Design and Analysis of

"' Microalgal Open Pond

Systems for the Purpose of
Producing Fuels
A Subcontract Report
J. C. Welssmen
R1 P. Goebel
Microbial Products, tnc.
Fairfield, California
SERI/STR-231-2840
UC Category: 61c
DIE87001164

*Designand Analysis of
Microalgal Open Pond
Systems for the Purpose of
Producing Fuels

A Subcontract Report

J. C. Weissman
R. P. Goebel
Microbial Products, Inc.
Fa~irfield.California

April 1987

Prepared under Subcontract No. XK-3-03153-1

Solar Energy Research Institute

A Division of Midwest Research Institute
1617 Cole Boulevard
Golden, Colorado 80401

Prepared for the

U.S. Department of Energy
Contract No. DE-AC02-83CH10093
 NOTICE
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the
United States nor the United States Department of Energy, nor any of their employees, nor any of their
contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any
legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus,
product or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.

Printed in the United States of America

Available from:
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U.S. Department of Comrrterce
5285 Port Royal Roacl
Springfield, VA 22161

Price: Microfiche A01

Printed Copy A1 1

Codes are used for pricing all publications. The code is determined by the number of pages in the publ~cation.
lnformation pertaining to the pricing codes can be found in the current issue of the following publications,
which are generally available in most libraries: Energy Research Abstracts, (ERA): Government Reports
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NTIS-PR-360 available from NTlS at the above address.
 PREFACE
The Solar Fuels Research Division of t h e Solar Energy Research Institute
manages a program of research and development on t h e production of
microalgae and their conversion t o liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline and diesel) for
t h e U.S. Department of Energy, Biofuels and Municipal Waste Technology
Division. As part of t h e effort, three subcontracts were awarded in 1983 t o
design and provide cost estimates for the construction of a microalgae
facility on a scale suitable for commercialization.
This report is t h e final report submitted by Microbial Products, Inc. for t h e
project entitled "Design and Analysis of Microalgal Pond Systems for t h e
Purpose of Producing Fuels." This work was supported through SERI sub-
contract No. XK-3-03 153-1 as part of t h e Aquatic Species Program.

Aquatic Species Program Coordinator

Approved for
SOLAR ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Solar Fuels Research Division

 SUMHflRY A N D CONCLUSIONS

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of t h i s r e p o r t i s t o p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d a n a l v r r s and d e s i q n of a

two a c r e e x p e r i m e n t a l m r c r o a l g a l p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t y t h a t can be used t o t e s t
t h e t e c h n i c a l and economic p o t e n t i a l of a commercial s i z e f a c i l i t v (1000
a c r e s ) . The d e s i g n i s based on e x t e n s i v e a s s e s s m e n t of biological and
t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s and i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such a s r e s o u r c e u s e and
a v a i l a b i l i t v and t h e rmpact of d e s i g n a s s u m p t i o n s on f i n a l p r o d u c t c o s t .
Design f e a s i b i l i t v and c o s t e s t i m a t e s a r e based on a c t u a l d a t a o b t a i n e d from
s t a n d a r d c o s t e s t i m a t r n q p r o c e d u r e s , c o n s u l t a n t i n p u t , and vendor q u o t e s .

The proposed f a c i l i t y can be used t o t e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n s

and c o n c e r n s about m i c r o a l a a l biomass p r o d u c t i o n .

1. Performance of a lowest c o s t d e s i g n .
2. E f f i c i e n c v of n u t r i e n t u t i l r z a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r i v c a r b o n .
3. Achievement of h i q h l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t v .
4. R e l i a b i l i t y of a c o s t e f f e c t i v e b i o a a s s h a r v e s t i n q method.
5. Longterm maintanence of b i o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g s t a n d a r d s
of performance i n a svstem w i t h a h i g h l e v e l of i n t e r n a l r e c y c l e .

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT

The s i t e chosen f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l svstem i s i n Brawlev, i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s

I m p e r i a l V a l l e v , on a one thousand a c r e farm which b o r d e r s t h e S a l t o n Sea.
The c l i m a t e i s f a v o r a b l e f o r m i c r o a l q a l c u l t i v a t i o n , w i t h v i r t u a l l y a v e a r
round growing s e a s o n . I t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e warmer, d r r e r r e g i o n s of t h e
4merican Southwest. Ample l a n d i s a v a i l a b l e f o r both t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system
and f o r p o t e n t i a l s c a l e up. V i r t u a l l y anv water r e s o u r c e can be s i m u l a t e d b y
v a r v i n q t h e m i x t u r e of t h e two water r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e : water from t h e
S a l t o n S e a , which i s a s s a l i n e a s ocean w a t e r , and grondwater from an e x i s t i n g
well which produces 1700 g a l l o n s per minute. F l e x i b l e l e a s e agreements can be
n e q o t i a t e d w i t h t h e l a n d owners f o r use of t h e s i t e and f a c i l i t i e s .

The proposed e x p e r i m e n t a l svstem I S s i z e d t o a l l o w v a l i d a t i o n of t h e

commercial s r z e f a c i l i t y w i t h a minimum of e x t r a p o l a t i o n . The c h o i c e of two
one a c r e qrowth ponds i s based on an o p t i m i z a t i o n of t h i s v a l i d a t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t and c o s t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . Three s m a l l e r qrowth ponds, of
50m2 e a c h , a r e i n c l u d e d f o r t e s t i n g s c a l e d down subsvstem o p t i o n s . These
can be c o n s t r u c t e d and o p e r a t e d a t lower c o s t t h a n t h e one a c r e v e r s i o n s , and
used t o d e t e r m i n e which o p t i o n s show t h e most promise and t h u s s h o u l d be
t e s t e d a t t h e l a r g e r s c a l e . The 50m2 ponds will a l s o be used i n qrowth and
h a r v e s t i n g s t u d i e s . The h a r v e s t i n g subsystems f o r the one a c r e ponds a r e
d e s i g n e d t o d i r e c t l y e m u l a t e t h e f u l l s i z e subsystems s o t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n of
s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t , t o t h e commercial s c a l e ,
is assured.
The e x p e r i m e n t a l svstem a l s o i n c l u d e s a c o v e r e d , a n a e r o b i c l a g o o n t o be used
f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h l c h n u t r i e n t s can be r e c o v e r e d and r e c y c l e d
b a c k t o t h e g r o w t h ponds, T h i s is e s s e n t i a l t o v a l i d a t e t h e economic
p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f u l l s c a l e design,

