MANI-002 Physical Anthropology

MANI-002
PHYSICAL
Indira Gandhi
ANTHROPOLOGY
National Open University
School of Social Sciences
Block
1
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT 1
Definition and Scope 5
UNIT 2
Relationship with Other Disciplines 17
UNIT 3
Applied Dimensions-I 25
UNIT 4
Applied Dimentions-II 33
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University University of Delhi, Delhi
Patiala
Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Professor K. K. Misra Department of Anthropology
Director Andhra University
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University School of Social Sciences
Kolkata Indira Gandhi National Open University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy
Retired, Department of Anthropology Dr. S. M. Patnaik
S V University, Tirupati Associate Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor R. K. Pathak
University of Delhi, Delhi
Panjab University Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Principal, Hindu College Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor
Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor P. K. Seth Mrs. Narinder Jit Kaur
Retired, Department of Anthropology Retired, Associate Professor in English
University of Delhi, Delhi Government Mohindra College, Patiala
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Dr Rashmi Sinha (Units 1,2 & 3) Dr. P. Venkatramana (Unit 4)
Reader, Faculty of Anthropology Assistant Professor, Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.
Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5545-8
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BLOCK 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Introduction
We are so inquisitive to know about ourselves right from what we were earlier to
why we are like today. The scientific family and individual have been enamored
by the subject for many years. All the answers lead us to the in-depth knowledge
in the discipline of Anthropology. Anthropology is holistic in approach as it
deals with human beings all around the world and throughout time by examining
the historical and present geographical distribution and considering all aspects
of human, both biological as well as social. The strength of physical anthropology
lies in its wide horizon to understand man as a physical being in his prehistoric
setting and cultural context ruled by a multifaceted system of customs, attitudes
and behaviour. Amongst the branches in Anthropology, Physical Anthropology
holds a very coveted position.
Physical anthropology is about humans’ place in nature. It is a very sought-after

arena of anthropology. The mechanisms of biological evolution [i.e., how man
evolved to present form], genetic inheritance (refers to passing of traits from one
generation to the next), human adaptability and variation, primatology, and the
fossil record of human evolution set up Physical Anthropology.
What is Physical anthropology, its definition at various times past and present is
dealt in Unit 1. Its historical journey to the days when physical anthropology
meant human variation and measurement, to the current status when our
knowledge has advanced through technical progression, the aim and scope of
this subject and an overview of the several sub disciplines of physical
anthropology exploring human yet maintaining its own identity will all be dealt
in this introductory unit.
Anthropology is not an isolated but is a broad field of study. It involves all branches
of learning that concerns human and hence is involved with several other
disciplines. Unit 2 concerns with the interdisciplinary and trandisciplinary
approaches in relation to physical anthropology. There are some strong
connections between physical anthropology and other disciplines like forensic
science, life sciences, medical sciences, earth sciences, human biology,
environmental sciences, social sciences, human engineering and technology, and
physical sciences.
Anthropology has spread its tentacles to more than just being an academic
discipline. The recent years reflect an ever increasing recognition; what
anthropology has discovered and can discover about human is invaluable. Applied
and academic anthropology are not mutually restricted approaches, infact, applied
anthropology banks on research and theory of academic anthropology and
simultaneously has much to contribute to theory and technique. But then the
applied aspect of physical anthropology is far from the knowledge bank of the
subject. Applied anthropology is dedicated in making theoretical anthropological
knowledge useful. The applied aspect in physical anthropology is not a recent
discipline which needs an introduction. The knowledge gained by physical
anthropology has been used for getting practical benefits in various fields will
History and Development of be dealt in unit 3 and 4. The application of physical anthropology in field of
Physical Anthropology
designing, forensic anthropology, diseases, aging, sports, public health and
nutritional anthropology would be covered in Unit 3 and Unit 4 deals with
paternity diagnosis, genetic counseling, eugenics and DNA technology and its
use in disease and medicine.
4
Definition and Scope
UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE
Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition
1.3 Aim
1.4 Scope
1.5 History
1.6 Branches and its Development
1.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions
Learning Objectives &

After reading this unit, you would know the:
Ø definition of physical anthropology and its historical background;
Ø scope of physical anthropology; and
Ø different branches of physical anthropology.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Physical anthropology is an important field of anthropology. Aren’t we inquisitive
to know about ourselves? How we were in the past to why we are like today? In
this course on Physical Anthropology, let us first define what physical
anthropology is and what does one achieve knowing this discipline. The historical
background will take you back to the days when physical anthropology meant
human variation and measurement to the current status, when we have advanced
our knowledge through technical progression. The progress in this discipline
has paved the way for several branches in physical anthropology.
1.2 DEFINITION
It very much interests us to know more about our past, present and future. What
were the stages that took us to our present day form? All the answers lead us to
the in-depth knowledge of Anthropology. The word Anthropology consists of
Greek word “Anthropos” which means man and “logos” stands for study. It is a
very vast subject comprising man as a physical being, man in his prehistoric
setting and man in his cultural context who is ruled by a multifaceted system of
customs, attitudes and behaviour. Anthropology is holistic in approach as it is
concerned with all human beings, at all times, around the world through the
examination of historical and present geographical distribution of human both
biological as well as social. In a broader perspective, it is comparative science of
man, his variation and their causes.
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History and Development of Amongst the various branches in Anthropology, Physical Anthropology holds a
very coveted position. What is Physical Anthropology? It is not a simple task to
provide a specific definition of physical anthropology for the simple reason that
it involves interdisciplinary approach. Paul Broca, father of Physical Anthropology
defines it as natural history of the genus Homo and more concretely as the science
whose objective is to study humanity as a whole and in relationship to rest of the
nature. Herskovits identifies that physical anthropologists study such matters as
the nature of racial differences; the inheritance of bodily traits; the growth,
development and decay of human organism; the influence of natural environment
on man. According to Juan Comas, it is defined as science which studies variation,
comparative study of the human body and its inseparable functions, exposition
of the causes and courses of human evolution, transmission and classification,
effects and tendencies in the functional and organic differences, etc.
Broadly speaking, Physical Anthropology comprises of biological evolution,

genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, and the fossil
record of human evolution. Physical Anthropology thus reflects an important
scenario in today’s increasingly specialised world of science.
The discipline thereby facilitates us in investigating the sources of variation which

are the result of genetic differences and environmental modifications and
directions of change which originated in the past. These differences perhaps
arose over long spans of time through evolution both among individuals and
groups. This very understanding of human organism is the strength of physical
anthropology and in today’s increasingly specialised world of science, it
constitutes an important perspective. The domain of physical anthropology is
widespread leading into physicians’ seminars, schoolroom classes or even in
casual conversation, endorsing its broad spectrum.
The branch of anthropology that concerns the human and nonhuman primate
evolution, the biological basis of human behaviour, and human biological
variability and its significance (giving it a proximity to biological science) is
referred to as biological anthropology while physical anthropology is largely an
American and British concept. In most European and many other countries,
physical anthropologists are the only ones who are considered as anthropologists,
while others are referred to as archaeologists, ethnologists, linguists, or
prehistorians depending upon their field of specialisation.
1.3 AIM
The broad based understanding of human organism is the strength of physical
anthropology. Not only this, physical anthropology integrates bio-cultural studies
of human diversity, the ancestors of human species, comparative anatomy,
ecology, behaviour and history of primates. Physical anthropologists are interested
in studying human genetics, growth and development and evolutionary history.
They attempt to accurately describe human physical structure both past and present
and also investigate how function and behaviour are integrated into the
environment in which human beings live.
Human biology has many times been erroneously used as a synonym for physical
anthropology although, there is clear cut area for both the fields. Human biology
comprises structure and function of contemporary man, whereas physical
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anthropology refers to all that is chronological, racial, social and even pathological Definition and Scope
groupings of human. They are very close knit, yet they maintain individual identity
in working methods, techniques and objectives.
1.4 SCOPE
With so much information getting unveiled, do you think physical anthropology
is merely an academic subject? On the contrary, the recent years reflect an ever
increasing recognition of what anthropology has discovered and can discover
about humans.
The essence of physical anthropology right from its inception remains focused
on man’s physical characters, their origin, how they evolved and their development
to present state that is, whatever we are today is the result of past and present
conditions. Physical anthropology is widely accepted as the comparative science
of man as a physical organism in context to his total surrounding be it social or
cultural or physical; because development of his physical and cultural factors is
reliant on the environment prevailing at that time.
What makes physical anthropology so indispensable? The answer lies in the

very fact that the understanding and assessment of the degree of human variability
along with the accounting of factors responsible for our current distribution have
been of vital concern. Major answer lies in the fields of genetics and anthropometry
which has been used in approximating the causes of diversification and human
variation. Human variation is a specialised branch of physical anthropology.
The stages of evolution particularly the ‘prehuman’ history of man to his present
form is the basis of Primatology. It also includes the study of human biology
including anatomy, physiology and ethology. Undeniable is the contribution of
Primate Palaeontology on extinct primates. This entire phenomenon tracing the
origin of man and his evolution comes under Palaeoanthropology. Appropriate
evaluation of the remains of fossil men in evolutionary outlook requires the
contribution of comparative anatomy as well as embryology or developmental
anatomy and physiology of growth.
Human diversity, another important component of physical anthropology takes

into account human taxonomy, which in anthropological perspective refers to
study of races. It was decided to replace the term ‘race’ with ‘ethnic group’ due
to the misuse of the term, but then again the term is being revived.
The inclusion of human genetics as an essential component of physical

anthropology has witnessed tremendous growth even occupying place in health
magazine about a disease cell or gene therapy to treat diseases. Whatever it may
be, there would undoubtedly be some information related to the field of genetics.
Patterns of inheritance of trait in humans have generated tremendous interest.
The assessment of the distribution and the gene frequency of the traits form an
important basis for evaluating the continuous process of human differentiation.
The information on recurrence of a particular trait interests us a lot, like, what
would be the stature of a child born to parents of average stature. The study of
human genetics has facilitated for treatment and genetic counseling to prevent
recurrence of Down’s and other syndromes. Human population genetics using
mating pattern as a method contributes in the evaluation of inflow and outflow
7
History and Development of of genes which are responsible for evolution. Eugenics forms a fundamental
part of physical anthropology responsible towards the improvement of
populations.
Growth and development in physical anthropology has its own importance, be it

studying secular trends (e.g., increase or decrease of weight in the next generation),
stages of growth, growth pattern of a population, factors affecting nutritional
status and reproductive biology, population variation, all come under the flagship
of physical anthropology.
Recent years have witnessed physical anthropology playing undeniable services

