist of a
tunnel system achieving the same objective as the extended pipe outfall.

The other aspect of far-field design concerns the dispersion and dilution of the effluent
field. The advection of the effluent field can be designed knowing the current regimes
and the dispersion calculated from a knowledge of the oceanic dispersion parameters.
These parameters are generally available for ocean waters and, in particular, a large
amount of data has been collected for nearshore Australian coastal waters. The
techniques applicable to this part of the design generally involve some type of
dispersion driven concentration reductions. At the same time this dispersion increases
the extent of the effluent field. Simple calculations or more complex numerical models
are generally available to undertake this part of the work. These do require flow field
and diffusion data specific to the site.

C.5.4. Combining Dilution Results

It is common practice to calculate near-field dilution which occurs between the outfall
terminal and some location nearby. This is frequently the point at which the effluent
field achieves density stability with its environment. Licences will generally specify a
minimum value for nearfield (initial) dilution.

Far-field calculations are concerned with the way effluent is advected, dispersed and
further diluted with oceanic waters. This generally involves field measurement or
estimation of some dispersion parameters. On occasions downstream dilutions are
referenced to a unit concentration at the nearfield boundary.

Care should be exercised in the way these two values of dilution or concentration are
manipulated in order to get an overall dilution at some location downstream in the far-
field. The average far-field concentration of pollutant at any location is in fact the
pollutant flux at source divided by the flux of the effluent field at that location. The
dimensions of the effluent field are arrived at by making some logical truncations (for
instance at the 10% of peak level). Peak concentrations can be derived by consideration
of a concentration profile (generally Gaussian). With some methods of specifying

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nearfield and far-field dilutions it is not correct to multiply the two values to get the
overall downstream dilution. One simple method of combining nearfield and far-field
concentrations is to treat the downstream boundary of the nearfield as if it resulted from
a virtual point source of effluent some distance upstream (with respect to the oceanic
flow field). Some engineers have referred to this calculated distance as the "headstart".
The point source and oceanic dispersion parameters are then the only variables used in
calculating downstream effects in the far-field.

C.5.5. Accounting for Variability

As mentioned above, the properties of both receiving waters and the effluent are highly
variable and some method is needed to account for this variablity. There are three
possible approaches.
1. Choose conservatively high (or sometimes low) values for all parameters to use
in the design. The resulting combination should incorporate a high but
unknowable factor of safety. In most cases a single combination is not sufficient
as it is not always apparent whether high or low values would be conservative.
A case in point is the value for coastal current speed for which a high value is
conservative for near-field dilution but the reverse may be true for far-field.
Various combinations should be tried and the worst chosen for design.
2. Use Monte-Carlo methods whereby the statistics of all parameters are used to
generate random values for each parameter in simple models of the outfall
behaviour. By carrying out the simulation thousands of times the statistics of the
important parameters can be generated to be compared with licence or design
targets (Webb and Cox, 1997).
3. Simulate outfall operation for a long period of time. For this method the
statistics need to incorporate time series – either measured or generated. The
modelling techniques can be as sophisticated (accurate) as can be afforded
(Wood et al, 1993). The simulation time to generate reliable statistics can be
considerable - at least hundreds of years.

C.5.6. Functional Design

This section deals specifically with the design considerations pertaining to the pipelines
of outfalls, these being the principal components affected by, and affecting the
environment.

• internal and external corrosion protection,

Physical design considerations are:

• adequate ballasting for surface laid pipes,

• adequate mass to ensure shallow buried pipes do not "float out",
• construction stresses during pipe laying,
• ability to accommodate wave and current loads where exposed on the seabed,
• ability to accommodate sand level change particularly in the surf zone and at the
nozzle/diffuser section.

• effectiveness of ports or nozzles in achieving initial dilution,

Hydraulic design considerations include:

• whether to install outlet valves (duckbill),

• whether the system (outfall pipeline diffuser withrisers and ports) can be purged of
sea water if outlet valves are not used.

• Is marine growth likely to degrade hydraulic performance and the need for, and
Biological considerations:

• Is bacterial corrosion of reinforced concrete likely to weaken the outfall structure?

means of, maintenance?