I N N O V A T I V E CONCEPTS, DESIGNS, AND T E S T S

The d e s i g n s and s y s t e m s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t i n c l u d e many c o n c e p t s and

experiments w h i c h a r e i n n o v a t i v e . The d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n o f a l o w c o s t
s y s t e m i s innovative i n and o f i t s e l f , The s u c c e s s f u l a c h i e v e m e n t o f p r o c e s s
a n d p r o c u c t i v i t y g o a l s i n such a svstem would be an i m p o r t a n t advance I n t h e
s t a t e o f m i c r o a l g a l t e c h n o l o g y and i n i t s p r o s p e c t s + o r a p p l i c a t i o n . The c o s t
e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s r e a l i z e d b y m i n i m i z i n g c a p i t a l c o s t s o f t h e system and
a c h i e v i n g e f f i c i e n t use of i n p u t s . E x t e n s i v e e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s of
c a r b o n a t i o n , m i x i n q , and h a r v e s t i n g subsystems has e l u c i d a t e d b o t h t h e l o w e s t
c o s t , most e f f i c i e n t o p t i o n s and t h e e s s e n t i a l p a r a m e t e r s needed t o c o n s t r u c t ,
t e s t , and e v a l u a t e t h e s e subsystems, The u s e o f g r o w t h ponds s e a l e d w i t h c l a y
and l i n e d w i t h c r u s h e d r o c k r e s u l t s i n c a n s t r u c t i a n c o s t s a v i n g s o f 50%
r e l a t i v e t o ponds l i n e d w i t h s y n t h e t i c membranes, I n a d d i t i o n a low cost but
e f f i c i e n t d e s i g n a l l o w s improvements i n t e c h n o l o g y , l i k e p r o d u c t i v i t y
enhancement, t o have t h e f u l l e s t i w p a c t on f i n a l p r o d u c t c o s t r e d u c t i o n s .

I n addition t o the innovations i n construction, the operational efficiency of

t h e d e s i g n i s n o v e l i n b e i n g b o t h h i g h e r and more j e a s i b l e t h a n t h a t a t t a i n e d
b y any p r e v i o u s s y s t e m c o n c e p t o f c o m p a r a b l e s c a l e . This e f f i c i e n c y i s not
achieved by f a n c i f u l optimism, b u t r a t h e r by concerted e f f o r t t o a s c e r t a i n
what can be done and how t o do i t e f f e c t i v e l y , The r e c y c l e f r a c t i o n o f
n u t r i e n t s such as c a r b o n , n i t r o g e n , phosphorus, and w a t e r , must b e h i q h ,
r e a l i z a b l e , and n o t a c h i e v e d s i m p l y b y s u b s t i t u t i n g e x t r e m e c a p i t a l and
o p e r a t i n g c o s t i n c r e a s e s i n one a r e a f o r c o s t s a v i n g s i n a n o t h e r . The w a t e r
c h e m i s t r y a n a l y s i s h a s led t o o p e r a t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h m i n i m i z e w a t e r
use and v i r t u a l l y e l l a i n a t e l o s s e s of. c a r b o n d i o x i d a t o t h e atmosphere, The
carbon d i o x i d e i n j e c t i o n system i s d e s i g n e d f o r 957. e f f i c i e n c y , but i s s t i l l
low cost. The c o n s t r u c t i o n a f a l a r g e s c a l e , c o v e r e d a n a e r o b i c l a g o a n , t o
c o n v e r t and r e c y c l e c a r b o n , n i t r o g e n , and p h o s p h o r u s h a s n o t been a t t e m p t e d a t
t h e s c a l e analyzed here. Yet, t h i s r e c y c l e o f n o n - p r o d u c t biomass i s
e s s e n t i a l f o r a c h i e v i n q economic a f f o r d a b i l i t y .

The l o w c o s t b i m a s s h a r v e s t i n g c o n c e p t p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t i s a majar
i n n o v a t i o n , a d a p t i n g t h e advances i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s f a r a p p l i c a t i o n i n
m i c r o a l g a l systems. The c o n c e p t is t o t a i l o r . h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t p o i ymers
f o r f l o c c u l a t i o n and c o a q u l a t i o n o f a l q a l biomass, i n d u c i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
w h i c h . a i l o n c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e biomass i n s e d i m e n t a t i o n ponds, . These ponds are
d e s i g n e d f o r i n e x p e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n , S u c c e s s f u l achievement
o f performance goals w i l l represent another major breakthrough i n a l q a l
production technology.
A t t a i n m e n t o t t h e l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t y assumed i n t h i s r e p o r t . 30 om/m21d
a v e r a g e w i t h 50% a s l i p i d , i n t h e s y s t e m as o u t l i n e d , w o u l d a q a i n r e p r e s e n t a
m a j o r advance. h l q a l s t r a i n s w i t h h i g h l i p i d a c c u m l a t i n a c a p a b i l i t y w l l l be
used i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m t o t e s t p r o d u c t i v i t y g o a l s . The manaoement
s t r a t e a l e s d e v e l o p e d and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n q i n t h e ponds
w i l l be e v a l u a t e d f o r e f f e c t on p r o d u c t i v i t v . Understanding t h e i n h i b i t i o n of
p r o d u c t i v i t ~b y h i g h l e v e l s o f dissolved oxygen, and d e v e l o p l n q means t o
a l l e v i a t e i t , i s a p o s s i b l e r o u t e t o a c h i e v i n g enhanced p r o d u c t i v i t y .