in the field of dentistry, medicine and industrial research. This clearly is reflection
of the basic fact that whenever human body in part or whole needs any explanation
be it the form, functional or age changes, physical anthropology plays a vital
role. The scope of physical anthropology in the field of forensic science is
noteworthy. The various branches of physical anthropology which facilitates
forensic scientist in arriving at conclusion are dermatoglyphics, osteology,
osteometry, and serology; somatic and genetic characteristics contributing towards
the determination of age and sex. Somatological knowledge plays an important
role in interpreting the body types for different sports or even in relation to specific
disease.
1.5 HISTORY
Early physical anthropologists pondered about the nature and geneses of human
races. Variation in human phenotypes mesmerized them. Way back in the
seventeenth century, it was widely accepted by the western scholars that humans
belonged to a single species, all descendants of Noah and his family. When they
came across so many different looking human beings, it struck upon them the
diversity among mankind. This was obviously something they had not imagined.
With the advent of 18th century, physical anthropology answered this curiosity
with its emergence as the scientific study of race, a response to the presence of
so many human types.
The founder of physical anthropology was the German physician Johann Friedrich
Blumenbach (1752–1840) of Göttingen; he was also regarded as the inventor of
craniology, build up enormous collection of human skulls, and thus had right to
be an empirical power on the question of human diversity. According to him,
mankind could be divided into five races: American, Caucasian, Ethiopian,
Malayan and Mongolian.
The very first impression everyone had, was that all contemporary human races
were monogenic, which meant that man’s origin was from a single gene. James
Cowles Prichard (1786-1848), was of the opinion that, as the descendants of
Adam became lighter-skinned they attained higher intellects and civilization.
With passage of time, all races would become similar to Western Europeans, the
race that in his view had progressed farther or more rapidly. It was in late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the proposal that races were polygenic,
that is more than one gene, picked up momentum in the scientific circles of
Europe especially France and America. The advocates of polygenism were of
the view that the extent of human diversity found could not be attributed to the
opponents of polygenism as the variation between the races was too much to be
8
just a resultant of environmental differences and too great for humanity to be Definition and Scope
attributed to a single species. Therefore, there must have been many species
right from the beginning. This human variation which came into limelight was
studied using anthropometric measurements (anthropometry) by a Philadelphia
physician and advocate of polygenism, Samuel George Morton (1799-1844), in
later nineteenth century.
Anthropological Society of Paris, first in the field of Anthropology, was founded

in 1859 by a French surgeon, Paul Broca (1824-1880). He set up an
anthropological laboratory the previous year, which subsequently became the
Centre for a training program for anthropologists. Broca followed the tradition
of Samuel Morton. Most of the activities of these early physical anthropologists
could be categorized as racial craniology. Anthropometry took lead and spread
from Broca’s laboratory to other institutions. It became clearer why polygenism
was preferred over monogenism. The polygenists were in a position to make
their point more acceptable. Broca emphasised that it was incorrect to attribute
the huge diversity in races due to degeneration and also argued that it would be
degrading to believe the diversity of racial variation as degeneration from a single
superior species.
Paul Broca along with other French physical anthropologists intensified their
work on cranial anatomy and other small variations. While the German tradition,
led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) stressed on the fact that the variation
observed in the human form is a result of environment and disease upon the
human body, and the lack of fit among race, nation, and culture. The American
tradition focused upon the “pacified” aboriginal (Indian) inhabitants of the North
American continent, unearthing and gathering skeletons as scientific objects along
with artifacts, languages, and culture.
It was Edward Tyson (1650-1708), a London physician and member of the Royal
Society, who started the European primate studies and differentiated between
the animal, humans, and monkeys by dissecting a chimpanzee. In fact lot of
curiosity was generated among people in primate behaviour despite it most of
the early scientific investigations were basically anatomical. Thomas Henry
Huxley’s in Man’s Place in Nature (1863) endeavored to apply Darwinism to
appreciate the origins of human. Thus Primatology focused on anatomy and look
for primate evolution from paleontological record. It was Ernst Haeckel (1834-
1919) in Germany who published an encyclopedia of primate anatomy and came
up with first scientific phylogenetic trees. It was because of these efforts that
made us understand what we are today, with anatomy remaining the focal point
until after 1900.
Subsequently, with the advent of nineteenth century, it was anthropometry which

came more in limelight by becoming more sophisticated under the patronage of
Karl Pearson (1857-1936), co-founder and editor of the journal, Biometrika. It
goes to the credit of Karl Pearson who treated the measurements of bones and
bodies to statistical tests which made the exercise more scientific including
computations for variation and correlation, and tests of significance for comparing
samples. Physical anthropology was devoted to the study of racial determinism–
a philosophy that assumed the superiority of Caucasoids in the last half of the
nineteenth century.
9
History and Development of It was prevalent in the United States after the Civil War (1861–65) that physical
anthropology was a mystique medical speciality. But it was Franz Boas (1858–
1942) in 1897, an architect of today’s face of physical anthropology who used
his expertise in measuring schoolchildren, and collecting Inuit skeletons. Boas
also propagated changeability of the human form and minimize race in favor of
studying culture.
Ales Hrdlicka (1869–1943), a physician, studied physical anthropology in France,

whereas Hooton, a Classics Ph.D from the University of Wisconsin, then entered
anthropology as an Oxford Rhodes Scholar, under R. R. Marett, and the anatomist
Arthur Keith. In the following decades, Hooton trained most American physical
anthropologists under his umbrella: like Harry L. Shapiro and Carleton S. Coon
whose input to the discipline is unmatched. As the leading US student of race in
the 1930s, Earnest Hooton, a protagonist of race in 1930’s, tried to differentiate
“good” American physical anthropology from “bad” German physical
anthropology. Unaware of the conflict of scientific interpretation, the priceless
input towards the field of anthropology continued between Germans and
Americans, by Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur.
Right in the middle of twentieth century in 1951, a Hooton alumnus, Sherwood

Washburn rediscovered the field with newer focus in physical anthropology;
racial typology studies took a backseat and centre was shifted to the study of
human microevolution distancing from classification, emphasising evolutionary
process and history. Washburn’s anthropology ventured to paleoanthropology
and primatology. As a result, current anthropology boasts of diverse methodology
to get a more vivid picture of animal behaviour, human genetics and medical
anatomy. It has taken several roads of development in recognising physical
anthropology and giving it a very enviable position in scientific fraternity.
1.6 BRANCHES AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

The growth of physical anthropology has been unparallel. In its nascent stages,
physical anthropology was synonym to taking measurements, compute indices
and other statistics. Irrespective of the objectives of study, the methods of
observation, measurement and comparison remained same. As a result, the
approach at that time was stagnant with thrust on taxonomy. This was because
the development of theory was not known at that time and so was genetics.
Consequently for number of years, classical Physical Anthropology was
considered nothing but anthropometry with assumption that with accurate metric
values all the solutions would be there. Precisely for this, an agreement on the
techniques of measurement became necessary and thus was attempted.
The significance of measurements and indices was certainly well understood in

understanding the extent of variability and development in certain traits.
Nevertheless, it does not reveal if all could be put in a single biological category
on the basis of some traits. To get clarity on evolution, race and constitution,
information on number of factors like cranial forms, pigmentation, somatic
structures and growth process is essential, thereby requiring the reorientation of
the methodology becoming vital. This necessitated the beginning of the analytical
phase, thereby initiating a new outlook in Physical anthropology. The new physical
anthropology aims to enhance the knowledge of past by the study of present.
10
Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, as has been Definition and Scope
mentioned earlier specialises in the physical development of the human body
and the human species. Its area of function is large as it involves man. Physical
Anthropology can be divided into several branches. Conventionally, physical
anthropology meant races and anthropometry. But now with passage of time,
many sub-branches have arisen due to vast work done in the quest to know
about ourselves. This is a continuous process and new branches are evolving
depending upon the nature of field area. Some of these include:
Human Growth and Development: This branch of physical anthropology

concerns the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, it involves
growth from a one-cell zygote to an adult human being. Human growth and
development specialises in understanding the different stages of growth, patterns
of growth and the effect of nutrition, environment and genetic factors influencing
growth. The growth studies of different populations not only reflect variation
amongst them but also indicate the growth rate of the nation. There has been
tremendous progress in the field of human growth and development since the
1940s. The studies have enabled to establish the norms of bone development,
sexual maturation so that congenital, nutritional, and other environmental effects
can be detected and utilised clinically in children and adolescents. Another
contribution of the field is that global nutritional surveys recognised small adult
size to be correlated with dietary insufficiency. It is the endeavor of physical
anthropologist to apply anthropometric techniques to the study of aging to have
an insight into longevity of certain people.
Human Genetics: Human genetics involves the study of inheritance of genes-

unit of hereditary, in human beings. It is the common factor of most human
traits. It provides information to questions about human nature, understand the
diseases and their effective treatment, and also understand genetics of human
life. The information on what are the chances of acquiring a trait like blue eyes
or cardiac ailment all can be gathered from human genetics. It incorporates a
variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular
genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental
genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. In fact the rechristening of
physical anthropology to biological anthropology is primarily because of inclusion
of human genetics so as to understand Human better.
Primatology: It is basically concerned with the study of primates. Anthropologists

hope to gain more insight into human nature by studying primates like apes and
monkeys.This branch of physical anthropology encompasses the study of the
hominids, (general term used for humans and any member of the species of
animal we are most closely evolved from), which include all ape-like ancestors
of man and the other great apes. Modern primatology boasts of newer and an
extremely diverse science, ranging from anatomical studies of primate ancestors
and field studies of primates in their natural habitat, to get intrinsic information,
to experiments in animal psychology and ape language. This parameter has
generated tremendous information on basic human behaviours and their ancestry.
Human Evolution: This branch, as the name suggests, revolves around the origin
and evolution of Homo sapiens as a distinct species. The word “human” in the
framework of human evolution speak of the genus Homo. But then how did
humans evolve. In order to understand human evolution we study hominids also
11
History and Development of as the study of hominids holds importance. It is important to know other
disciplines like primatology, archaeology, linguistics and genetics so as to have
a better understanding of human evolution.
Palaeoanthropology: Palaeoanthropology is the study of fossil hominid

evidences petrified bones and footprints, encompassing the discipline of
paleontology. It also involves human osteology which provides historical support
by studying the remains of the human evolutionary lineage. It is amongst the
forerunners of the fundamental branches of physical anthropology.
Paleoanthropology incorporates many disciplines to enrich our knowledge on
human evolution as supported by fossils, artifacts, and their geological and burial
sites. They accomplish the task by reconstructing from the fossils found in the
excavation, the organism or the individual to whom they could probably have
belonged. They must be in know how of human and other primate anatomy and
the principles of taxonomy, so as to explain their discovery.
Human Osteology: The study of human bones is termed as Human Osteology.

Evidences concerning osteology are frequently applied in forensic science. It
holds important information in arenas like health, disease, physique, genetics of
early populations, identification of unknown remains, criminal investigations,
war crimes, etc.
Human Ecology: Ecology is a biological discipline that deals with the interactions
between organisms and their environment. This environment is a sum total of
the physical environment including temperature, water availability, wind, soil
acidity and biological environment which holds influences on an organism.
Human adaptation (physiologic, developmental, and genetic) to environmental
stresses and variation is part of human ecology. Human being is the most versatile
species on earth which can adapt in any environment, be it extreme climate,
deserts, polar region, high altitude or even a marooned island. Human species
are distributed world wide well adapted in diverse environment. The human
group is an ever-increasing population which in return would involve more
consumption of resources; therefore better adoption of the Earth’s primary
production is need of the hour. However, many other human ecological
developments are probable in future. The growth of human population and how
this growth is accommodated, the way they utilise these resources yet preserve
the biodiversity is yet to be comprehended.
Nutritional Anthropology: This branch of physical anthropology enjoys wide

horizons describing how particular social and cultural factor place people at risk
for nutritional disorder or identifying health problems related to nutrition.
Nutritional Anthropology is gaining importance mainly due to concern and
consciousness of people towards health. Anthropologists have contributed to
the specialised fields of nutrition at a more holistic perspective, based on the
historical, direct observation, and documentary accounts. The significance of
this field lies in assessing health status of any population.
Molecular Anthropology: Molecular anthropology is a comparatively newer

