Binalonan, Pangasinan

2 Semester | A.Y. 2020-2021

nd

Module 1
Basic Concepts of Ethics

Course Title: Ethics (Moral Issues and Concerns in Contemporary Living)

Course Code: INSTI 2

Name: ___________________________________
Course and Year: __________________________
Date and Time Allotment: ____________________

Week 1: Orientation

Introduction:
This module entitled Basic Concepts of Ethics is about to tackle the fundamentals and foundations
of this course to conceptualize, broader their understanding, and to present Moral Issues and Concerns in
Contemporary Living in a wider scope. The need to study this module is to galvanize students’ perception
about moral and non-moral standards, develop their critical thinking, and moral decision making in order for
them to rightfully address social problems and issues in the society.

I. Objectives:
In this module, you will be able to:
1. Understand the basic concepts of ethics.
2. Distinguish the difference between morals and ethics.
3. Learn moral reasoning and recall its seven-step model.

II. Lecture and Discussions of the lesson/s

What is Ethics?
 The term “ethics” comes from the Greek word “ethos”, which means custom, a characteristic, or habitual way of
doing things, or action that is properly derived from one’s character. The Latin word mos or moris (and its plural
mores) from which the adjective moral is derived is equivalent to ethos.
 From a purely etymological point of view, ethical and moral are, therefore, synonymous. Also, restricted to
such root word considerations, ethics and morality may only be a “simple description of the mores or ways
of behaving, whether of the human person in general or of a particular population.” It seems then that as a
field of study, ethics need not to be “normative” in guiding human action and it is even seemingly imperative
to preserve an attitude of neutrality that excludes all judgments of value. Etymologically, ethics is but a
survey of patterns of behavior that is done by the human being in general or a society in particular.
 Ethics has something to do with realizing the fullest potential as free persons acting in the world and doing
right for others. It is not about being efficient or achieving goals. It is about realizing what people intuit to be
the good.
 Referring to the philosophical concept of morality endeavors to understand moral concepts and justify moral
principles. It analyzes concepts such as right and wrong, and seeks to establish principles of right behavior that
may serve as guides to action for people to follow (Pojman, 1992).
 Ethics for Filipino students is philosophy of human action that allows them to learn the art of living. It is an art
that enables them to be reconciled with their freedom and that which is expected of them (by others and
themselves). Thus, ethics is a way for them to find happiness.
 Ethics also considers that which is worthy of a human being.
 Means that living rightly is not only about searching for happiness but living as one ought to live as a human
being. In living rightly, one receives contentment and approval both from others and himself/herself, and in
living wrongly, he/she deserves blame (from others and from himself/herself).

Morality – Is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason, that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing –
while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual who will be affected by what one does (Rachels, 2003).
This answers the question, “How do we ought to live?” and the reason for such. This is very significant in our
attempt to resolve moral issues at hand.
Difference between Ethics and Morals
ETHICS MORALITY
Greek: Ethos Latin: Mos (Mores, plural form)
“customary behavior”. ” customary behavior”
“Theory” of right action and the greater good. “Practice”, rightness or wrongness of human action.
 “systematic study” of the underlying principles of  “prescriptive”
morality o tells us what to do
o exhorts us to follow the right way
Generally, refers to the systematic study of the rightness Generally, understood as the rightness or wrongness
and wrongness of a human action of a human action
The science of “morals” The practice of basic principles of “ethics”
Provide systems of moral principles and the reasons why Refers to principles of right and wrong behavior or
these principles are valid. rightness and wrongness of human actions.
Basic Ethical Principles: *In determining the morality of human actions, the
1) Respects for persons moral agent is guided by the broader rules or
2) Truthfulness and Confidentiality principles of ethics.
3) Autonomy and Informed Consent
4) Beneficence
5) Non-maleficence
6) Justice
Ethics says that, killing is wrong because it violates the Morality says that, “Do not kill” because it is wrong.
basic ethical principles of “Respect for persons” or “Non-
maleficence.”

To analyze what is morally accepted or not, it is significant to zero in on the definition of morality, and the
standards that point out whether an action is moral or not. Mason (1996), describes that morality is achieved when a
set of possible mores of any social group are observed and achieved.

Moral Standards vs. Non-moral Standards

*Why the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
 It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply
influenced by our own culture and context.
1. Some values do have moral implications, while others don’t.

For example, the However, in many parts of the

wearing of hijab. For world, especially in Western
sure, in traditional societies, most people don’t
Muslim communities, mind if women barely cover
the wearing of hijab is their bodies. As a matter of fact,
the most appropriate the Hollywood canon of beauty
act that women have glorifies a sexy and slim body
to do in terms of and the wearing of extremely
dressing up. In fact, daring dress.
for some Muslims, showing parts of the
woman’s body, such as the face and legs is
despicable.

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 *The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some
Muslims may find women who dress up daringly despicable.

2. Different cultures have different moral standards.

 What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste in one culture may be a matter of
moral significance in another?