(see Supplement D)

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C.6 Construction
C.6.1 Outfall Types
This Section will deal generally with the more conventional methods of construction
which result in an offshore pipe outfall. Cliff based outfalls have fallen out of favour
either due to poor performance or public perception and are less likely to be selected
options in future. Occasions on which the latter are likely to continue to be selected are
those where there is an extremely prominant headland from which effluent would
become immediately entrained in regional as opposed to local flow fields. In this case
the construction of the outfall need not impact on the marine environment.

The extended ocean outfalls comprise either some system of buried or surface laid pipe
leading to an offshore terminal manifold/diffuser or, a deep tunnel with risers at its
seaward terminus.

C.6.2 Fabrication
For most pipe based outfalls an amount of fabrication is carried out onshore, in some
cases the majority of fabrication. For large pipelines this may be impractical and it may
be necessary to make underwater joints during installation.

C.6.3. Trenched Pipeline Outfalls

Trench Excavation
For those designs where the pipe is to be laid in a trench extending from the shoreline

• clam shell mounted on a trestle or barge,

to deepwater, various methods are available for excavating that trench. They include:

• cutter suction dredge,

• drag line between the shore and an offshore anchor.

When the material is rock or too hard to be excavated by the means above, the options

• drill and blast,

are:

• the use of templates fitted with shaped charges.

Once loosened, the material can then be treated by the methods above.

In excavating the trench, the most difficult section is that through the surf zone. Here it
is often the practice to erect a pile bent trestle and drive sheet piling in order to prevent
the trench being filled with sand driven by wave and current action.

Launching
Where the pipe is assembled onshore it can be launched into the trench either by the
technique of bottom pull, where the pipe is pulled along the bed of the trench by a barge
which progressively moves seawards using its anchors. An alternative is a floating pull
where the pipeline is buoyed and a similar technique is used. However, this method
exposes the pipe to a greater impact from environmental forces. Another alternative is
to join pipe lengths together on a lay barge and as the barge is pulled seaward, to lower
the pipe into the trench. To facilitate this, the barges are normally equipped with a
"stinger" designed to limit pipe stress during lowering. For large pipes the foregoing are
generally impractical and the normal technique involves lowering relatively short
lengths of pipe to the bed and having the jointing done by diving.

Backfill
The trench is normally backfilled at first with pea gravel size material and finally with
material of a sufficient size to remain in place under the action of waves and currents.
Across the surf zone this is normally done from the trestle prior to pulling the sheet
piles. Further offshore the materials are placed from a barge positioned as accurately as
possible above the trench. A certain amount of spreading of the dumped material should
be expected in this procedure. In some circumstances divers have been used to assist the
placement, particularly of the smaller material.

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Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement C

C.6.4. Tunnels and Drilled Outfalls

These construction techniques avoid some of the problems of work in the marine
environment.

Directional drilling can be used for outfalls up to about 1.5 metres in diameter and for
lengths of drilled hole up to about one kilometre. These factors tend to limit its
applicability to small/medium outfalls both by reason of the bored hole's flow capacity
and because the limited distance offshore restricts the ability to engage the effluent
field in regional as opposed to local flow fields.

The need for adequate working space means that tunnelled outfalls are generally larger
than 2.5 metres in diameter. They are appropriate for deepwater outfalls for larger
communities.

Progress of construction is frequently monitored by divers or, in deeper water, by

remotely operated vehicles (ROV). Ongoing regular inspection is principally directed at
the terminal diffuser with checks being made that the seabed profile is not changing to
the extent that it will expose the pipeline or bury the diffusers.

C.6.5. Environmental Impacts

The construction of outfalls, as distinct from their operation, has certain environmental

• interruption to alongshore transport by sheet piling,

impacts. These can be summarised as:

• fish mortality due to blasting,

• removal of benthos by trenching,
• reduced light penetration by induced turbidity,
• smothering of nearby benthos during backfill,
• change of substrate, particularly in rocky areas.

C.7. Post-Construction Monitoring

C.7.1. Purpose
There are two reasons for post-construction monitoring. The first is concerned with
checking the performance of the outfall against the predictions made during the
investigation phase. The second is to monitor changes in the biota and to attempt an
assessment of the outfall's contribution to those changes.