branch of physical anthropology which deals with the molecular analysis. It makes
easier to understand the evolutionary links between ancient and modern human
populations, as well as between contemporary species. This enables to determine
the closeness or distance in relationship between populations or within
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populations. The findings of DNA study of primate phylogeny questions the Definition and Scope
views of the traditional anthropologist that humans are very different from all
other animals. Certain similarities in genetic makeup let molecular anthropologists
determine whether or not different groups of people share a common geographical
origin. This paves way for anthropologists to trace patterns of migration and
settlement, which gives an insight as to how contemporary populations have
formed and progressed over time. Molecular anthropology plays a very important
role in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other primates, including
closely related species like chimpanzees and gorillas. This is of vital importance
as it aids in searching for common ancestors and thus in understanding of human
evolution. The coming up of molecular biology that tracked the cracking of the
genetic code fascinated physical anthropologists, interested in knowing the
proximity between the humans and the apes, and the relationships of other
primates to one another and to other creatures. In fact it is claimed that “molecular
clocks” have been unearthed to indicate when species diverged from one another.
Forensic Anthropology: This has been one of the most sought after branches of
physical anthropology. The term “forensic” refers to the application of this subfield
of science to a court of law. Forensic anthropology is the application of the science
of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal scenario; when in a
criminal case, victim’s remains are unidentifiable or in the advanced stages of
decomposition, forensic anthropology helps in identification of the individual.
The techniques of Forensic anthropology helps to assist in the reconstruction of
remains, assessment of age, sex, stature, ancestry, and analyse trauma and disease.
Forensic anthropology is witnessing rapid growth and recognition, laurels of
which goes to anthropologists whose expertise in criminal evidence (fingerprints,
blood types, and skeletal remains) are sought. Forensic anthropologists utilise
the proficiency of forensic pathologists, odontologists, and homicide investigators
to identify a decedent, discover evidence of trauma, and determine the postmortem
interval. Though their opinions are taken into consideration by the medical
examiner, yet they do not enjoy the legal authority to declare the official cause of
death.
Anthropological Genetics: Genetic methods are used to learn about human in

the course of its deviation from apes, the magnitude and how hominid population
in geographic area originated and the initial migrations of anatomically modern
humans. The field of anthropological genetics encompasses patterns of genetic
similarity among different human populations to deduce demographic history,
including mating structure, the account of people moving from one place to
another and mixing with surrounding groups, and population size fluctuations.
Genetic Anthropology: This is a very new branch of scientific study which

deals with combining DNA data with available physical evidence and past
histories of civilizations. This facilitates scientists to assemble through existing
genetic information in elucidating how the modern day Homo sapiens evolved
through the millennia.
Physiological Anthropology: The word physiology is from Greek: “physis”

which means nature, origin and “logy” means, study. Human physiology is a
scientific study of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of humans
in good health, their organs, and the cells which constitute them. Physiological
basis is at the level of organs and systems within systems. It is strongly connected
13
History and Development of to anatomy since anatomy is the study of form, while physiology is the study of
function of that form.
Dental Anthropology: This branch engages the scientific study of people

including their living and extinct primate relatives, using the evidence of teeth.
Practicing dentists, anatomists, radiologists, forensic scientists, biochemists and
geneticists, archaeologists, paleontologists and zoologists apart from
anthropologists are actively working in the field of Dental anthropology.
Anthropometry: Anthropometry as the name suggests consists of Greek word

“anthropos” which means man, and “metry” meaning measure. This branch
focuses on the understanding of human physical variation as in literal sense
anthropometry refers to measurement of humans, and in physical anthropology,
it means measuring of the human individual. Anthropometry plays an extensive
role in industrial design, clothing design, defence equipments, ergonomics and
architecture. To attain perfection in this endeavor statistical data on the variation
in body dimensions in population are taken into consideration. These variations
in body size can be attributed to changes in life styles, nutrition and ethnic
composition of populations and therefore warranting regular updating of
anthropometric data collection.
Ergonomics: Ergonomics is derived from two Greek words, “ergon” meaning

work, and “nomoi” meaning natural laws, which means the science of work and
a person’s relationship to that work. Ergonomics is fundamentally the study of
designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and
how to carry about the work. Proper ergonomic design is necessary to avoid
recurrent strain injuries, which can be hazardous later in life. Ergonomics takes
into account designing the furniture and technological knowledge such that it
appears to be perfect amalgam of the two. In accomplishing so, it takes into
account the user’s competence and restrictions in seeking to make certain that
tasks, equipment, information and the environment are appropriate to yield
efficient results. Ergonomics comprises number of disciplines like anthropometry,
biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, industrial
designing, physiology and psychology.
Demography: Demography is the scientific study of uniqueness and movement

relevant to the human population illustrated by size, growth rate, density, vital
statistics, and distribution of a specified population. Demography gains its
significance as it is this field that necessitates the study of precise information
that may be collected from a population census or vital statistic records. People
who study and record this information are referred to as demographers.
Demographers must know both how to scientifically obtain information and
then interpret it relatively. Demography is the basic statistics of human population
which can be applied to any kind of human population which does not remain
static, that is, one that changes over time or space in response to birth, migration,
aging and death.
Human Diversity: It is concerned with study of human evolution and human

biological variation. Human evolution involves the extensive work on the
discovery, analysis, and description of fossilized human remains. This mainly
aids to identify the differences between humans and their nonhuman ancestors
and how did present man emerge. To achieve this, it involves the comparative
14
analysis of genetic codes. Studies on human variation among contemporary Definition and Scope
humans are not only dependent on the concept of race, but on principles of genetics
also.
Palaeoprimatology: It is well understood that man is a primate evolved from

non-human primates. The nonhuman primates are link to human physical history
and status as mammals. They also show the continuity in the similarities to the
behaviour and mental abilities of human ancestors as gauged by physical
anthropologist. The palaeoprimatologists take the assistance of fossil specimens
by collecting, describing and interpreting them phylogenetically and functionally.
Population Genetics: Population genetics concerns the genetic structure of

populations, the frequencies of alleles (alternate form of a gene) and its genotypes
(genetic constitution). An important branch of physical anthropology, it is related
to the process of evolution witnessing natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow
and mutation. It is the study of allele frequency distribution and change under
the influence of the above mentioned evolutionary processes. Population genetics
specialises in the genetic constitution and changes overtime in any population.
It also encompasses the study of the forces like mutation, migration and
intermixture between the groups which have the capability of altering the genetic
composition of any population. This enables us to understand the steps towards
biological evolution. It concerns the information of the frequencies of genes,
genotypes and phenotypes, and the mating systems.
Human Variation: The term human variation is gaining popularity over its
historical predecessor “race” in anthropology because of the exploitation of the
term. It is suggested to use gene frequencies and biological traits of human
populations by their geographic area. This genotypic and phenotypic detail would
be understood in terms of historical and closest selective forces in each
environment. Its main thrust is focused in an endeavor to interpret given so much
of human diversity, a consequence of evolution through a long passage of time
and all around the globe.
1.7 SUMMARY
After going through this unit, you must have understood that various definitions
of physical anthropology have been given depending upon the focus at that time.
It is rather difficult to give precise definition to physical anthropology as it
embraces interdisciplinary approach. The mechanisms of biological evolution,
genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology and the fossil
record of human evolution constitute Physical Anthropology reflecting an
important scenario in today’s increasingly specialised world of science. It aims
for the physical anthropologists to explore human genetics, growth and
development and evolutionary history in an attempt to accurately describe human
physical structure both in the present and in the past and also investigate how
function and behaviour are integrated into the environment in which human beings
live. The scope of this discipline is manifold making it indispensable. We realised
that the understanding and assessment of the degree of human variability along
with the accounting of factors responsible for our current distribution has been
of vital concern. Genetics and anthropometry have been used in estimating the
detailed cause of individual variation and diversification of the varieties of man.
Human variation, a specialised branch of physical anthropology, currently carries
15
History and Development of out studies to facilitate in the understanding of reliable history of the origin and
evolution of mankind and its varieties; and attempts to evaluate the reasons of
human variation. There are different branches of physical anthropology, each
maintaining its thrust area and identity.
It is believed that by now you must have realised how fascinating is the field of
physical anthropology. It has witnessed a long painstaking journey in its quest to
never-ending desire to know about human. Continuously, physical anthropologists
are meticulously working to unearth the mysteries of human beings. It is not that
they are working in isolation but amazingly involves varied fields resulting in
newer concepts and better understanding which you will encounter in the next
unit.
Suggested Reading
Boaz, N.T and Almquist, A.J. 1999. Essentials of Biological Anthropology, New
Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Harrison, G.A., Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M. and Barnicot, N.A.1964. Human
Biology.Oxford University Press
Harrison, G.A, Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M., Barnicot, N.A. and Reynolds,V. 1977.
Human Biology, An Introduction to Human Evolution, Variation, Growth and
Ecology. Oxford University Press.
Reddy, R. 1992. Physical Anthropology, Evolution and Human Genetics. Tirupati,

V. Indira.
Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology. Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Library Private Limited.
Shukla, B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

Genetics- An Introduction. Delhi, Palka Prakashan.
Stein, P. L. and Rowe, B.M. 1974. Physical Anthropology. New York, McGraw-
Hill.
Sample Questions
1) What is physical anthropology and what are its aims and scope?
2) Briefly give the history of physical anthropology.
3) What are the different branches in physical anthropology? Give a brief outline
of each branch.
16
Definition and Scope
UNIT 2 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER
DISCIPLINES
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interdisciplinary and Trandisciplinary Approaches
2.2.1 Forensic Science
2.2.2 Life Sciences
2.2.3 Medical Sciences
2.2.4 Earth Sciences
2.2.5 Human Biology
2.2.6 Environmental Sciences
2.2.7 Social Sciences
2.2.8 Human Engineering and Technology
2.2.9 Physical Sciences
2.3 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions
Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you will be able to understand the:
Ø meaning of interdisciplinary and trandisciplinary approaches;
Ø its relevance in physical anthropology; and
Ø relationship with other disciplines.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, it will be our endeavour to know what does interdisciplinary and
trandisciplinary approaches mean with reference to physical anthropology. As
mentioned in the earlier unit that physical anthropology involves other disciplines
too, we will also explore in this unit the relationship of anthropology with forensic
science, life sciences, medical sciences, earth sciences, human biology,
environmental sciences, social sciences, human engineering and technology, and
physical sciences.
2.2 INTERDISCIPLINARY AND

TRANDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES
Anthropology is a vast field of study, and hence can be seen in association with
numerous other fields. Often divided broadly into two branches, anthropology is
either the science that deals with the cultural development, characteristics, social
customs or beliefs of humankind referred to as cultural anthropology, or the
study of human similarity to or divergence from other animals, their growth,
evolution, development etc. named as physical anthropology. Physical
anthropology is unarguably not an isolated field but incorporates all the branches
17
History and Development of of learning that concerns human. Physical anthropologist often comes in close
contact with archaeologists in the cross disciplinary area of Palaeoanthropology
which is the study of human evolution through fossils and artifacts. Archaeologists
may find a fossilized human skull, but the job of describing and studying the
specimen falls in the domain of the physical anthropologist. Or physical
anthropologist may find it essential to put together their knowledge of skeletal
biology with that of cultural and living contexts that the archaeologists had
discovered in order to get a holistic picture of the adaptation of past human
populations. Physical anthropologist also studies the behaviour of non-human
primates and thereby has close intellectual ties with psychologists. Consequently,
it is undisputable that there are some strong connections between physical
anthropology and other subdisciplines.
2.2.1 Forensic Science