CONCLUSIONS OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

The s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d , w i t h d e s i q n s f o r e f f i c i e n t u s e o f i n p u t s i n c l u d e d , i s
a n a l y z e d i n t h e r e p o r t i n t e r m s o f t h e c o s t s o f t h e a l q a l b i o m a s s p r o d u c e d and
t h e unextracted l i p i d " o i l s " i t contains. A t t h e 1000 a c r e s c a l e , t h e
p r o d u c t i o n c o s t of t h e biomass i s 3205lmt. The l i p i d o n l y p r i c e i s S 6 2 / b b l .
The s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d shows t h a t b o t h t h e r e c y c l e o f n u t r i e n t s
t h a t do n o t l e a v e i n t h e l i p i d p r o d u c t s t r e a m , and t h e l o w c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e
system a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r a t t a i n i n g f u r t h e r p r o d u c t c o s t r e d u c t i o n s . The
impact o f h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y i s o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
I n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y must n o t be accompanied by a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e f f i c i e n c y
o f use o f i n p u t s , s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n system c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s , nor bv
r e d u c t i o n i n l i p i d c o n t e n t o f t h e biomass. When s v s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e i s
m a i n t a i n e d , a 50% i n c r e a s e i n b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t y r e s u l t s i n a 20% d e c r e a s e
i n f i n a l product cost. I f c a r b o n i s n o t r e c y c l e d and s y s t e m c o s t s i n c r e a s e i n
proportion t o the increase i n p r o d u c t i v i t y , then the cost reduction i s well
u n d e r 10%. Use o f a s y s t e m w h i c h i s more t h a n t w i c e a s e x p e n s i v e t o c o n s t r u c t
as t h e one p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t r e n d e r s t h e economics o f f u e l p r o d u c t i o n
untenable. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e most s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p r i c e and r e c y c l e
e f f i e n c y o f C02, t h e c o n t e n t o f l i p i d i n t h e b i o m a s s , and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
t h e c o s t o f c a p i t a l and t h e c o s t o f s v s t e m c o n s t r u c t i o n . However, t h e system
must b e d e s i q n e d and c o n s t r u c t e d s o t h a t each component w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s t o
t h e f i n a l c o s t i s minimized, i n o r d e r f o r t h e concept t o approach
a f f o r d a b i l i t y and f o r f u r t h e r i n n o v a t i o n s t o have any i m p a c t .

RELATIONSHIP OF THE PROPOSED EXPERIMENT TO PROBLEMS I N FUEL PRODUCTION FROM

MICROALGAE

8nv e s t i m a t e o f t h e c o s t o f p r o d u c i n g l i p i d s f r o m a l q a l b i o m a s s i s dependent
on t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e i n p u t s t o t h e economic model. It i s
n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h a r e most i m p o r t a n t and t h u s d e s e r v i n g o f
a t t e n t i o n , and w h i c h a r e r e a s o n a b l y v a l i d . F o u r q u e s t i o n s must b e answered i n
o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e o v e r a l l f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e concept: can i n e x p e n s i v e
C02 b e f o u n d and c a n i t be used e f f i c i e n t l y , does a l a r q e enouoh w a t e r
r e s o u r c e e x i s t w h i c h can make up f o r t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d , c o n s t r a i n s b e f o u n d
w h i c h f o r m l i p i d s a t h i g h r a t e s o f p r o d u c t i o n and w h i c h w i l l d o m i n a t e t h e pond
f l o r a , and can methods be d e v i s e d f o r h a r v e s t i n q t h e b i o m a s s i n e x p e n s i v e l y .
The r e s o u r c e e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n s c a n n o t , f o r t h e most p a r t , b e a n s w e r e d a t
t h e present time, However, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f
t h e r e s o u r c e s w i l l b e p a r t o i t h e d e t e r m n i n a t i o n o f how l a r q e t h e r e s o u r c e
b a s e must be, I n t h e c a s e a t w a t e r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m must b e o p e r a t e d
with a h i g h r e c y c l e r a t i o . This h a s y e t t o b e t e s t e d t o r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d
o f t i m e o r on a m e a n l n q t u l s c a l e a t t h e r e c y c l e l e v e l needed h e r e . T h i s is
proposed i n t h e experiment. I n t h e c a r e o f C O Z . t h e s y s t e m must b e d e s i g n e d
t o r e c v c l e a s much o f t h e n o n - l i p i d c a r b o n a s possible, t h e i n l e e t i a n s y s t e m s
must b e 90+X e f f i c i e n t , and t h e management o f t h e pond o p e r a t i o n s must such
t h a t v r r t u a l l y no o u t g a s s i n g o c c u r s . I n t h e engineerinq analyses qiven i n the
r e p o r t , s e v e r a l means a r e p r e s e n t e d t o do a l l o f t h e s e . I n the experimental
p l a n , e f f i c i e n c y o f CU2 u s e i s p l v e n t h e h i q h e s t p r i o r l t y , including t h e
t e s t i n g o + an a n e a r o b i c l a g o o n + o r n u t r i e n t r e c y c l e .

The h a r v e s t i n g o f t h e a l g a l suspension 1 s a p r o b l e m t h a t w i l l r e o u r r e
c o n t i n u o u s a t t e n t i o n i n t e r m s o f a p p l v i n q new d e v e l o p m e n t s i n p o l v m e r
c h e m i s t r y t o a c h a n g e a b l e pond e n v i r o n m e n t . A r e p e r t o i r e o i p o l y m e r s must b e
a v a i l a b l e f o r use when a c o n t a m i n a n t a r l s e g w h i c h h a s - d i f f e r e n t f l o c c u l a t i n q
characteristics f r o m t h e d e s i r e d s t r a i n .