C.7.2. Performance Aspects

Generally there will be existing environmental standards for the performance of
outfalls. These are concerned with dilutions and the concentrations of prescribed
substances. These requirements vary with the type of receiving water body. There are
also, generally, specific licence requirements for each outfall issued by the relevant
environmental authority. Most authorities categorise receiving waters in terms of their
beneficial use and set standards accordingly. One example of this is water bodies where
swimming occurs. This has a higher standard in terms of allowed bacterial count than
do similar waters where there is no swimming. Also among the concepts of beneficial
use are pristine waters which are sometimes protected for this characteristic. The field
checking of these factors is fairly straightforward.
The other aspect of performance which can be checked, but often is not, is that the
system behaves hydraulically as designed. This involves more extensive and complex
measurement including environmental parameters of temperature, salinity, current
velocity and diffusivity. The reason for this type of check would lie in the objectives of
optimising teatment plant/outfall performance as well as improving the investigation
and design capability of the industry generally.

C.7.3. Impact on Biota

An environmental management plan (generally a part of an environmental impact
assessment process) would normally include a program for ongoing monitoring of the
C-10 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering
Engineers Australia
Supplement C Coastal Engineering Guidelines

assemblages covered in the pre-construction baseline data. If these data (pre and post)
are then subject to a factorial type analysis such as an analysis of variance, it should be
possible to isolate from other factors the effect of the outfall on the biota.

C.8. References
Abraham, G. and van Dam, G.C. 1970, "On the Predictability of Waste Concentrations",
Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, Delft, Publication 89.

Bishop, F.R., Law, I.B., Wallis, I.G. 1992, "Ocean Disposal of Wastewater: Position
Paper", Australian Water and Wastewater Association Position Paper.

Brooks, N.H. 1960, "Diffusion of a Sewage Effluent in an Ocean Current", Proc. First
Int. Conf. on Waste Disposal in the Environment, Permagon Press, NY.

Cooper, V.A. and Thomson, M.J. 1989, "Effects of Sea Outfalls on the Environment –
Final Report", Foundation for Water Research, Research Report FR0031.

Environment Protection Authority, NSW 1997, Public Inquiry into the Management of
Sewage and Sewage By-products in the NSW Coast Zone, Government Printer, August.

Fan, L.N. and Brooks, N.H. 1969, "Numerical Solutions of Turbulent Buoyant Jet
Problems", California Institute of Technology W. M. Keck Laboratory Report No. KH-
R-18.

Fandry C.B., Walker, S.J. and Andrewartha, J.R. 1996, "Modelling Effluent Dispersion
in Australian Coastal Waters", National Pulp Mills Research Program, Tech. Rep. 16.

Gameson, A.L.H. (ed) 1974, "Discharge to Sewage from Sea Outfalls", Proc of an
International Symposium, London, 27 August to 2 September, Permagon Press.

Grace, Robert A. 1978, Marine Outfall Systems : Planning, Design and Construction,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.

Gray, L., Gum, W., Krogh, M., Scanes, P, Rendell, P., Mortimer, M., Connell, D., 1995,
"Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental Monitoring Program, Final Report Series,
Vol 4: Trace Metals and Organochlorines in the Marine Environment", Environment
Protection Authority 95/43.

Institution of Civil Engineers, Proc Conf Marine Treatment of Sewage and Sludge,
Brighton, 29-30 April 1987, Thomas Telford, London 1988.

International Conference on Marine Disposal of Wastewater 23-25 May 1988,

Wellington, New Zealand.

Koop, K and Hutchings P. (Eds) 1996, Ocean Outfalls - Sustainable Solution?, Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 33 (7-12), P 147-159, Elsevier Science Ltd 1997.

Kullenberg, G. (Ed) 1986, The Role of the Oceans as a Waste Disposal Option, D
Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Lim, B.B., Walker, J., Philip, N. 1996, "Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental
Monitoring Program, Final Report Series, Vo.l 6: Database", Environment Protection
Authority 96/15.

Ludwig, R.G. and Almeida, S.A.S. (Eds) 1987, "Marine Disposal of Wastewater", Proc
of an IAWPRC Specialised Seminar (1986 : Rio de Janeiro), Oxford, Pergamon Press,
(Water Science and Technology Vol 18, No 11, 1986).