Let me explain how physical anthropology holds coveted position in forensic
science. Physical anthropology has always been an acknowledged area of forensic
proficiency at least since 1850. Forensic anthropology is the application of the
science of physical anthropology associated to the identification of skeletal
material (badly decomposed or otherwise unidentified human remains). Main
objective of forensic science is to detect the criminal(s) through the evidence
obtained from the crime site by means of the study of various bodily remains. It
is in this sphere that physical anthropology plays a pivotal role through its various
methodologies by identifying the deceased from insignificant remains. The study
of blood types, palm and sole prints provides clues in forensic science. Thus, an
association with physical anthropology enables in the detection of crime.
Forensic anthropologists often work in combination with forensic pathologists,

odontologists and homicide investigators to identify a deceased, ascertain
evidence of foul play, and/or the postmortem interval. In addition to supporting
in locating and recovering doubtful remains, forensic anthropologists work to
agree on the age, sex, ancestry, stature and unique features of a deceased from
the skeleton. Forensic anthropologists are often described as “bone detectives”
who assist police unravel intricate cases involving unidentified human remains
by validating the identity of the victims of accidents, fires, plane crashes, war or
crimes such as murder.
What is the role of physical anthropologist in arriving at a conclusion? What is

the role expected of a forensic anthropologist in it? It is well known that forensic
anthropology utilise the standard methodical procedures established in physical
anthropology to identify human remains, thus assist in the unraveling the mystery
of crime. A forensic anthropologist can determine if the person was a male or
female by reviewing the pelvis, base of the skull, the forehead and the jaw. To
elucidate to you further, males usually have a more noticeable brow ridge, eye
sockets, and jaw, whereas women have a broader pelvis. Anthropologists’ are
able to approximate the age of the person by examining the suture closures in the
skull, joints, bones and teeth. Likewise, a child’s skull has more separation
between the bone plates. If the skull is found to be smoother, the indications are
that it belongs to older person. Forensic scientists use formulas to establish height
based on the length of leg and arm bones. The longest bone in human, the femur,
is best for this, but inference can also be made from the metacarpals of the hand.
The consideration of wrist development for children under thirteen is another
18
reliable method of determining age. By and large, the estimation of age works Relationship with Other
Disciplines
best if the victim is under 30 years when the bones are taken into consideration.
Anthropologists are able to calculate approximately the person’s weight by the

wear on the bones at certain points. Racial identification is possible by probing
the dimensions of the nose-width and height. Facial or head hair, when found
with the skeleton, can also assist determine race. To give an example, it is known
that Caucasian nasal openings are triangular, Negroid’s square and those of
Mongoloid’s diamond-shaped. Negroid femur bones are also straighter than other
racial groups. On examination, Anthropologists can also reflect on the occupation
of the person. For example, if the person played an instrument such as a flute or
clarinet, the teeth and bones around the mouth will be influenced. A carpenter’s
or a roofer’s teeth might be clipped in front where he seized nails in his
mouth. Also the ridge where muscle was attached to the bone reflects the persons’
physique.
Physical anthropologist can make out whether the person was right or left-handed.
Observe carefully, there would be more muscle attachment on the bones on the
dominant side. A physical anthropologist can also be adjudging the injury suffered
by the deceased that is if ever the deceased injured or fractured a bone during his
lifetime and whether his death was aggressive. All these warning signs can be
determined by looking for signs of trauma which could possibly be stab marks,
marks on the skull, broken bones, and bullets or pellets in or near the body. A
physical anthropologist plays a decisive role in determining the time when the
individual died. This is evidenced by the amount of soft tissue that is still present
which actually is key to determining the time of death. It is established that the
females lose one pound of tissue a day during decomposition; while males loose
three pounds a day. Acidic soil hastens decomposition whereas the alkaline soil
hinders it. A good number of these such as age, sex, race, and height are class
characteristics, but some are individual characteristics such as trauma. Court
substantiates other evidences or supplements the authentication of other experts
along with forensic anthropological identification, to arrive at their verdict.
Police utilise the expertise of physical anthropologists for facial reconstruction,

recreating a face by taking clues from the skeleton to help them identify the
deceased. When a physical anthropologist is asked to create a reconstruction, he
first deduces as much information from the skeleton, including the most basic
and vital information such as age, race and sex.
2.2.2 Life Sciences

There are so many branches of science like biology, medicine, anthropology, or
ecology, which are invariably related with living organisms and their organisation
such as life processes, and relationships to each other along with their
environment. All this can be categorized under one roof that is Life Sciences. It
is concerned with all fields of science that engage the scientific study of living
organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. But then, when the study of
behaviour of organisms, such as that practiced in ethology and psychology is
concerned in these disciplines, it is only included when it involves a clearly
biological aspect. There is a very strong relationship between biology and
medicine which is the main attraction of the life sciences, at the same time its
divergence towards technological progress in molecular biology and
19
History and Development of biotechnology has led to rapidly increasing of specialisations and often new
interdisciplinary fields.
How human beings originated have caused lot of curiosity and has been an
attraction for millennia. This aspect forms a core part of physical anthropology.
It occupies a significant issue in many systems of mythological and religious
belief; however the systematic scientific study of human origins is rather recent.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the advancement in studies
in anatomy. While the scientists began concentrating in organising species into
genera and speculating on evolution; the others focused their attention to man’s
relationship with other animals, especially the primates. This led to the explanation
to many questions which have been endorsed to the progress that life sciences
have made.
Even though anthropology supplies life sciences with their basic fodders, the
stepping stones are laying down the fundamentals of evolution, growth,
development, and behaviour which are part of life sciences and strengthens it
further.
2.2.3 Medical Sciences

Physical anthropology and medical sciences have close proximity and enjoy a
close inter- and trans disciplinary relationship. It is understood that physical
anthropology is incomplete and programmatic with its specific branches being
in close relationship with medical sciences. Physical anthropology significantly
contributes in investigating the nature and extent of various diseases, like whether
a concerned disease is hereditary that is running as a family trait or non-hereditary.
Not only this but also the growth studies relating to their pattern, growth trends,
abnormalities and environmental effects are also assessed by physical
anthropologists in the backdrop of medical sciences. Study of anatomy forms an
integral part of medical sciences and hence can be said to be the scientific study
of the morphology of the human body. Medical science in addition includes
subjects like physiology which is the study of function and biochemistry - the
study of the chemistry of living structures which are complementary basic medical
sciences when applied to the human body. Basically it means that each of the
fairly recognised principles from the fields of anatomy, morphology, growth,
health, biochemistry and physiology are significant specialties in anthropology.
Physical anthropology is concerned with the evaluation of the anatomy of various
races of humans. Under its purview also comes the morphological distinction
with the help of anthropometric dimensions and genomic diversity which are
judged through genetic parameters of anthropology. Medical Sciences with such
wide spread field facilitates a framework in anatomical, biochemistry and
physiological knowledge which helps anthropology intensively and vice versa.
In the following units you will realise that anthropology can be credited to its
own strong theoretical and scientific foundations some of which are by far oriented
in medicine. The aim of anthropology is to demonstrate rationally what being
specifically human is in the most fundamental physiological functions, with
medical science defining the standards. This has led to the origin of a new
discipline-Medical Anthropology which incorporates both physical anthropology
and medical science.
20
2.2.4 Earth Sciences Relationship with Other
Disciplines
Earth science embraces the study of nature of structural pattern of the earth that
throws light on its various land forms, its waters, the air that engulfs it, how the
rocks are formed, the different strata of the earth and their formation and also
includes the geologic, hydrologic, and atmospheric sciences. The perspective of
Earth sciences is to recognise the present features and past evolution of the Earth
and to exploit this knowledge, wherever found appropriate, for the benefit of
humankind, the basic premise on which physical anthropology is based. It gives
us great deal of information about the series of events which occurred in the
distant past and through these evidences the oldest forms of life can be known
that prospered umpteenth number of years ago on earth. This achievement is
possible through the systematic study and analysis of the earth’s crusts and
different strata of earth bearing fossils as evidence, by employing geological
methodology. Not only has it held an invaluable contribution towards the
understanding of human evolution, but as well of various cultural stages of man
especially when the information on time sequence is crucial.
The physical surroundings which are inhabited by humans include the immediate
surface of the solid Earth along with the land beneath it and the water and air
above it. The facts of life were of concern to the early man rather than with
theories, and thus his survival depended on his ability to get metals from the
ground which enabled him in producing alloys, for example, bronze from copper
and tin, for tools and armor. He was also concerned to find adequate water supplies
for creating dwelling sites, and to predict the weather, which had an immense
bearing on human life in earlier times than it has today. These situations
correspond to the fundamentals of the three principal disciplines of the modern
earth sciences. While physical Anthropologists focuses on the evolution of early
man, the earth scientist concentrates on the raw material available to this early
man which either helped or slowed down their evolutionary process. Only when
one is aware of the marvelous complexity of the Earth, it would be easier to
appreciate how the world today is growing with environment around and how
humans are adapting to this changing earth. Each in its own premise, both physical
anthropology and earth science is a comfortable field and together they emphasise
on two important features, yet basic questions as to how did life on Earth begin,
and from what did man evolve remains a mystery.
Earth Sciences area of specialisation involves with the geologic history of the
earth, study of fossils and the fossil record (paleontology), the growing of
sedimentary strata accumulated typically over millions of years (stratigraphy),
and the isotopic chemistry and age dating of rocks (geochronology). These provide
vital input to anthropology.
Similar to physical Anthropology, the applied aspect of earth sciences deals with
practical applications beneficial to society. They engage in the study of fossil
fuels (oil, natural gas and coal); oil reservoirs; mineral deposits; geothermal energy
for electricity and heating; the structure and composition of bedrock for the setting
of bridges, nuclear reactors, roads, dams and skyscrapers and other buildings;
risk involving rock and mud avalanches, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and
the collapse of tunnels; and coastal, cliff, and soil erosion. Most of these would
have a direct impact on human beings hence come under global anthropology’s
focus.
21
History and Development of 2.2.5 Human Biology
Physical anthropology as you have rightly understood is the study of the biological
perspectives of man. Undoubtedly its proximity to biological sciences is natural.
Let us see how it works, when we are trying to build up sequence of human
evolution, physical anthropologists’ basic instinct is to compare the biological
features of man and with other animals. Now-a-days human genetics forms the
integral part of physical anthropology. The focus of physical anthropology on
human heredity, factors relating to growth and development has boosted the
field of human biology.
2.2.6 Environmental Sciences

Nature holds no significance without the participation of human, similarly the
science of nature is incomplete if it is studied without human involvement.
Therefore, it becomes imperative for both disciplines namely ecology and
anthropology to take part in the discourse on sustainability of working
environment that has human involvement. Environmental science is predisposed
to focus on the nature front and to realise the human condition while the
anthropological sciences tend to focus on their respective specialties and on
“nature” as concept, and then consider ecological reality into account.
Environmental science and anthropology as disciplines take into account both
the nature and human. They go beyond the dualism of nature-culture to a further
holistic outlook on ecological and cultural realities in their inbuilt connectedness
with humans. Ecoanthropology is dedicated to a large extent by contributing to
the analysis and actions towards such a conversion, by taking both the nature
comprising the local environmental management and culture defined as ways of
living and of making a living to sustain, which are identifiable with environmental
sciences. In view of the fact that it is a discipline that has been exploring both the
sides, eco-anthropology has the merit to widen its horizon towards “futures”.
Anthropology has its applications for future by exploring the conditions adjoining
a civilization’s endurance or disintegration with respect to its environments by
being appreciative of adaptations, weather, biological, behavioural or cultural in
reaction to environment. Environmental sciences point towards the adverse
conditions an environment can pose to its inhabitants and while anthropology, in
all its genuine concern points out the diversity of outstanding characteristics of
life supported by different cultures in different environments. The conservation
and understanding of its significance to human life and its endurance and hence
continued existence are other issues dealt by both disciplines.
2.2.7 Social Sciences