'The d i s c o v e r y o f p r o d u c t i v e , l i p i d +arming s t r a i n s , w h ~ c ha r e h i g h l y
c o m p e t i t i v e as well, i s a b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t . However, p r o d u c t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n
o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s o r p r o t e i n has b e e n l o o k e d f o r and f o u n d . There i s n o r e a s o n
t o b e l i e v e l i p i d cannot be p r o l i f i c a l l y produced as w e l l . The s e n s i t i v i t y
a n a l v s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t h i q h l i p i d c o n t e n t , 40-50X o f t h e b i o m a s s i s
n e c e s s a r y , b u t t h a t o v e r a l l l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t y n e e d n o t b e h i g h e r t h a n 25
t/acre/yr. B e f o r e i n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y h a v e t o o much e f f e c t , t h e
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s o f t h e s v s t e m must b e r e a s o n a b l y l o w . Once t h e s e c o s t s h a v e
been l o w e r e d , t h e c a p i t a l c o s t s become more i m p o r t a n t , W h i l e on t h e s u r f a c e
i t may a p p e a r t h a t i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y i s a panacea, c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n
r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s i s so o n l y u n d e r one c o n d i t i o n : l o w e s t C02 r e q u i r e m e n t
and c o s t , c o m b i n e d w i t h l o w c a p i t a l c o s t w h i c h i s n o t i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n order t o a t t a i n the higher productivity. The system d e s i g n e d , and t o b e
t e s t e d d u r i n g t h e proposed e x p e r i m e n t , i s a l o w c o s t system, o p e r a t i n g
e f f i c i e n t l y i n t e r n s o f C02, and l i m i t e d i n t e r m s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y o n l v b y
the a v a i l a b i l i t y of productive aiqal strains.

The l a s t r e q u i r e m e n t , t h a t t h e s t r a i n b e d o m i n a n t , may depend on how u n u s u a l

l i p i d a c c u m u l a t i o n b y a l g a e t u r n s o u t t o be. Enough s t r a l n s w h i c h a r e known
t o s t o r e l i p i d s must b e i d e n t i f i e d , so t h a t o n c e a u n i v e r s a l h a r v e s t i n g method
is d e v e l o p e d ( a s t h e p o l y m e r f l o c c u l a t i o n method p o t e n t i a l l v i s ) , o n e c o u l d be
r e l a t i v e l y s u r e t h a t n i t r o g e n d e p l e t i o n w i l l l e a d t o t h e desired p r o d u c t
despite the i d e n t i t y of the particular strain. T h i s n e e d s t o be d e m o n s t r a t e d ,

vii
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Paqe

M i x i n g System S p e c i f i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
SECTION 5.0 A n a l y s i s o f H a r v e s t i n g Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

C a p i t a l Costr of Primary Harvesting Devices ..,, 34

Pretreatment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
SECTION 6.0 L n a l y s i s O v e r v i e w and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r System Design 37

Water C h e m i s t r y .................. 37

Carbonation .................... 38

N u t r i e n t Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
N u t r i e n t Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1

n i x i n g System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
M i x i n g V e l o c i t y and Oepth

PondLininq .................... 43

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
H a r v e s t i n g System

P r o d u c t i v i t y Enhancement and S p e c i e s C o n t r o l . . . . 44
E f f l u e n t Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
SECTION 7.0 Pond C o n s t r u c t i o n ................. 46

Pond S i z e and Geometry ............... 46

Pond and System C o n f i g u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Pond D e s i g n A l t e r n a t i v e s and C o s t s . . . . . . . . . 53

SECTION 8.0 H a r v e s t i n g System D e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Micrastraining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

Paqe

Belt Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
SECTION 9.0 System Wide Costs ................. 79

9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Water Supply a n d Distribution

9.2 Carbon Dioxide Supply and Distribution . . . . . . . 84

9.3 Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

9-.4 Blowdown Disposal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.5 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.6 Roads and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Electrical Supply and Distribution . . . . . . . . . 86

Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

OtherCosts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

SECTION 10.0 Large Scale System Operations and Operating Costs . 88

Operations Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Operational Costs of a 1000 hcre System . . . . . . 91

SECTION 11.0 Economic Analysis of a 1000 Acre Production System . 95

Base Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Sensitivity of Base Case to Productivity Chanqes . . 95

Sensitivity of the Base Case to Carbon Recycle . . . 98

Recycle Case: Productivity Sensitivity . . . . . . 100

Recycle Case: Sensitivity to C02 Price . . . . . . 100

Recycle Case: Sensitivity to L i p i d Content . . . . 105
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT. )

Page

11.7 R e c y c l e Case: Sensitivity to Depreciable

C a p i t a l Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.8 Recycle Case: Sensitivity t o Cost o f C a p i t a l . . . 108

11.9 R e c y c l e Case: Sensitivity t o Polymer Dose . . . . 108

11.10 C a n s l u s i o n s . ................... 108

SECTION 12.0 Experimental Systen Design and Construction Costs . 112

12.1 Site Description ................. 112

12.2 Experimental Systea Description and Justification . 155

12.3 Rlternative Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

12.4 Experimental System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

SECTION 13.0 ......

Experimental System O p e r a t i o n and Costs 132

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

13.2 System Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

13.3 Experimental P l a n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

13.4 Operations Summary and Experimental Priorities . . 138

13.5 Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Schedule

13.6 Budget Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

0UDGEfm.r.. . . . r . . . . . . m . . . . m . m ~ . . r r . . 1143

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
APPENDIX I Carbon Dioxide Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

APPENDIX I I Gaslift Pumps f o r CombinedPumping and Gas

Contacting in A l g a l P r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . 154 Systems

APPENDIX I11 Pond System Design: Background Information . . . . . 176

APPENDIX I V Harvesting System Design: Background Information . . 183

APPENDIX V Design Anaerobic Lagoon , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

of 185

APPENDIX V I Sensitivity f i n a l y s i s : C o s t ..... Summary T a b l e s 194

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2- 1 ................. 6
C h e m i s t r y o f Water R e s o u r c e s