Naidu, P.R., Venugopal, T. (Eds) 1988, Proc. National Workshop on Marine Outfalls
(2nd 1986 : Madras), Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi.

The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering C-11

Engineers Australia
Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement C

Philip, N., Walker, J. 1996, "Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental Monitoring

Program, Final Report Series, Vol. 7: Bibliography", Environment Protection Authority
96/14.

Phillips, D.J.H., Hutchings, P., Walker, D.I. (Eds) 1992, "The Marine Environment and
its Management in Australia", Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol 25, Nos 5-8.

Pritchard T, Rendell P, Scanes P and Philip, N. 1996, "Sydney Deepwater Outfalls

Environmental Monitoring Program, Final Report Series, Vol 1: Assessment of
Deepwater Outfalls", Environment Protection Authority 96/17.

Roberts, D., Henry, G., Otway, N., Ling, J., McVea, T., Walker, A., Gray, C.,
Kingsford, M., Suthers, I., Craig, J., Sullings, D., Lenehan, N., Turner, G. 1996,
"Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental Monitoring Program, Final Report Series,
Vol 5: Impacts on Marine Ecosystems", Environment Protection Authority 95/74.

Robinson, L., Heggie, A. 1995, "Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental Monitoring

Program, Final Report Series, Vol 3: Water Quality", Environment Protection Authority
95/35.

Schulz, T.J., Marczan, P.J., Fane, A.G. 1991, "Behavior of Sewage Effluent Oil and
Grease in the Ocean", Proc. WPCF Annual Conf. (64th : Toronto, Canada, 7-10
October).

Wallis, I. 1987, "Current Practices in the Design, Construction and Environmental

Assessment of Ocean Outfalls", for Environmental Protection Authority of Western
Australia.

Webb, T., Cox D. 1996, “Monte Carlo simulation of Sydney Deepwater Outfalls”, in
Pattiaratchi C. (ed), Coastal and Estuarine Studies, 50, 453-466, AGU, Washington.

Wilson, J.R., Couriel, E.D., Cox, D.R., Howden, M.I., Peirson, W.L., Walker, J.W.
1995, "Sydney Deepwater Outfalls Environmental Monitoring Program, Final Report
Series, Vol. 2: Sewage Plume Behaviour", Environment Protection Authority 95/1.

Wood, I.R. 1992, "Asymptotic Solutions and Behaviour of Outfall Plumes", 13th Hunter
Rouse Hydraulic Engineering Lecture Presented at Hydraulics Division, Specialty Conf.,
Baltimore, Maryland, August. (Reprinted from Jnl Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 119, No.
5, May 1993, 555-580).

Wood, I.R., Bell, R.C., Wilkinson, D.L. 1993, Ocean Disposal of Wastewater, World
Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore (Advanced Series on Ocean Engineering Vol 8).

Zann, L.P. and Sutton, D.C. (Eds) 1995, "The State of the Marine Environment Report
for Australia, Technical Annex 2. Pollution", Dept of Environment Sport and
Territories.

C-12 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering

Engineers Australia
COASTAL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
for working with the Australian coast
in an ecologically sustainable way

Supplement D - Construction Materials

for the Marine Environment
Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement D

Supplement D - Construction Materials for the Marine

Environment

This Supplement has been prepared by the National Committee on Coastal

and Ocean Engineering (NCCOE) of The Institution of Engineers,
Australia, to assist professional engineers in the application and use of the
Coastal Engineering guidelines for working with the Australia Coast in an
ecologically sustainable way.

CONTENTS

D.1. Criteria for Use of Materials 3

D.2. Rock 3
D.3. Timber 3
D.4. Concrete 4
D.5. Steel 5
D.6. Aluminium 6
D.7. Plastics and Rubber 6
D.8. Geotextiles 6
D.9. References 7

D-2 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering

The Institution of Engineers, Australia
Supplement D Coastal Engineering Guidelines

D.1. Criteria for Use of Materials

The choice of materials used in the coastal zone is dependent on an extensive number of

• type and purpose of structure and design detailing,

criteria of which the most important are listed below:

• structural integrity of material,

• material costs and availability,
• maintenance and serviceability including potential for corrosion resulting from

• construction and installation techniques,

construction processes,

• aesthetic and environmental suitability.