“Social science” is universally used as a flagship embracing number of fields
not in the sphere of the natural sciences whereas Anthropology is the holistic
“science of man,” - a science of the sum of human existence. Anthropology
incorporates different aspects of the social sciences and physical anthropology.
Time and again it has been observed that anthropological social sciences give
meaning even to minutest difference in rather than deriving the general laws as
found in natural sciences. Not only this, it boasts of explaining individual cases
through more general principles, like in many fields of psychology. It is rather
difficult for anthropology just as in history to easily fit into one of these categories;
22
but then different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these fields Relationship with Other
Disciplines
which concerns human. Essentially, the main objective of anthropology is to
grant a holistic account of humans and human nature which corroborates that
although anthropologists usually specialise in only one sub-field the biological,
linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem are always kept into
consideration.
The quest for holism interested most anthropologists to study people in explicitly,
exploiting the biogenetic, archaeological and societal data. This would also take
into account direct observation of present-day customs which in turn correlates
the close relationship it shares with the social sciences. It is not unjustifiable to
believe that all human cultures as part of one large, developing global culture,
which is a basic contention of social scientists. These dynamic relationships,
between what can be observed on the ground, in contrast to what can be observed
by assembling many local observations still remains essential in anthropology,
be it cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.
2.2.8 Human Engineering and Technology

Human engineering and technology applies techniques to living cells to result in
a particular product of superior quality. It is basically taking advantage of the
resources for the benefit of mankind. The techniques of anthropometry are
intensively utilised in the field of “Human engineering” – a term used by the
experimental psychologists and applied engineers working on biomechanical
problems. In anthropological sense, human engineering indicates the efforts to
design and build modern machines which would suit the person working with
these. Human engineering is applied in the jet engines – an important implication.
The jet flies at a very high altitude and at such height, human body has a tendency
to swell up due to reduced atmospheric pressure. Dr. J.P. Henry, a medical
physiologist, invented a one piece ‘jacket’ which had perfect fitting, non-stretch
garment with air tubes connected to it. This facilitated the situation when the air
pressure dropped, air would be introduced in the spaces within the clothing that
assisted in the prevention of muscles from expanding. The unit served the function
but there was major size drawback. The necessity was that each suit fit like skin
from neck to wrists and ankles, but then there was paucity of anthropological
data. Anthropological data came in handy and it was found that stature and weight
were best correlated with other bodily dimensions and could become the model
for complex fitting garments.
2.2.9 Physical Sciences

The life concerns both the organic and inorganic world; Physical science is the
systematic study of the inorganic world. It is different from the study of the
organic world which is the sphere of biological science. Physical science by and
large comprises of four broad areas: astronomy, physics, chemistry and the earth
sciences. Each of these is distinguished and is further in turn divided into fields
and subfields. On the other hand, Physical anthropology is a biological science
that concerns with the adaptations, variability, and evolution of human beings
and their living and fossil relatives that is past and present. Unanimously it has
been agreed upon by both physical and biological scientists that technological
breakthroughs like DNA splicing, spacecraft docking in outer space, and the
development of very small computer chips could not have taken place without
an enormous amount of basic research to unearth the laws of nature in physical
23
History and Development of and biological worlds. Applied and practicing anthropology is explicit in its
concern with making anthropological knowledge useful.
2.3 SUMMARY
What an amazing concept interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach is
especially when physical anthropology is concerned. You just read how the
different disciplines join hands and work together for the benefit of mankind
and yet maintain their own identity. Is it not incredible the way anthropology
projects itself. The unit describes the interdisciplinary relation which involves
two or more academic disciplines that are usually considered distinct and also
trans–disciplinary; i.e., the research approach that crosses many disciplinary
boundaries to construct a holistic approach. The following chapter would
enlighten how we apply the knowledge of anthropology in practice.
Suggested Reading
Harrison, G.A., Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M. and Barnicot, N.A.1964. Human
Biology, Oxford University Press

V. Indira.
Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology, Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Shukla B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

Genetics- An Introduction Delhi, Palka Prakashan.
Stein, P. L. and Rowe, B.M. 1974. Physical Anthropology, New York, McGraw-
Hill.
Sample Questions
1) What do you understand by interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach?
2) Give examples of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches in
physical anthropology?
3) Explain the relationship of physical anthropology with special reference to
forensic science and medical science?
24
Relationship with Other
UNIT 3 APPLIED DIMENSIONS-I Disciplines
Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Applied Physical Anthropology
3.3 Applied Physical Anthropology
3.3.1 Designing Equipment
3.3.2 Forensic Anthropology
3.3.3 Epidemiology
3.3.4 Aging
3.3.5 Sports
3.3.6 Public Health
3.3.7 Nutritional Anthropology
3.4 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions
Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you will know:
Ø the meaning of applied physical anthropology;
Ø how academic knowledge is applied as applications; and
Ø the application of physical anthropology in designing equipment, forensic
anthropology, epidemiology, aging, sports, public health and nutritional
anthropology.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will first discuss the meaning of applied physical anthropology
and how it was initiated. Following this, we will read through the anthropological
applications in the fields of designing equipment, forensic anthropology,
epidemiology, aging, sports, public health and nutritional anthropology.
3.2 MEANING OF APPLIED PHYSICAL

ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology has achieved the status of being more than just an academic
discipline. The recent years reflect an ever increasing awareness of what
anthropology has discovered and can discover. The basic of applied anthropology
basis lies in making theoretical anthropological knowledge useful. An applied
anthropologist can be qualified in any or all the branches of anthropology. Physical
Anthropologist exploits their expertise to design clothes and equipments to fit
human body and also enjoy significant role in providing forensic support in court.
As the perception of evolutionary biology incorporates both the natural and social
sciences, it has also influenced such applied areas as medicine, psychotherapy,
education and conservation.
25
History and Development of The basic objective of all sciences is to apply the results of scientific knowledge
in betterment of mankind. The applied physical anthropology is not something
new that needs an introduction. The knowledge gained by physical anthropology
has been used for getting practical benefits in diverse fields. But then the
application of physical anthropological knowledge is far behind the mammoth
contributions made by so many people in this field.
Applied anthropology in the United States came into picture when the
anthropologists’ worked on disadvantaged people in other cultures and realised
the need for their improvement. In fact, today anthropologists are involved in
understanding and finding solution to the problems in their own society in an
endeavor to improve people’s lives. Currently, there is demand for applied
anthropologists to progressively increase their participation in earlier stages of
planning process and in helping in ventures by solving wide range of issues.
With the passage of time, our knowledge in the subject has seen phenomenal
increase, and this knowledge has culminated in designing many products for
applying it for the benefit and welfare of human use such as airplanes and
automobiles.
Physical anthropologists have been active in practical applications of their research

for several years. Rudolf Virchow, one of the most prominent 19th century German
anthropologists regarded as pioneer of social medicine, founded the public health
service in Berlin. French anthropologist, Paul Broca’s input to medical treatment
of brain disorders is unparallel. Then with the advent of twentieth century, endless
applications of physical anthropological research can be boasted of which vary
from designing the dimensions of fighter plane cockpits to assisting apprehending
criminals to urban planning. Applied physical anthropology is holistic in approach
involving evolutionary, cross-cultural, and comparative and population
dimensions.
As you all know, anthropology is a population based biological science and is

not restricted to an individual. Whatever results are derived, they are based on
statistics and its statements are probabilistic as it involves population which is
just too diverse. This aspect of anthropological research is of immense importance
for physicians or other health professionals to remember while dealing with
anthropological data.
Physical anthropology also concerns evolutionary perspectives and the applied

aspect of it can facilitate people to bring their living environment into closer
similarity with their biological adaptation as human beings. This has foundation
in natural selection proceeding through millions of years of evolution; an ideal
fit between human adaptive capabilities and the environment as these have also
co-evolved. In the following block, we will learn that natural selection plays
significant role in the process of evolution. This evolutionary perspective signifies
that human beings are the product of a long process of change that has perfected
a certain way of solving problems and getting work done.
The demand for applied physical anthropologists is enormously increasing in

government agencies, international development agencies, private consulting
firms, business, public health organisations, medical schools, law offices, crime
investigations, sports, nutrition and designing equipments.
26
Applied Dimensions-I
3.3 APPLIED PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The thrust of applied physical anthropology aims to construct an explanatory
framework for the many physical and behavioural traits of human species within
evolutionary and environmental contexts and to seek ways to maximize their
function. Here are some examples illustrating the aforementioned.
3.3.1 Designing Equipment

It is not very easy to design any product or equipment especially when magnitude
to the extent of diverse human variation is involved. This warrants the
participation of the users, anthropologists and the manufacturers in unison with
anthropologists playing very crucial role. This all the more gains importance,
particularly when the efficiency of equipment is dependent on human variability.
Designs that do not take into account human variations result in poor job
performance and waste of time. Earlier equipment was designed without taking
into account the physical characteristic of the users. Anthropometry concerned
with the measurement of human body plays an enviable role in designing
equipment as they provide information on the range and variation in body shapes.
This holds significance because it affects the utility of equipment, clothing or
work space, significantly in designing automobile seating or aeroplane cockpit
where reach or field vision is a critical factor.
One of the most momentous applications of anthropometry is designing of defense

equipment which dates back to World War II with the contribution of physical
anthropologists as the experts of human anatomy. There has been no looking
back after that as anthropometric research has played pertinent role in engineering
designing of many technologies right from Jet-fighter ejection seats to analysing
human posture in zero gravity on Skylab experiences. Anthropometric data with
due credit to its accuracy and reliability has been intelligently applied by
anthropologists for Air Force by improving the flying efficiency of the pilots
thus saving much money on procurement of large number of pilots.
Anthropometric techniques have witnessed its wide usage in defence for better
results. For example, a gun turret is designed using scientific principle that any
extrusion from an aircraft adds air resistance in such a manner that the gunner
has all the free movement of his body needed. This not only reduces their
discomfort of long occupancy in a cramped enclosure but also increased efficiency
of crewmen, and ensured effective means of escape from an aircraft in emergency.
A landmark contribution is reflected in improvising the cock-pit size in different
types of air craft and designing of various seat configurations for both fighters
and bombers which assisted in reducing cockpit fatigue and discomfort by proper
body support.
Another noteworthy application is in flight clothing. Anthropologists have

contributed in providing sculptor-carved wooden head forms in four statistically
derived sizes: extra-large, large, medium and small to the helmet manufacturers
as standards to provide correct size-control. Great deal of physical anthropologist’s
concern also lies in designing of oxygen masks using set of seven statistical
sizes and shapes of sculptured face forms for correct fit. These are not restricted
to males but body sizes of females are also taken to procure flight clothing and
other garments for service women. The ejection seat and car passenger safety
modifications have helped crew accommodation in the space capsules as well as
27
History and Development of cockpits and seats of advance fighter aircrafts and automobiles thereby reducing
the severity of damage during accidents. Talking of jet engines at high altitudes
where the jet flies human body, has the tendency to swell up due to reduced
atmospheric pressure. Now in such a scenario, clothing for high altitudes has to
be designed in a manner that would prevent muscles from expanding. Using the
anthropological technique, it was construed that stature and weight generally
yield the highest correlations with other body dimensions and were projected to
be diagnostic dimensions for complex fitting garments.
In fact after 1942, anthropometric applications were exploited by other fields of