3- 1 Covered C a r b o n a t o r .% A r e a l Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3-2 E f f e c t o f Assumed T r a n s f e r R a t e on Sump D e p t h . . . . . . . . 17

3-3 Sump W i t h Gas R e c y c l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.4 A v e r a g e Hold-up and L i f t i n 1.5 m Deep C a r b o n a t i o n Sumps . . . 20

3-5 Average H o l d - u p and L i f t i n C o u n t e r .C u r r e n t Sumps . . . . . 21
4- 1 E f f e c t o f Sump D e p t h on A i r L i f t E f f i c i e n c y . . . . . . . . . 30

4-2 Gas L i f t E f f i c i e n c y a s a F u n c t i o n o f L i q u i d V e l o c i t v . . . . . 30

4-3 L i f t and E f f i c i e n c y o f a D r a f t Tube A i r L i f t System . . . . . 31

6- 1 . . . . . . . . . 40
N u t r i e n t P a r t i t i o n i n g i n an A n a e r o b i c Lagoon

6-2 Recvcle o f N u t r i e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7- 1 Pond D e s i g n C a l c u l a t i o n s .S i n g l e Pond . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7-2 Pond D e s i g n C a l c u l a t i o n s .Pond System . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7-3 Growth Pond C o s t Sumnary . 192 H e c t a r e System . . . . . . . . 63

8- 1 M i c r o s t r a i n e r D e s i g n A s s u m p t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8-2 C a p i t a l Costs o f M i c r o s t r a i n e r Harvesting Option . . . . . . . 69

8-3 C a p i t a l Costs o f B e l t F i l t e r i n g Harvesting Option ...... 70

8-4 S e t t l i n q Pond System F l o w R a t e s ............... 75

8-5 C a p i t a l C o s t o f S e t t l i n g Pond H a r v e s t i n g O p t i o n ....... 77

8-6 Estimated Operating Costs o f Harvesting Options ....... 78

9-1 192 H e c t a r e System C a p i t a l C o s t Summary ........... 80

9-2 192 H e c t a r e System .E l e c t r i c a l and M a i n t a n e n c e C o s t Summary . 81

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 L I S T OF TABLES ( C O N T . 1

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9-3 Capital Cost o-f Water S u p p l y System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

9-4 Capital Cost o f C a r b o n Dioxide Distribution System . . . . . . 85

9-5 Capital Cost o f Buildings .................. 86

10-1 Base Case Desiun Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

10-2 Total O p e r a t i n g Costs . Base Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

10-3 Labor Required +or I000 Acre System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

11-1 Base Case Economic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

11-2 Economic Model I n p u t Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

11-3 Base Case: Sensitivity to Fradurtivity . . . . . . . . . . . 98

11-4 Economic Analysis: Base Case + Recycle ........... 99

11-5 R e c y c l e Case: Productivity Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . 101

11-6 Recycle Case: Sensitivity to C02 Price . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11-7 Recycle Case: Sensitivity to L i p i d Content . . . . . . . . . 106
11-8 R e c y c l e Case: Sensitivity to DCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
11-9 Recycle Case: Sensitivity to Cost of Capital . . . . . . . . I09
11-10 Recycle Case: ...
Sensitivity to C o s t o f C a p i t a l a t 2x DCI 110

11-11 Recycle Case: Sensitivity t o Polymer Dose ......... 111

12-1 Climatic Conditions a t t h e Proposed Experimental Site . . . . 112

12-2 Chemical Composition of Experimental Site Water Resources .. 115

f 2-3 0.4 Hcctarc Pond Design Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

12-4 0.8 Hectare System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
0.8 Hectare System Pond C o s t s ................ 123

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 L I S T OF TABLES (CONT.)

Table Paae

12-6 50 m 2 Ponds Cost Breakdown ................. 124

12-7 E x u e r i m e n t a l Svstem S e t t l i n g Pond C o s t . . . . . . . . . . . 126

12-8 E x p e r i m e n t a l System Water S t o r a g e Pond . . . . . . . . . . . 128

12-9 E x p e r i m e n t a l System B u i l d i n g s C o s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

12-10 E x p e r i m e n t a l System C o s t Summarv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

13- 1 E x p e r i m e n t a l System .Pond Equipment Cost .......... 139

13-2 Laboratory ......................... 141

13-3 O p e r a t i n g H a t e r i a l s and S u p p l i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

13-4 DirectLabor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

xiv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Paqe

2-1 Carbonate Chemistry of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

2-2 Carbonate Chemistry o f C ~ n d i t i o n e d Type 1 1 Water
.125 Blowdown R a t i o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Carbonate Chemistry of Conditioned T y p e 1 1 Water
.25 Blowdown Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

E f f e c t o f fond S i z e on Wall Lenqths . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7

E f f e c t o f Pond S i z e o n Pond C o s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Pond System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

S i n g l e Pond Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Wall Construction A l t e r n a t i v e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

P a d d l e Wheel Design ( T y p i c a l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1

Microstrainer-based Harvesting Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . b 7

S e t t l i n g PondSystem Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Harvesting Pond D e t a i l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

S e t t l i n q Pond F l u s h System and Secondary Thickening . . . . . 76

Water D i s t r i b u t i o n System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Recycle Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o P r o d u c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . 102

Location of ~ x p e r i m e n t a l System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Experiemental S i t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Experimental S i t e .Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l i 8

Experimental S i t e .Section View .............. 119

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Experimental S y s t e m Z e t t l i n g P o n d

Experimental S c h e d u l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
 SECTION 1.0

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVES
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e p o r t , as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s t a t a e n t o f work, is t o
develop a c o s t e + f e c t i v e design f o r a microalgae c u l t u r e f a c i l i t y , t h a t
meets s p e c i f i e d l o c a t i o n , r e s o u r c e , and p r o d u c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . The
c o n c e p t u a l d e s i g n and o p e r a t i n g o p t i o n s p r e s e n t e d a r e based on f i e l d and
l a b o r a t o r y experiments, conducted by N i c r o b i a l Products, Inc., engineering
c o s t a n a l y s i s , and assessment o f t h e work i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

I n d e v e l o p i n g t h e d e s i g n and a n a l y s i s , t h e major d e c i s i o n i n c h o o s i n g
among i d e n t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i v e s has been p o t e n t i a l c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s and
economic e f f i c i e n c y , T h i s approach is based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e
success o f microalgae-based f u e l s w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d by a a r k e t economics.