• rock,
Materials in common use in the coastal zone include:

• timber,
• concrete,
• steel,
• aluminium,
• plastic and rubber.

While it is recognised these materials are the most commonly used in the coastal zone,
new materials are being developed continually and should be given due consideration if
shown to perform satisfactorily. Details of the most commonly used materials are
discussed in this supplement.

D.2. Rock
Rock is used extensively throughout the Australian coastal zone for seawalls,
revetments and breakwaters. Igneous rocks (e.g. basalt, granite and diorite) are the most
common rock materials used with sedimentary rocks (e.g. sandstone and limestone) used
infrequently in more sheltered environments. In addition to the size, shape, quantity and
homogeneous quality of rocks from a quarry, the most important qualities of a rock

• density,
material to be used in the coastal zone are:

• water absorption (wet density),

• resistance to weathering (Magnesium Sulphate Soundness Test),
• resistance to impact and mineral fabric breakage (fracture toughness or point load

• resistance to abrasion (Los Angeles Abrasion Test),

strength),

• block integrity (free of cracks, veins, laminations, cleavage planes, etc),

• impurities (free of impurities which may effect the soundness of the rock).

The Los Angeles Abrasion Test is considered to be overly harsh for sedimentary rock
and does not properly simulate abrasive forces within a breakwater, but it is still
commonly specified. Sydney Sandstone with estimated Los Angeles Abrasion Losses of
less than 40% has been used successfully as armour in Botany Bay. Similarly, limestone
has been used successfully as armour in Western Australia, United Kingdom and the
Middle East.

D.3. Timber
Timber is used commonly for piles and for wharf and jetty construction. Its relative low
cost and ease of workability are attractive for use in small coastal structures.

• lack of large sizes,

Limitations in its use include:

• structural strength upper limit,

• if immersed, a relatively short lifespan when not protected against attack from
marine borers and fungi.

Timber piles and other timber members subject to immersion usually are constructed
from turpentine (Syncarpia Glomulifera) or from other species capable of accepting

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The Institution of Engineers, Australia
Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement D

protective treatment. Most other suitable timber species require significantly greater
treatment than for turpentine. The most common preservative treatments include
creosote (PEC) and copper-chrome-arsenic (CCA). On occasions timbers are treated
with both PEC and CCA to provide protection against marine boring organisms.
However, experience indicates that CCA treatment of timber cannot be relied upon to
protect against marine borers.

Mechanical protective methods also can be used to prevent the entry of water into areas
affected by borers. Methods include encapsulation with epoxy or concrete and wrapping
of piles/timber members with mastic tape or polythene sheeting.

Timbers suitable (durable) for use in the marine environment above the water line

• blackbutt,
include:

• brushbox,
• forest red gum,
• grey box,
• grey gum,
• grey ironbark,
• jarrah,
• karri,
• mountain grey gum,
• tallowwood,
• turpentine,
• white mahogany,
• white stringybark,
• woollybutt,
• yellow stringybark.

Preservation of these timbers may be achieved using PEC, CCA, copper napthenate,
boron salts and sealants such as bitumen. Some chemical preservation methods may
have impacts upon the marine environment and its ecology. Hence the suitability of any
treatment proposed for a specific situation should be carefully assessed prior to
adoption.

D.4. Concrete
Concrete is used for many applications in the marine environment including: piles,
seawalls, armour units, decking, walkways, ramps, buildings and stormwater pipes.

When properly designed, mixed, placed and cured, concrete is a very good material for

• a minimum strength of 40 MPa,

marine applications. Specifications for structural marine concrete commonly require:

• a minimum cement content of typically 400 kg/m 3 ,

• a low water/cement ratio (< 0.45),
• an aggregate size of approximately 20 mm,
• a water reducing admixture to ensure durability,
• a minimum reinforcement cover of 65 to 75 mm.

Unfortunately the AS 3600 – 1988, SAA Concrete Structures Code is limited in the
guidance it provides for concrete in the marine environment and, as such, a specialist
concrete consultant should be employed to provide specific advice on projects.