human activities to improve work efficiency by reducing discomfort of people.
The design requirements include work space design, clothing and personal
equipment design. Workplace design includes designing of any space for human
occupancy during work, recreation, rest, education, travel, treatment, etc. The
intention behind such designing aims to ensure that there is enough operational
work space and proper location of controls, displays and devices for the
convenience and efficiency of the operator. Designing of automobile interiors,
aircraft cockpit, seating apparatus, doors, tunnels, furniture and kitchen are some
of the examples where workplace designing is needed for better results. The
measurements required in designing workplace include reach limits, body
clearance, eye location, etc. The body measurements that are considered for
designing clothing and personal equipment are the circumferences, body contours,
limb movements etc. Clothing and personal equipment design includes designing
of garments, sportswear, press suits, helmets and gloves, knobs, handles, switches,
etc., basically to ensure proper fitting and comfortable movement.
3.3.2 Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is a specialised branch of physical anthropology that is
devoted in solving crimes, attracting increasing attention by the public and an
increasing number of practitioners. The term Forensic is a Latin word ‘Forensis’
which means court of law. The term Forensic Anthropology entails the application
of anthropological and medical knowledge to queries of law. This science is
used in detection of crime. Forensic anthropology is the largest and very popular
applied sub discipline of physical anthropology.
The scope of forensic anthropology as an applied discipline in physical

anthropology was recognised by C C Show in 1972. By virtue of the fact that
Physical anthropologists study osteology, they would be able to contribute
considerably in the field of crime. There are two aspects of Forensic Anthropology
which hold importance; they are the identification of decomposed or mutilated
bodies and the analysis of skeletal and fragmentary remains. Any evidence left at
the site even in an unimportant proportion, finger prints, skeletal remains, teeth,
saliva, blood or scratches of skin tissues significantly helps the forensic
anthropologists to identify the persons involved. Genetics plays a very vital role
for Forensic anthropologists in identifying the victim as well as the culprit.
Anthropologists are well versed in racial variations, estimation of stature from
broken bones and assessment of understanding postmortem skeletal alterations.
These features facilitate the crime investigators in positive identification. The
accomplishment by forensic anthropologist can be attributed to new developments
in its methodological techniques. Due to this, there is an increasing trend of
associating anthropologists in evidence discovery and recovery.
28
3.3.3 Epidemiology Applied Dimensions-I
We all know that health and longevity of every individual to a great deal depends
on heredity and environment. Diseases reveal the array of triggering factors right
from inheritance of genes to the environment of surroundings they live in, which
means that disease can occur due to trait running in the family or the environment
a person lives in. The last two decades have seen momentum in the contributions
that anthropology may be useful to epidemiological study of health and disease.
This can be attributed to rise in chronic, non-infectious diseases as important
causes of morbidity and mortality during the 20th century. Chronic (long lasting),
non-infectious diseases (disease that may be caused by the environment) are
influenced by a number of lifestyle variables. These variables are by themselves
strongly influenced by social and cultural factors. The past decade witnessed
anthropologists and epidemiologists moving together beyond the “harmless
neglect” that characterised their prior relationship. Some of the most important
collaborations between epidemiology and anthropology concerns impact of
culture change and stress, social stratification and spread of various health risks
which have increased immensely. Anthropologists have disapproved and have
expanded epidemiological notions of risk and vulnerability. Now involving
multidisciplinary approaches, anthropologists and epidemiologists have invented
measures to increase the validity and reliability of their results. The working
together of anthropologists and epidemiologists due to their specialised field
area, ensures more nuanced and accurate descriptions of human behaviour and
more appropriate and effective interventions. The involvement of epidemiological
techniques is exploited for anthropological ends, because disease often spreads
along the framework of social structure.
3.3.4 Aging
The field of gerontology is amazingly diverse, warranting massive number of
investigations of physical anthropological issues in aging research. It has been
experienced that a good number of gerontology topics of actual and/or potential
interest are significantly important to physical anthropologists. It has been
observed that the physiological changes of aging include a varied mixture of
physical decline as would be expected from an evolutionary model. It has been
seen that the studies of the prehistoric aging accounts for the estimation of lifespan,
which in no way reflects rate of aging. Recent years have witnessed substantial
work relating to body composition and aging. These results give an evidence
towards the loss of lean tissue with age and relatively constant, though
redistribution of fat mass. Though osteoporosis is one of the major concerns in
females due to aging, tooth loss in both sexes is also witnessed. Biological age is
found to be associated with lifestyle, economic and nutritional status. These
factors can be of significance in divulging cause for variation in rates of aging
which in turn would be of vital importance. To answer these and many more
potential queries physical anthropologists is the best bet.
3.3.5 Sports
Sports, as history shows, has developed to be part of human culture as recreational
activity. We cannot deny the role of cultural aspect in sports, but the biological
aspect of human is considerably responsible for the performance in any sporting
event. The factors like body size, body proportions, physique and nutrition
influence the performance in any sporting event. Most of these traits are acquired
29
History and Development of through heredity but they are also influenced by environment to a substantial
extent. Human psychological factors like motivation, training and nature also
play a vital role in moulding the sportive personality to a large extent. It becomes
quite obvious that human biological, cultural and psychological aspects are must
to understand the environment of sports, thus laying the foundation for
anthropological role in the field of sports.
The study of sports is a specialised sub-discipline in physical anthropology

christened as Kinanthropometry. This specialisation of physical anthropology
assesses the physical structure of individual in relation to gross motor functions
or functioning capacity, taking into account maturation, nutrition and body
composition. The term Kinanthropometry was coined by Bill Ross in 1972. It
was first considered in Olympic Scientific Congress at Quebec in 1976 prior to
Montreal Olympic Games in 1978. UNESCO has been instrumental behind most
initiatives for development of Kinanthropometry when it founded an International
Working Group on Kinanthropometry at Brasilla, working under the International
Council of Sports Science and Physical Education.
There are number of factors that are responsible for the performance of an
individual in sports. These factors in turn are dependent on both genetic
constitution and environment. However, it is undisputable that genetics has a
greater role to play in the formation of a phenotype (observable characters arising
out of interaction between gene and environment in an individual). Phenotypic
variations in size, physique, body composition, metabolic powers, strength, speed
and skill, cardio-vascular adaptations are prevailing forces responsible behind a
sportsman’s feat. Environment to some extent can shape a genotype by way of
training and motivation. The goal of Kinanthropometry focuses on selecting the
fit genotypes which help individuals attain their fullest potentialities, that means
selecting those individuals who possess genetic constitution which is ideal for a
particular sport. It is not just muscular strength that is required for coordinating
body movements. But the responsibility of physical anthropologist lies in selecting
the players who have better potentialities in a particular sport than others; for
training and other external influence can change one’s morphological status only
within the narrow limits set by genotype. Physical anthropologist can also curtail
the financial implications by minimizing the expenditure on individuals who
because of their unfavorable anthropometric standards are less fit for a particular
sport. Physical anthropologist would exercise his discretion to choose an
individual ideal for sporting event. It is rather impossible to alter the capacity of
the genotype in order to maintain desirable levels of different bio-chemical
determinants. Thus, it is imperative to lay more emphasis on the genetically
determined morpho-physiological status of the individual to yield good results.
We realise that the techniques of Kinanthropometry enabled the anthropologists
to classify humans into different somatotype and suggest the right sport for them.
The composition of body plays important morphological characteristics essential
for sports. Body composition inclusive of muscular, skeletal, fatty tissues are
dependent on the environmental influence, sex, socio-economic conditions,
occupations, genetic make-up, nutrition and exercise.
Studies on body composition of sportsman hold significance. It has been deduced

that athletes with less fat but heavy muscles perform better in certain competitive
sports, while those with substantial amount of fat tissues require increased energy
due to inert weight, result in endurance in activities like jumping, running, etc.
30
Moderate quantity of fat aids performance by providing extra buoyancy and Applied Dimensions-I
reduction of heat loss in water sports. Apart from physique and body composition,
somatotype also plays decisive factor for different sports. This in turn is dependent
on flexibility of training, motivation factors and psyche. Physical anthropologist
plays a constructive role in designing sports equipment using anthropometric
techniques suitable for a particular somatotype.
3.3.6 Public Health

Public health refers to the population or community rather than an individual as
its focus. This is a rapidly growing field of research and practice within
anthropology. Physical anthropology has followed systematic approach to public
health by applying the scientific knowledge at a community level in such a way
to be an effective practice. Ecology which involves an interaction of population
and environment has also an important role to play since it forms bond between
biomedicine with biological and cultural anthropology. This provides a significant
path of perception to health and disease as dynamic, adaptive, population-based
processes. Public health practice unambiguously seeks to contribute to the creation
of global health systems that serve the people. The application of anthropological
methods to public health problems has been major area of contribution for health
and disease amelioration. The wide range of variation in populations can be
used to improve the development and measurement of epidemiologic variables.
3.3.7 Nutritional Anthropology

This field is continuously contributing to the field of nutritional sciences especially
in defining the nutritional status of persons by making use of the techniques of
anthropometry. This area of defining the nutritional status is quite satisfactory as
earlier the methods were highly technical and were looking for an internal
agreement for their practical use. The application of anthropology and the
underlying conjecture for use of anthropometry in nutritional assessment of
population is unquestionable. Undeniably it forms the basis to the fact that
although heredity contributes to growth, the genotype is competent enough of its
different growth potential in different environment. Thus the induction by
introducing the specialised sub-discipline within applied physical anthropology
called Nutritional Anthropology. Nutritional anthropometry employs three basic
measurements age, weight and height. These three basic values hold importance
for physical anthropologists since they compute the indices and compare these
indices with reference to population or persons. There are basic indices which
exhibit geographical variation, to assess the nutritional status. Nutritional
anthropologists have provided indicators in terms of cut-off points to assess
nutritional status along with the range for different categories. In recent years,
international consensus has been achieved to a large extent for defining the
nutritional status of an individual with the help of anthropometry. The contribution
of heredity in the growth and development cannot be overlooked, yet it is
undisputable that the same genotype is responsible for different growth
potentialities in different environments. This is the foundation for using
anthropometry in nutritional assessment of populations. The health status of any
population all over the world can be evaluated and appropriate health plans can
then be enforced.
31
History and Development of
Physical Anthropology 3.4 SUMMARY
This unit must have made an impression that academic knowledge can be best
utilised if we are able to use it practically. The different applied aspects of physical
anthropology, right from measurements to suit the equipment and furniture
designing, clothes, choice in sports, health status and in the health field, reflect
its wide spectrum. It is astoundingly fascinating to bring into practice the
knowledge of physical anthropology with other disciplines. This corroboration
has done wonders for the benefit of mankind. The unit to follow would take you
through the journey of physical anthropology along with genetics and am sure
you will realise the wonders of applied physical anthropology in understanding
mankind.
Suggested Reading
Harrison, G.A., Weiner, J.S, Tanner J.M. and Barnicot, N.A.1964. Human Biology,
1964, Oxford University Press

V. Indira.
Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology, Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Shukla B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