1,2 STATE OF THE ART

An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t of a l g a l biomass p r o d u c t i o n can b e
based on i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a c t u a l p r o d u c i n g p l a n t s and f r o m e x t r a p o l a t i o n s
o f r e s u l t s oC e x p e r i m e n t a l i a c i i i t i e s , I n t h e +orner, t h e costs of
c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e system approach 100x 1 0 3 / a c r e , t h e r e s o u r c e base i s
w e l l - d e f i n e d b u t l i m i t e d and r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e , and t h e f i n a l c o s t a+
t h e biomass i s $2-S/dry l b ; The c o s t s d e r i v e d f r o m e x t r a p o l a t i o n v a r y
e x t e n s i v e l y and a r e g e n e r a l l y based on u n r e a l i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s used. For
t h i s r e a s o n , o n l y t h e r e s u l t s o f Wei3sman and Ooebel C13, Benemann e t a1
121, and Laws f 3 1 w i l l b e used i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n , These
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e , i n any case, among t h e most r e c e n t and t h u s t h e l a t e s t
i n the s t a t e of the a r t .

The t h r e e m a j o r t e c h n i c a l and economic c o n c e r n s o f a l g a l b i o m a s s

p r o d u c t i o n are: t h e c o s t and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e t w o m a l o r r e s o u r c e s
N O Z and w a t e r ) , t h e c o s t s o f c o n s t r u c t i n p and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s y a t e r ,
and t h e d e s i g n and c o a t s o f t h e biomass h a r v e s t i n g and procerring
syetems. A t p r e s e n t none o f t h e s e c o n c e r n s has been r e s o l v e d f o r a
p r o c e s s w h i c h must p r o d u c e t h e biomass a t a c o o t o f S,OS/lb as must be
a c c o m p l i s h e d f o r f u e l p r e c u r s e r biomass.

D e s p i t e t h e e f f o r t t h a t has been p u t i n t o i d e n t i f y i n g t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
a v a i l a b l e f o r l a r g e s c a l e a l g a l biomass p r o d u c t i o n , n o s u i t a b l e r e s o u r c e
has y e t been i d e n t i f i e d . The rPasonB f o r t h i s are 1) d a t a on g r o u n d w a t e r s
a r e s p a r s e , non-random, and d i f f i c u l t t o c o m p i l e and 2 ) t h e s e l e c t i o n
c r i t e r i a h a v e n o t been f u l l y a p p l i e d so t h a t t h e r e s o u r c e d a t a h a v e n o t been
properly evaluated. I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o conduct a corprehensive
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f water r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y . R a t h e r i t seems more u s e f u l t o
s t a t e t h e c r i t e r i a w h i c h any w a t e r r e s o u r c e must meet i n o r d e r t o b e s u i t a b l e
f o r u s e i n a l o w c o s t a l q a l b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n system. I n discussing the
w a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s among
t h e w a t e r , l a n d and C02 r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r a l g a l p r o d u c t i o n systems.

I n e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , s y s t e m s i z e s v a r y f r a a 1-20 a c r e s and t h e
amount o f w a t e r r e q u i r e d i s s m a l l , Thus w a t e r f r o m w e l l s w i t h s p e c i a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s or inexpensive i r r i g a t i o n waters, already a v a i l a b l e f o r
a g r i c u l t u r e a r e used. When u n i q u e g r o w t h media a r e r e q u i r e d , as i n t h e h i g h
b i c a r b o n a t e medium f o r S e j r g l j n g p r o d u c t i o n , r e c y c l i n g o f t h e g r o w t h medium
i s n e c e s s a r y , f u r t h e r l o w e r i n g t h e w a t e r demand. F o r f u e l p r o d u c t i o n f ram
'

n i c r o a l g a e , t h e s c a l e i n c r e a s e s 50-5000 f o l d , c h a n g i n g t h e r e s o u r c e q u e s t i o n
entirely. Now t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l w a t e r , w h i c h i s n o t t o o c o s t l y p e r se, i s n o t
u t i l i z a b l e because t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e makes t h e
l a n d t o o expensive. T h i s l e a v e s o n l y t h r e e water r e s o u r c e s l e f t f o r
consideration: s e a w a t e r , g r o u n d w a t e r t h a t i s t o o s a l i n e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e , and
a g r i c u l t u r a l drainage water,

I n t h e U.S., c o a s t a l p r o p e r t y w i t h access t o seawater i s e x t r e m e l y

expensive. However, s i n c e s o much work h a 8 been done i n s e a w a t e r , and s i n c e
t h i s i s r e a l l y t h e o n l y u n l i m i t e d w a t e r r e s o u r c e , we w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e
consequences o f u s i n g i t . One t h i n g t h a t must b e k e p t i n m i n d when
c o n s i d e r i n g t h e u s e o f s e a w a t e r i s t h a t much more w a t e r must b e used s i n c e
t h e i n i t i a l s a l i n i t y i s already high. One r e a l l y c a n n o t c o n s i d e r even a
50-100% i n c r e a s e i n t h e s a l i n i t y , due t o e v a p o r a t i o n , f o r t w o r e a s o n s .
F i r s t , s a l i n i t y r e s t r i c t s t h e number o f s p e c i e s t h a t w i l l t o l e r a t e t h e medium
and t h e r e a r e a l r e a d y v e r y many s p e c i e s s c r e e n i n g c r i t e r i a . Second, t h e
g r o w t h r a t e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a l g a e on w a t e r s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s a l i n i t y ,
above s e a w a t e r , d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y even f o r s p e c i e s w h i c h t o l e r a t e t h e h i g h e r
s a l i n i t y 141.