Poorly designed or constructed concrete may break down and fail. Insufficient cover
over steel reinforcement and/or cracking of the concrete will lead to seawater chlorides
coming into contact with the steel, resulting in the reinforcement corroding and
subsequent spalling of the concrete. Particularly susceptible are joints between slabs
and beams, joints between piles and beams and corners where large arrises may reduce
reinforcement cover. Particularly close supervision is needed during concrete pours to
ensure the steel is not displaced so as to reduce cover. Even protruding wire ties can

D-4 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering

The Institution of Engineers, Australia
Supplement D Coastal Engineering Guidelines

become a track for rust to penetrate the finished concrete. Precast concrete is often
preferred (to onsite pouring) as higher degrees of quality control over the mixing,
placement and curing of concrete can be achieved in a controlled environment.

To resist cracking and to increase concrete durability, “Fibrecrete” is sometimes added.

Epoxy coated or galvanised reinforcing is available to enhance the durability of the
concrete. However, if good mixing and placement practices are employed coating
should not be necessary. The protection of steel reinforcement using cathodic protection
systems is becoming more common.

Concrete in direct contact with seawater (splash zone) requires special attention.
Minimum concrete strength of 50MPa and a special mix design are required to reduce
permeability. Use of additives, such as "flyash" or "silica fume" or a combination of
these, will decrease the concrete’s permeability significantly and therefore is an option
to be considered.

Concrete used for foundations in contact with acid-sulphate soils should be subject to
the same high quality controls as when in contact with seawater. Sulphate-reducing
bacteria have an adverse effect upon the bond between reinforcing steel and concrete.

D.5. Steel
Steel has a superior load bearing capacity to timber and is often more suitable on large-
scale projects involving high design loads. Compared to timber, steel is relatively
expensive and is often uneconomical for use on small projects.

Advantages of steel are ease of fabrication, high load bearing capacity, high impact
resistance and the large range of shapes and sizes readily available. The main
disadvantage of steel is its vulnerability to corrosion. In particular, it is extremely
difficult to complete a field weld that does not become a site for future corrosion.

Corrosion prevention of steel can be achieved by several methods, although different

• Cathodic protection and impressed current systems are commonly used for
types of applications are usually employed between submerged and dry zones.

protection of steel below mean water level (mid tide level). The design of impressed
current systems is a specialist's province and should not be attempted without the
requisite skills. The interaction between such systems and steel hulled ships berthed
at the wharves protected by these systems needs to be thoroughly investigated.
Between mid tide and high tide level these protective systems are relatively
ineffective. Becoming more common is the protective wrapping of steel piles up to
the deck level, with anodes inserted underneath the wrapping. By maintaining
moisture beneath the wrapping and in contact with the steel and anodes a cathodic

• Hot dip galvanising is effective for steel which is only rarely wetted by seawater. It
protection system is developed.

is not suitable for fully submerged fixed steel components (e.g. piles) and is

• Some epoxy or polyester based paint systems will provide good corrosion protection
particularly vulnerable in the intertidal zone.

to steel. They are also useful for submerged steel which can be removed for re-

• Wrapping with impregnated fabric tape has proven to be successful in the intertidal
application of paint (e.g. pontoons).

zone. Inner layers of the fabric contain petroleum jelly and the outer layers are

• Encasement of steel using fibreglass, fibre reinforced cement and a plastic is also
impregnated with bitumen which can be heat-sealed.

possible. This protective treatment is suitable where flexure of steel piles or

members is small.

Stainless steel is rarely used in the coastal zone, with the exception of frequently
adjusted fasteners and fittings, owing to its relatively high cost and high corrosion
susceptibility in warm ocean waters.

It is common practice to provide a corrosion thickness allowance (factor of safety) in

steel design strength calculations.

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The Institution of Engineers, Australia
Coastal Engineering Guidelines Supplement D

D.6. Aluminium
Aluminium has a high strength to weight ratio and therefore is often used for the
construction of pontoons and gangways. Aluminium is an expensive material and is
generally used only where strength and weight limitations need to be considered.

Aluminium suffers from extreme electrolytic corrosion in the presence of metals of

different electric potential. A polyurethane paint system is required to protect
aluminium submersed in seawater. For aluminium exposed to air protection by
anodising or resin coating is recommended

Only aluminium alloys of series 5000 or 6000 should be used near seawater so as to
counter long-term corrosion. Welding and application of protective coatings should be
undertaken in a factory-controlled environment, wherever possible.