Genetics- An Introduction Delhi, Palka Prakashan.
Stein, P. L., and Rowe, B.M. 1974. Physical Anthropology, New York, McGraw-
Hill.
Sample Questions
1) What do you understand by the concept of applied physical/biological
anthropology?
2) Illustrate the application of physical anthropology in designing equipment,
sports and forensic anthropology.
3) Epidemiology, nutrition, aging and public health have applied component
of physical anthropology. How?
32
Applied Dimensions-I
UNIT 4 APPLIED DIMENSIONS-II
Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Paternity Diagnosis
4.3 Genetic Counseling
4.4 Eugenics
4.5 DNA Technology and Its Use in Disease and Medicine
4.6 Summary
References
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions
Learning Objectives
&
It is expected that after reading, you would be able to understand the following
applications of Human Genetics:
Ø paternity diagnosis;
Ø genetic counseling and eugenics; and
Ø DNA technology and its use in disease and medicine
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Genetics is the name given to the study of heredity, the process by which
characteristics are passed from parents to offspring, so that all organisms including
human beings resemble their ancestors. The central concept of genetics is that
heredity is controlled by a vast number of factors called genes, which are discrete
physical particles present in all living organisms.
Branches of genetics are microbial genetics, mycogenetics, plant genetics,

animal genetics, human genetics, population genetics, cytogenetics,
biochemical genetics, molecular genetics, clinical genetics etc.
Since the present unit is on human genetics, the definition of human genetics is
presented here. Human genetics is concerned with genetically determined
resemblances and differences among human beings. In normal human being,
the nucleus of each cell contains 46 chromosomes, which comprises 23 pairs. Of
each of these chromosome pair, one chromosome is from father and one
chromosome is from mother i.e., only one member of each pair is handed on
through the reproductive cell (egg or sperm) to each child. Thus, each egg or
sperm has 23 chromosomes (McGraw-Hill Science & Technology Encyclopedia,
2005). Twenty two of the 23 chromosome pairs, i.e., the autosomes, are alike in
both the sexes, the other pair comprises of the sex chromosomes. A female has a
pair of XX and a male has XY chromosomes. Further, Human Genetics has
several applications, like Paternity diagnosis, genetic counseling and eugenics,
DNA technology and its use in disease and medicine are discussed below.
33
History and Development of
Physical Anthropology 4.2 PATERNITY DIAGNOSIS
Paternity Diagnosis helps to establish genetic proof whether a man is the biological
father of an individual or not. This paternity test is carried out by using DNA
analysis. The DNA analysis through DNA fingerprinting offers a more reliable
way to determine the genetic parent. Before DNA fingerprinting came into
existence, blood group polymorphisms like ABO, MN and Rh systems were
most widely used. But using these blood group polymorphisms, a particular
person can be excluded as the parent of a child. The exclusion of parentage can
be determined with certainty.
But to determine parentage, DNA analysis is the most advanced and accurate
technology. This paternity test compares a child’s DNA pattern with that of the
alleged father to check for evidence of this inheritance. The DNA fingerprinting
technique assures the probability of parents to more than 99.9% if the alleged
father is biologically related and the probability is 0% when the alleged father is
not biologically related to the child.
Now let us briefly familiarise ourselves with the structure of DNA.

DNA: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a chemical structure that forms
chromosomes. A piece of a chromosome that dictates a particular trait is called a
gene. The structure of the DNA molecule was proposed by James Watson and
Francis Crick in 1953. DNA is a polymer (a large molecule containing repeated
units) composed of a sugar, phosphoric acid and four nitrogen bases. Two of
these nitrogen bases are purines, the other two are pyramidines. The purines
bases are adenine (A) and guanine (G) and the pyramidine bases are thymine (T)
and cytosine (C). The two strands of DNA are connected at each base. Each base
will only bond with one other base, as follows: Adenine (A) will only bond with
thymine (T), and guanine (G) will only bond with cytosine (C). The structure of
DNA is presented below in Fig.4.1.
Fig.4.1: DNA Structure
Source: www.protist.biology.washington.edu
34
DNA Finger Printing: This is also known as DNA typing or Genetic Applied Dimentions-II
Fingerprinting.
After knowing the DNA structure, we now briefly familiarise ourselves with the
procedure adopted in DNA finger printing:
DNA samples can be extracted from blood, semen, hair roots, bone or saliva.
The extracted DNA is then treated with restriction enzymes, which cuts the DNA
into smaller fragments by cutting at specific sites. This DNA is then amplified
by the technique of Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). By using alkaline chemicals
this double stranded DNA splits into single stranded DNA. The DNA fragments
are then subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis. The DNA bands so formed are
transferred to nylon membrane. This is treated with a radioactively-labelled DNA
probe which binds to complemental DNA sequences on the membrane. The excess
DNA probe is then washed off. The radioactive DNA pattern is transferred to
X-ray film by direct exposure. When developed, the resultant pattern is the DNA
finger print.
4.3 GENETIC COUNSELING

Genetic Counseling, as defined by Harper (1984), is “the process by which patients
or relatives at risk of a disorder (that may be hereditary) are advised of the
consequences of the disorder, the probability of developing and or transmitting
it, and the ways in which this may be prevented or ameliorated”. However, the
American Society of Human genetics (1975) formulated the definition as “Genetic
counseling is a communication process which deals with the human problems
associated with the risk of occurrence of a genetic disorder in a family”. This
process involves an attempt by one or more appropriately trained persons to help
the individual or family to: (i) comprehend the medical facts including the
diagnosis, probable course of the disorder, and the available management; (ii)
appreciate the way hereditary contributes to the disorder and the risk of recurrence
in specified relatives; (iii) understand the alternatives for dealing with the risk of
recurrence; (iv) choose a course of action which seems to them appropriate in
their view of their risk, their family goals, and their ethical and religious standards
and act in accordance with that decision; and (v) to make the best possible
adjustment to the disorder in an affected family member and/or to the risk of
recurrence of that disorder (Fraser, 1974).
Now let us see how Genetic Counseling is done:

Firstly, it is necessary to identify people suffering from a genetic disease; and
this is relatively easy for a trained clinician. But, it is difficult to identify a carrier
for genetic disease and in most cases, it is not possible. However, information on
the likelihood of an individual being a carrier for a genetic disease can be obtained
by the analysis of family pedigree. Thereafter, the prospective parents (either
suffering from or suspected to be heterozygous for some genetic disease) are
advised about the risk of their would-be children suffering from the same disease.
By creating a suitable social environment, such parent may be encouraged to
voluntarily abstain from producing children.
Genetic screening
Genetic counseling is essentially a communications process that informs
prospective parents about the nature of genetic disorders, about the risk of their
35
History and Development of having a genetically defective child, and about the options available to them in
dealing with that risk. Or else they can opt to cope with the care of an existing
genetically handicapped child. Genetic screening, in contrast, is a routine
diagnostic procedure devised to detect those who are carriers of, or who are
themselves affected by a hereditary disease. Genetic screening applies to
populations rather than to individuals.
The most-widespread application of genetic screening in the United States is for

phenylketonuria (PKU). All hospitals in the United States screen newborn babies
for PKU by a blood test called Guthrie test.
After genetic screening, if both the parents are heterozygous for a genetic disease
and the genotypes of both the prospective parents become known, then it is
easier to work out the probability of their child (if they decide to have one)
inheriting the disease. This can be done through amniocentesis about two months
after conception; i.e., in amniocentesis; the cultured fetal cells are used for
determining their karyotype, levels of the critical enzymes and the restriction
patterns of DNA. Such an antenatal diagnosis is now available for several genetic
diseases and for a variety of chromosomal defects. Such a diagnosis can help
the parents to opt for premature termination of abnormal fetus, if they so decide.
Genetic counseling and antenatal diagnosis provides definite relief to the possible
parents ‘at risk’ and thereby reduce the frequency of genetically defective
individuals in the population. However, it is unlikely that these measures would
eliminate the deleterious alleles from a population. This is so because most genetic
defects are recessive and heterozygotes for such alleles. Thus, even after a total
ban on reproduction by the homozygotes for such recessive alleles, they would
remain in the population through the heterozygotes, therefore, even such an
extreme selection would lead to only a slow decline in their frequency. Further,
it is not likely that all the couples in any society will willingly submit themselves,
at least in the foreseeable future, to these procedures. But genetic counseling has
become a routine aspect of medical practice in most developed countries.
It has been advocated that defective genes may be corrected through sophisticated
genetic techniques either during the early stages of embryo development (embryo
therapy) or in specific tissues of the adult patient (patient therapy); such an
approach is referred to as genetic surgery. Embryo therapy involves
• In vitro fertilization of egg
• Production of several copies of the normal allele of the defective gene
• Introduction of this DNA into the zygote or in the cells of the developing
embryo and
• Integration of DNA, preferably in place of the defective allele, so that it may
function normally.
The aim of patient therapy is to introduce the normal gene into the critical tissue
of the patient that is affected by a genetic disease, i.e., the tissue where the
concerned gene is required to express itself the most, e.g., pancreas in the case of
diabetes. The steps involved in patient therapy are similar to those in embryo
therapy. But in this case, cells from the concerned tissues have to be treated in
vitro to correct their genetic defects and then reintroduced into the tissue where
they may function normally. Techniques for isolation, identification and
36
multiplication of many human genes are now available, and for many others Applied Dimentions-II
they are likely to be developed soon. The techniques for gene transfer in eukaryotes
are being refined and it may not be a great problem in the near future.
A suggestion has also been made to use highly specific chemical mutagens that
will correct the defect in the concerned gene. Such a directed mutagenesis,
however, is a dream that may be more difficult to fulfill for the patient and embryo
therapies through DNA mediated genetic modifications. Genetic screening and
counseling may also lead to certain problems. The cases of mistaken paternity,
the problem of confidentiality, delayed counseling are important among them.
4.4 EUGENICS
The term Eugenics was introduced by Francis Galton in 1883. It refers to the
improvement of a population by selection of only its ‘best’ specimens for breeding.
This has been practiced both by plant and animal breeders since ancient times.
The idea of eugenics was to improve society by screening out and sterilizing
people diagnosed as genetically unfit. Those with desirable genes would be given
incentives to reproduce. Regardless of the reasons in support of sterilization,
restricting an individual’s ability to reproduce is viewed as a violation of their
constitutional rights. The science of eugenics can also be defined as a science of
the well born, improving the inborn qualities of race and obtaining the better
heritage of judicious breeding.
Eugenics is of two types, positive and negative:

Positive Eugenics: By encouraging desirable individuals to bear more children
and also to produce genetically enhanced children i.e., give them genetic
characteristics (genotypes) they ordinarily would not be born with
(www.bioethicsanddisability.org). The positive eugenics can be increased by
adopting the following measures:
a) Encouraging early marriages: It is a general observation that highly placed

persons of the society and those who have high ambitions of the future life
devote best part of their youth to achieve ambitious goals. Hence, they get
married at a late age. Both, biological and psychological investigations
have revealed that the aged persons often lack expressive warmth for the
sexual behaviour and their germplasm also lose its strength. Hence, the
young persons having the best hereditary traits should be encouraged for
early marriages. For this, a few laws should be formulated to avoid the
delayed marriages.
b) To fund the fit: Most of the well gifted persons in a society would like to
lead a well planned and relaxed life. In order to lead a comfortable life and
to avoid unnecessary difficulties in nurturing the children, they wish to have
small number of children. Thus, the selected young men and women who
have best eugenic value should be encouraged to have more children.
H.J.Muller (1890–1967) has suggested that the persons who have best
eugenic value should increase their family size. The persons who have best
eugenic value besides increasing their family size can otherwise act as father
to many more children, and this is possible through artificial insemination.
The sperms and eggs of stupendous people should be stored for potential
use. 37
History and Development of c) Fitness and Education: In a society, the people should be educated about the
basic ideology of wellbeing, ecology, human genetics, eugenics and sex.
Hence, the children should be properly instructed about basic laws of health
and they should be confident to develop a healthy, physically and mentally
sound body. The children ignorant about the details of sex may do further
harm to the society than others. Therefore, there is a need to have sex
education to avoid unwanted behaviour which is not desirable for our country.
d) Wastage of germplasm: By following measures, one can avoid the wastage

of best type of germplasm:
i) We should select the marriage partners wisely,
ii) The nuns and priests, because of religious commitment do not marry.
This should be avoided. By allowing these persons to marry, the wastage
of the best part of germplasm can be prevented.
e) Genetic counselling: Human being is benefited a lot through genetic
counselling. The nature of mutant condition must be informed to the
concerned persons. This is the duty of the genetic counselor to enlighten the
affected persons. After knowing the problem, the probability of producing
affected offspring can be calculated provided it is inherited in a Mendelian
fashion. The ultimate judgment of taking a risk is exclusively the
accountability of the person concerned.
f) Ecological surroundings and their improvement: To improve eugenically

better persons, heredity and environment have played the most important
role. Therefore, every individual in society should get better food, good
existing circumstances, proper education and health assistance etc., so that
his or her genetic behaviour may have the best improvement. This will help
in producing fertile offspring.
g) Encouraging of genetic research: The existing knowledge on genetic diseases

is not enough as we still have minute information on different human
diseases. Hence, further research in the field of cytogenetics should be
increased so that we can learn more and more about the man. Therefore,
genetic research must be encouraged.
Negative Eugenics: Faulty germplasm from the people can be eliminated with
the help of following measures:
i) Sexual disconnection: Colour blindness, night blindness, hemophilia, etc.
are some of the sex-linked diseases possessed by the defective persons and
these may be regulated by dominant or recessive genes. The defective traits
in the population can be checked by sexual disconnection and keeping them
away and separated from the public.
ii) Sterilization of the defective: Persons who have defective traits may be
advised to go for sterilization. Through sterilization, without disturbing any
of his usual functions, we can withdraw a person from his power of
reproduction.
iii) Immigration and its control: The unwanted or faulty genes of different races
and nationalities may intermingle with the normal germplasm of the people
38
during immigration. The persons with unwanted hereditary traits must not
be permitted to migrate from one place to another. Some laws should be Applied Dimentions-II
formulated to control the immigration of those persons who have defective
genetic traits.
iv) Marriage regulation: The affluent or well placed persons (who, still, may
have numerous faulty genetic characters), are more favored for marriages
than those who have eugenically sound hereditary traits but have no money.
Because of not having money the eugenically sound persons agree for
marriage with the genetically defective people. These people fail to reach
the uppermost status in the society due to lack of opportunities.
4.5 DNA TECHNOLOGY AND ITS USE IN