S a l i n e groundwater i s t h e p r i m e c a n d i d a t e f o r a l q a l biomass p r o d u c t i o n ,
b e c a u s e i t may b e t h e o n l y r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b l e i n l a r g e enough q u a n t i t i e s a t
l o w enough c o s t , where l a n d i s i n e x p e n s i v e . The g r o u n d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
i d e n t i f i e d t o d a t e 153, a r e most l i k e l y u s e a b l e , a f t e r c o n d i t i o n i n g , a s w i l l
be shown below. However, t h e s i z e o f t h e r e s o u r c e b a s e i s o n l y s p e c u l a t i v e
a t present. Nonetheless use o f s a l i n e groundwater w i l l be a b a s i c assumption
i n t h i s r e p o r t and s e r v e s a s an example o f a theme t o b e r e p e a t e d t h r o u g h o u t
the report; t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u s e d w i l l o f t e n be s p e c u l a t i v e , b u t i t w i l l b e
shown t h a t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e much t o o c o s t l y t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d .
The m a j o r e f f o r t w i l l b e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e s p e c u l a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e
t h e o n l y economic a1 t e r n a t i v e .
A g r i c u l t u r a l d r a i n a g e w a t e r s a r e becoming a l a r g e r and l a r g e r resource a s
i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s a r e made more a v a i l a b l e i n t h e s e m i - d e s e r t s o f t h e U.S.
southwest. These d r a i n a g e w a t e r s a t e becoming r e c o g n i z e d as a m a j o r waste
d i s p o s a l problem. h l t h o u g h u s e o f t h e s e w a t e r s p o s e s same o f t h e same
p r o b l e m s a 3 t h e u s e o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r ( a v a i l a b l e where l a n d is
r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e ) t h e c r e d i t s f o r e v a p o r a t i n g some o f t h i s w a t e r say
o u t w e i g h t h e expenses. The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s n i l l t h u s c o v e r t h e use o f
s e a w a t e r and s e v e r a l t y p e s o f s a l i n e g r o u n d w a t e r s , d e l i n e a t i n g t h e
consequences t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have an t h e d e s i g n o f l a w c a s t a l g a l
biomass systems.

The m a j o r r e s o u r c e n e c e s s a r y f o r f u e l p r e c u r s c r p r o d u c t i o n f r o m m i c r o a l g a e
i s carbon dioxide. Even a t l 4 O / t o n , C02 i s l i k e l y t o c o m p r i s e o v e r 502
o f t h e o p e r a t i n g costs. I t r requirement i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o biomass
p r o d u c t i o n so t h a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e output o f a system, p e r a c r e , doas
l i t t l e t o a l l e v i a t e t h e c o s t burden o f CQ2. C02 is a v a i l a b l e i n
moderate t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s from t h r e e resources: n e l l o , r e + i n a r y
c r a c k i n g p r o c e s s e s , and power p l a n t a f f gases, The l e g i s t i t s o f s i t i n g a
pond system c l o s e t o b o t h w a t e r and C02 r e s o u r c e s poses one of t h e most
d i f f i c u l t problems. Ye n i l l n o t d e l v e i n t o t h i s a r e a e x c e p t t o say t h a t
a t l e a s t i n t h a f u t u r e enough CO2 i s a v a i l a b l e f o r l a r g o s y s t e m uss even
i f power p l a n t s mufit b e b u i ' l t t o s u p p l y i t . The d e s i g n c o n l i d e r a t i o n s
w i l l emphasize e f f i c i e n t use o f C o p , assumed t o be a v a i l a b l e a t v a r i o u s
s p e c i f i e d costs. fllgal biomass p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e a s i n o p e r a t i o n t o d a y use
c o m n e r c i r l GO2 p r o d u c e d a t r e f i n e r i e s and t r u c k p d or t r a i n c d t o t h e pond
site. C o ~ t so f t h i s r a n g e f r o m $50-100/ton. T h i s i s t h e C02 r e s o u r c e
t h a t w i l l b e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system devetloped.

S t a t e o f t h e a r t systems a r e e m a l l and v e r y e ~ p e n s i v ep e r u n i t a r e a t o
construct. Although t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n can be
s p r e a d o v e r many y e a r s , none o f t h e e x i s t i n g systems c o u l d make a p r o f i t
i f t h e p r o d u c t v a l u e were n o t g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t f l O / d r y l b , H i g h
c o n s t r u c t i o n c a s t s and t h e l a r g e s c a l e o f t h e systems r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e
e n e r g y combine t o d i s c o u r a g e p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t . Thus t h e d e s i g n s
s p e c ~ f i e di n t h i s r e p o r t were d e v i s e d t o keep c a p i t a l c o s t s o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n as l a w a s p o s j i b l c w h i l e s t i l l a c h i e v i n g p r o d u c t i o n g o a l s ,
F o r example, pond l i n i n g w i t h p l a s t i c aeabranes was c o n s i d e r e d t o o
e x p e n s i v e t o buy and i n s t a l l i n i t i a l l y , as w e l l as b e i n g a p o t e n t i a l
m a i n t e n a n c e problem, 4 c r u s h e d r o c k l i n i n g , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s much
less expensive, Thh theme o f our a p p r o a c h i s r e p e a t e d ; i n t e n s i v e a l g a l
p r o d u c t i o n h a s n o t been a t t e r p t e d i n l a r g e ponds, s e a l e d w i t h c l a y and
l i n e d w i t h c r u s h e d r o c k , b u t we f e e l t h a t i n o r d e r f o r t h e p r a c e s 9 t o
approach a f f o r d a b i l i t y , t h i s o p t i o n must b e s p e c i f i e d .
Perhaps t h e foremost t e c h n i c a l problem i n low-cost a l g a l biomass p r o d u c t i o n
h a s been r e c o v e r i n g t h e c e l l s f r o m s u s p e n s i o n . Besides simple sedimentation,
t h e r e i s no method y e t d e v e l o p e d t h a t i s i n e x p e n s i v e . A l l straining,
f i l t e r i n g , and c h e m i c a l f l o c c u l a t i o n methods p r e s e n t l y b e i n g a n a l y z e d a r e t o o
expensive. I n d u c e d b i o f l o c c u l a t i o n , p o s s i b l y a i d e d by s m a l l d o s e s o f
chemical f l o c c u l a n t , f o l l o w e d by s e d i m e n t a t i o n o r f l o t a t i o n a r e p o t e n t i a l l y
e f f e c t i v e means o f h a r v e s t i n g w h i c h w o u l d n o t be t o o c o s t l y . Both
c o n v e n t i o n a l and t h e p r o p o s e d means w i l l be a n a l y z e d i n t h e body o f t h e
report.