D.7. Plastics and Rubber

Numerous plastics and rubbers are used in the coastal zone for their resistance to
corrosion and their flexibility. However, many are susceptible to damage from exposure
to ultra violet light and some are vulnerable to attack from petroleum-based products.

• Butyl,
Examples of materials used in the marine environment include:

• natural rubber,
• Neoprene,
• Polyethylene,
• Polypropylene,
• Polystyrene,
• Polyurethane,
• PVC.

D.8. Geotextiles
Geotextiles are commonly used in coastal applications as a filter medium between finer
sand/silt sediments and coarser gravel/armour rock used in breakwater or to cover
pipelines. Generally coastal construction techniques and operational exposure
conditions are more severe than those encountered in land based applications of

• Abrasion and puncture resistance properties need to be stronger and carefully

geotextiles:

• Permeability/hydraulic conductivity will reduce significantly due to clogging of the

selected for the specific application - field trials can be useful.

geotextile by silts and marine fouling, repetitive tidal and wave driven fluctuations
in water pressure accelerating the process. Designs dependent upon high geotextile

• Tensile strength requirements are dictated by construction methods.

permeability should be avoided.

• Many geotextile products deteriorate when exposed to Ultra Violet light - in such
situations UV resistant products should be used.

In recent times, an expanding range of concrete block mattresses (utilising geotextiles

as the matting base or container) has been increasingly used for seabed scour
protection. The products have restricted application as surface wave protection layers in
seawalls or breakwaters.

Geotextile containers of varying shapes and sizes can be successfully pumped with sand
and used in temporary or permanent coast structures - the performance of "geo-bags" is
dependent upon not only the bag shape, size and sand density, but also the alignment

• temporary bunding for reclamation,

and packing/placement arrangement. Specific applications include:

• submerged reef construction,

• toe scour protection for seawalls,
• groynes,
• back-beach seawalls.
D-6 The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering
The Institution of Engineers, Australia
Supplement D Coastal Engineering Guidelines

D.9. References
Allen, R.T.L. 1998, Concrete in Coastal Structures, Thomas Telford, London.
CIRIA/CUR 1991, Manual on the Use of Rock in Coastal and Shoreline Engineering,
A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Clark, A.R. 1988, The Use of Portland Stone Armour in Coastal Protection and Sea
Defence Works, Q. J. Eng. Geol., London, 21, 13-136.
Ingold, T. S. and Miller, K.S. 1988, Geotextile Handbook, Thomas Telford, London
Kirkby, G. 2002, Performance criteria for concrete in marine environments, Aust. Civ.
Eng. Trans., Vol. CE94, pp 85-89.
Moosavi, A.N., Dawson, J.L. and King, R.A. 1986, The Effect of Sulphate-reducing
Bacteria on the Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete, Biologically Induced Corrosion,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, June 1985 (Nat. Ass. Corrosion Engs), 154-161.
National Association of Forest Industries 1989, Timber Decks. Commercial Industrial
and Marine, Timber Datafile SS4.
National Association of Forest Industries 1989, Timber – Design for Durability, Timber
Datafile P4.
National Association of Forest Industries 1993, Timber Pile Foundations, Timber
Datafile SS8.
Patterson, A. 1997, Problems of Concrete Structures in the Sea. Pacific Coasts and
Ports 1997 – Proc. 13 t h Australasian Coastal and Ocean Eng Conf and 6 t h Australasian
Port and Harbour Conf, Christchurch, NZ, University of Canterbury, Centre Advanced
Eng., Vol. 2, 841 - 846. ISBN 0 908 993 161.
Pilarczyk, K.W. 1999, Geosynthetics and Geosystems in Hydraulic and Coastal
Engineering, AA Balkema, Rotterdam.
Timber Development Association (NSW) Ltd 1989, Corrosion and Timber. Suitability of
Timber in Corrosive Situations, Timber Information Leaflet No. 5.
Timber Development Association (NSW) Ltd 1997, Preservative Treated Timber. Types,
Regulations, Uses, Timber Information Leaflet No. 15.

The above reference list has been added to as recent publications in Coastal Engineering
Construction have appeared. The text of the supplement does not necessarily refer to
nor is it necessarily consistent with these references.

The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering D-7

The Institution of Engineers, Australia