DISEASE AND MEDICINE
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology, also known as genetic engineering,
involves artificial modification of the genetic constitution of a living cell by
introduction of foreign DNA through experimental technique. The DNA
technology has made a significant contribution in the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of diseases. A few of the applications of recombinant DNA are discussed
below:
i) DNA Probes: DNA probes are short segments of DNA that distinguish
corresponding sequences in DNA and hence permit recognition of specific
DNA sequences. This technique is mainly helpful in diagnosis. DNA probes
can hybridize with specific DNA sequences and permit the recognition of
specific parasites. Probes resultant by recombinant DNA methods are
extensively used in prenatal detection of disease: for example, in detecting
genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, sickle-cell anemia
etc. In a few cases, probes resultant from the gene itself is used and, in extra
cases, restriction fragment length polymorphisms genetically associated to
the disease gene are engaged. If the disease gene itself, or a region close to
it in the chromosome, differs from the normal chromosome in the positions
of one or more cleavage sites for restriction enzymes, then these differences
can be detected with southern blot i.e. with the use of cloned DNA from the
region as the probe. The genotype of the fetus can, therefore, be determined
since the restriction fragments present in its DNA. These techniques are
very responsive and can be carried out as soon as tissue from the fetus-or
still from the placenta – can be obtained. DNA probes have been developed
for Leishmania, Trypnosoma, plasmodium, Schistosoma, Wuchereria and
some additional human parasites. DNA probes can also be used to recognise
viruses which were previously hard to culture.
ii) Gene Therapy: The hereditary disease in particular can be treated with Gene
therapy. Gene Therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells to
treat a disease. Gene therapy normally aims to supplement a faulty mutant
allele with a functional one. In the majority gene therapy studies, a normal
gene is inserted into the genome to supplement an abnormal disease causing
gene. A carrier, called a vector, must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene
to the patient’s target cells. Presently, the most widespread vector is a virus
that has been genetically changed to carry normal human DNA. The vector
unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the
39
History and Development of target cell. The creation of an efficient protein product from the therapeutic
gene restores the target cell to a normal state.
iii) Production of hormones and Proteins: Using DNA technique, the genes
responsible for the production of hormones and proteins can be introduced
into bacteria by vectors. These genetically changed bacteria produce greater
amounts of these substances. The hormones like insulin, human growth
hormones, somatostatin, erythropoietin etc. are being produced using this
DNA technique. The most important application of genetic engineering is
the production of large quantities of particular proteins that are otherwise
hard to acquire. Urokinase, are industrially produced today using this DNA
technique.
iv) Production of vaccines: The conventional vaccines are inactivated germs or

their antigens. There is always a danger of contamination to use such kind
of vaccines. However the synthetic vaccines are produced by separation of
pure antigens using mono-clonal antibodies. These are specific antibodies
produced by Lymphocytes when they hybridize with the concerned cell.
The resulting hybridoma (of Lymphocyte and the cell) can produce antibodies
constantly. In diagnosis, therapy and also in prevention such antibodies can
be used. Synthetic vaccines can also be produced by transferring genes for
certain antigens into bacteria. Bacteria produce antibodies in large quantities
which can be used as vaccines. The vaccine for Hepatitis virus is
manufactured in this manner.
v) Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases: Several diseases are diagnosed by

conducting definite tests. The diseases like TB and cancer are being
diagnosed using Recombinant DNA technology. The other diseases like
measles, small pox and hepatitis can also be diagnosed through these tests.
In the diagnosis process, certain pathogens are isolated and identified, and
then diagnostic kits are produced (when the genome of the specific pathogen
is known to kill it or block its pathogenic activity).
This DNA technique is also used in the diagnosis of AIDS diagnosis, prenatal
diagnosis, understanding the molecular basis of diseases like sickle cell anaemia,
thalassemia, familial hypercholesterolemia and cystic fibrosis.
4.6 SUMMARY
Genetics is primarily concerned with the understanding of biological properties
that are transmitted from parents to offspring. Human genetics is the study of the
inherited characters of human beings. The applications of human genetics are
many; for instance, paternity diagnosis, genetic counseling, eugenics, DNA
technology in disease and medicine. DNA profiling popularly known as DNA
fingerprinting is used to establish paternity and distant relationship by tracing
their ancestors. Genetic counseling is a process that seeks to assist affected
individuals and other individuals at risk of getting an inherited condition; it also
helps to understand the nature of the genetic disorder, its transmission and the
options available for their management and family planning. Eugenics deals with
the application of the laws of genetics for the improvement of human race. The
recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized modern biology. It is used in
the efficient production of useful proteins, derivation of DNA probes for diagnosis
40
and in the production of vaccines. Gene therapy is another important application Applied Dimentions-II
of human genetics, which is useful in introduction of functional genes in
individuals suffering from non-functioning of some of their genes. Some
infectious diseases, AIDS diagnosis, prenatal diagnosis, molecular basis of
diseases, like sickle cell anaemia, thalassemia, familial hypercholesterolemia
and cystic fibrosis are also diagnosed through this DNA technique.
References
Fraser, F.C. 1974. Excerpts from “Genetic Counseling”. The American Journal
of Human Genetics 636-659.
McGraw-Hill Science & Technology Encyclopedia Hman Genetics. 2005.

Accessed on April 26, 2011.
www.bioethicsanddisability.org accessed on April 18, 2011.
Suggested Reading
Cederbaum, S.D. 1984. Recombinant DNA in Medicine. West J Med. 141:210-
222
Griffiths, A.J.F., Miller, J.H., Suzuki, D.T., Lewontin, R.C. and Gelbart, W.M.
1993. An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. USA W.H. Freeman and Company.
Gupta, V., Singh, J., Bala, R. and Magazine, R. 2003. Recombinat DNA Therapy
in Medicine. JK practitioner. 10:315-318.
Hartl, D.L. Basic Genetics. 1991. Boston, USA Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Mueller, R.F, Young, I.D. Emery’s.1995. Elements of Medical Genetics. New

York and London. Churchill Livingstone.
Thompson, J.S. and Thompson, M.W. 2005. Genetics in Medicine. Philadelphia

and London. WB Saunders Company.
Verma, P.S. and Agarwal, V.K. 1999. Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology,
Evolution and Ecology. New Delhi. S. Chand company Ltd.
Uhlmann, W.R, Schuette, J.L and Yashar, B.M. 2009. A Guide to Genetic
Counseling. New Jersey. Wiley-Blackwell.
Sample Questions
1) Define Human Genetics and briefly discuss the applications of Human
genetics
2) What is DNA Finger Printing? Explain its application in Paternity Diagnosis.
3) What is genetic counseling? Explain its process
4) Write a note on DNA technology in disease and medicine
5) Write short notes on the following
a) Eugenics
b) DNA Finger printing
c) Genetic counseling
41

MANI-002 Physical Anthropology

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Physical anthropology is about humans’ place in nature. It is a very sought-after

Learning Objectives &

Broadly speaking, Physical Anthropology comprises of biological evolution,

The discipline thereby facilitates us in investigating the sources of variation which

What makes physical anthropology so indispensable? The answer lies in the

Human diversity, another important component of physical anthropology takes

The inclusion of human genetics as an essential component of physical

Growth and development in physical anthropology has its own importance, be it

Recent years have witnessed physical anthropology playing undeniable services

Anthropological Society of Paris, first in the field of Anthropology, was founded

Subsequently, with the advent of nineteenth century, it was anthropometry which

Ales Hrdlicka (1869–1943), a physician, studied physical anthropology in France,

Right in the middle of twentieth century in 1951, a Hooton alumnus, Sherwood

1.6 BRANCHES AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

The significance of measurements and indices was certainly well understood in

Human Growth and Development: This branch of physical anthropology

Human Genetics: Human genetics involves the study of inheritance of genes-

Primatology: It is basically concerned with the study of primates. Anthropologists

Palaeoanthropology: Palaeoanthropology is the study of fossil hominid

Human Osteology: The study of human bones is termed as Human Osteology.

Nutritional Anthropology: This branch of physical anthropology enjoys wide

Molecular Anthropology: Molecular anthropology is a comparatively newer

Anthropological Genetics: Genetic methods are used to learn about human in

Genetic Anthropology: This is a very new branch of scientific study which

Physiological Anthropology: The word physiology is from Greek: “physis”

Dental Anthropology: This branch engages the scientific study of people

Anthropometry: Anthropometry as the name suggests consists of Greek word

Ergonomics: Ergonomics is derived from two Greek words, “ergon” meaning

Demography: Demography is the scientific study of uniqueness and movement

Human Diversity: It is concerned with study of human evolution and human

Palaeoprimatology: It is well understood that man is a primate evolved from

Population Genetics: Population genetics concerns the genetic structure of

Reddy, R. 1992. Physical Anthropology, Evolution and Human Genetics. Tirupati,

Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology. Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Shukla, B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

Learning Objectives &

2.2 INTERDISCIPLINARY AND

2.2.1 Forensic Science

Forensic anthropologists often work in combination with forensic pathologists,

What is the role of physical anthropologist in arriving at a conclusion? What is

Anthropologists are able to calculate approximately the person’s weight by the

Police utilise the expertise of physical anthropologists for facial reconstruction,

2.2.2 Life Sciences

2.2.3 Medical Sciences

2.2.6 Environmental Sciences

2.2.7 Social Sciences

2.2.8 Human Engineering and Technology

2.2.9 Physical Sciences

Reddy, R. 1992. Physical Anthropology, Evolution and Human Genetics. Tirupati,

Sarkar, R.M. 2000. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology, Calcutta, Vidyodaya

Shukla B. R.K. and Rastogi, S. 1999. Physical Anthropology and Human

3.2 MEANING OF APPLIED PHYSICAL

Physical anthropologists have been active in practical applications of their research

As you all know, anthropology is a population based biological science and is

Physical anthropology also concerns evolutionary perspectives and the applied

The demand for applied physical anthropologists is enormously increasing in

3.3.1 Designing Equipment