The danger is that one culture may impose its own cultural standard on others, which may result in a clash
in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, violence and crime may ensue, such as religious violence and
ethnic cleansing.
How can we address this cultural conundrum?
 People have to understand the difference between moral standards and non-moral ones, to identify fundamental
ethical values that may guide actions. Indeed, once we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we
will be able to avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural
issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standards on
others.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS MORAL STANDARDS
We have NO RIGHT We have the right to force others
to impose on others to act accordingly

Moral Standards
In making moral decisions, what standards are we supposed to follow? Who made these standards? Will
following these standards make us all ethically moral? These are but a few questions that need to be answered as
we are compelled to abide by ethical principles daily.
 Are those ethical principles that we live by and believe, these are important blueprints of our behavior, which we
abide daily, and are influenced by our society, or by certain ethical universals.
 It serves as our guide to the rightness of our behavior, serve as our compass, a sort of light in our path, keeping
us on our toes, thus, allowing us to check if our actions behoove ethical and moral ideals.
 Are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as
well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
 It normally promotes “the good” that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals, and
the environment.
 Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.

According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum combined norms and values. In other words,
norms + values = moral standards.
Norms – are understood as general rules about our actions or behaviors.
 For example, we may

killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.”

Values – Are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
 For example, we may say “Helping the poor people is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad.”

Characteristics of Moral Standards

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1. Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the environment
such as child abuse, rape, and murder.
2. Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies.
 Moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support or justify them. For sure,
we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.
3. Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations,
especially self-interest.
4. Moral standards are fair and just.
5. Moral standards are associated with special emotions such as guilt and shame, and vocabulary such as right,
wrong, good, and bad.

Non-moral Standards
 Are those unwanted principles, which are in opposition to everything that we are expected to be and do, and it is
influenced by largely by the construct prescribed in our society.
 Refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad, right or wrong in a non-moral way.
 Matters of taste or preference
Examples:
 standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad
 standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal
 standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish

*Therefore, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral standard says “Do not harm
innocent people” or “Don’t’ steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk when your
mouth is full”.

The Philosophical Importance of Moral Reasoning

Moral Reasoning
 Is a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do that involves forming judgments about what one
ought, morally, to do.
Philosophical examination of moral reasoning faces both distinctive puzzles – about how we recognize
moral considerations and cope with conflicts among them and about how they move us to act – and distinctive
opportunities for gleaning insight about what we ought to do from how we reason about what we ought to do.

Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model

1. Stop and Think. Before making any decisions, it is best to take a moment to think about the situation itself, your
place in it, and other surrounding factors which merit considerations, such as the people involved and the
potential effects of your decisions on them. This involves a step-back from the situation to make sure that you do
not act out of impulse.

2. Clarify goals. It is also necessary to clarify your short-term and long-term aims. One often decides on the basis
of what he/she wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat of the moment, short-term wants eclipse long-term
goals. Thus, you must determine if you are willing to sacrifice more important life goals to achieve your short-
term goals.
 For example, if you are seeking retribution for harm caused by another person, you have to think about
the long-term consequences of revenge on your character in the long run.

3. Determine facts. Make sure you gather enough information before you make a choice. An intelligent choice is
one that is supported by verified facts. You must first make sure that what you know is enough to merit action.
Without verifying facts, you may regret your choice in the future once various aspects of the situation come to
light. Never make a choice on the basis of hearsay. Make sure your sources are credible and have integrity.

4. Develop options. Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to come up with alternative options to
exhaust all possible courses of action. Most of the time, the pressure of a situation may make you feel have less
options than you think. Clear your mind and try to think of other creative ways of clarifying your motives and
implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.

5. Consider consequences. Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the unethical choices bearing in mind
both your motives and the potential consequences of your actions. Think of long-term consequences and act in
accordance with the principles of justice and fairness. Consequences are historical realities that bear upon the

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 lives of others. A decision turns something in your mind into reality. Make sure you do not regret the decision you
have conferred reality upon.

6. Choose. Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try consulting others who may have knowledge or
experience of your situation. Find people with a virtuous character and compare your reasoning with your moral
analysis. Once you make up your mind, summon the will to do the right thing even if it is hard and seemingly
counter-intuitive.

7. Monitor and modify. Monitor what happens after your decision and have enough humility to modify your action or
behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way of admitting that you might have not thought out a decision well
enough. As you become more aware of the consequences of your actions, especially on the lives of others,
summon the strength and determination to make changes to rectify any shortcomings. Do not hesitate to revise
your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.

These seven steps can help you ensure that you do not take moral decisions lightly. They shed light on the
various aspects of moral situations that you have to consider before making a decision. An important element,
though, is your will to commit to an action based on moral principles. You must have the necessary resolve to put
your choice in motion after a long process of deliberation. Goodwill, though sufficient as a ground for morality
according to some philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, must nevertheless be enacted and applied to make a
difference in the world of practical moral affairs.
While feelings and reason set up the theoretical basis for moral action, it is the will which implements your
decision and projects your motives into reality. It is not enough to do good, you must actually do it not only for your
sake but for the benefit of those that may bear the consequences of your decision. To a great extent, you owe it to
others to do the right thing. It shows how much you much respect them that you cannot allow yourself to not do
something that may benefit them. It is only by habituating yourself to doing good that your will becomes used to
propelling your decisions into actions. The will is like a muscle that you must constantly exercise in order to develop
and strengthen.

III. Other References

1. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
2. Hinman, L. M,, “Contemporary Moral Issues: Diversity and Consensus”, 2016 by Routledge
3. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation”, 1 st
edition, REX Book Store, 2018
4. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/moral-vs-non-moral-standards. (Accessed August 11,
2020.)
5. http://plato.standford.edu/moral-reasoning. (Accessed August 11, 2020.)
6. https://www.researchgate.net>2678/2016/06/14/moral-reasoning. (Accessed August 11, 2020.)