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

The r e p o r t c o n t a i n s t h i r t e e n s e c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n . In
s e c t i o n s 2.0 - 5.0 t h e a n a l y s e s w h i c h s e r v e as t h e b a s i s f o r d e s i g n c r i t e r i a
are presented. The c h e m i s t r y o f t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e i r t h e s u b j e c t o f S e c t i o n
2.0. The w a t e r u s e d and t h e blowdown r a t i o assumed d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a r b o n
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y and pH a r a n g e o f o p e r a t i o n . This determines t h e t r a n s i t
t i m e between c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s , w h i c h i s needed a s an i n p u t t o d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e pond s i z e . . The d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r t w o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c a r b o n a t o r s
i s t h e s u b j e c t o f S e c t i o n 3.0. I n S e c t i o n 4.0 t w o methods f o r m i x i n g a r e
analyzed: p a d d l e w h e e l s and g a s - l i f t pumps. The r e s u l t s a r e s t a t e d i n t e r m e
o f e f f i c i e n c y and power r e q u i r e m e n t s t o o b t a i n c h a n n e l m i x i n g v e l o c i t i e s of
20 cm/s. H a r v e s t i n g s y s t e m s i s t h e s u b j e c t o f S e c t i o n 5.0. The methods
a n a l y z e d i n c l u d e f l o c c u l a t i o n , w i t h and w i t h o u t s m a l l c h e m i c a l doses,
f o l l o n e d b y e i t h e r a t w o - s t e p s e d i m e n t a t i o n system, a i r / D O f l o t a t i o n u s i n g a
foam c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e , m i c r o s t r a i n i n g , o r b e l t f i l t r a t i o n . S e c t i o n 6.0
summarizes t h e a n a l y s e s o f p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s , p r o v i d e s an o v e r v i e w o f o t h e r
i a p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s n o t p r e v i o u s l y p r e s e n t e d , and d i s c u s s e s t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e a n a l y t i c r e s u l t s on t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n o f a l a r g e
s c a l e a l g a l p r o d u c t i o n system. I n S e c t i o n s 7.0-9.0, t h e design o f a l a r g e
s c a l e p o n d i n g s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n . c o s t s . The
c o s t o f o p e r a t i n g such i s p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 10.0. The s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e
economics o f a l g a l b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n t o changes i n t h e i n i t i a l a s s u m p t i o n s
and d e s i g n i s t h e s u b j e c t o f S e c t i o n 11.0. F i n a l l y , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system
w h i c h i s t o b e u s e d t o v a l i d a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s e d system, i s
p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n s 12.0 and 13.0.
 S E C T I O N 2.0

WATER RESOURCES

2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER RESOURCES

The c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e h a s s e v e r a l p r i m a r y
consequences f o r b o t h t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system. Pond s i z e
a n d / o r t h e number o f c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s p e r pond i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e
carbon storage c a p a c i t y of t h e water, Since i t , i s l e a s t expensive t o
r e s t r i c t t h e " p o w e r " c o r r i d o r t o one end o f t h e channels, one c a r b o n a t i o n
s t a t i o n p e r pond i s o p t i m a l u n l e s s t h i s c r i t e r i o n r e s t r i c t s pond s i z e t o l e g s
t h a n a b o u t 10 a c r e s . I n t h a t case, pond c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l be more e x p e n s i v e
because more c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s w i l l b e needed p e r pond, r e q u i r i n g a more
e x t e n s i v e C02 and e l e c t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n system. The w a t e r c h e m i s t r y n i l 1
a l s o e ~ e r ta s c l e c t l o n c r i t e r i o n on t h e a l g a l s p e c i e s . Thus t h e s p e c i e s must
b e s c r e e n e d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e a n t i c i p a t e d w a t e r r e s o u r c e . .The w a t e r
a v a i l a b l e may a l s o r e q u i r e some c o n d i t i o n i n g p r i o r t o use. F o r a l g a l systems
t h i s i s l i k e l y t o be t h e case when t h e w a t e r h a r d n e s s (Ca i n p a r t i c u l a r ) and
c a r b o n a t e exceed t h e s o l u b i l i t y p r o d u c t a t t h e p r o j e c t e d pH range. The
s i t u a t i o n is more a c u t e when t h e c a l c i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n exceeds the
alkalinity. I n b o t h cases same n a t e r s o f t e n i n g ill b e r e q u i r e d . The
c o n d i t i o n i n g i s a c h i e v e d a t l o w e s t c o s t by t h e a d d i t i o n o f sodium c a r b o n a t e ,
f o l l o w e d by s e t t l i n q . I f r e m o v a l o f magnesium i s a l s o r e q u i r e d , t h e n b o t h
l i m e and sodium c a r b o n a t e need t o b e added,

I n T a b l e 2-1, s e v e r a l n a t e r r e s o u r c e s are shown a l o n g w i t h t h e c o r r e s p a n d i n g

c a r b o n c h e m i s t r y and n a t e r c o n d i t i o n i n g r s q u i r e m e n t s . 4150 shown a r e t h e
o u t g a s s i n g consequences, t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f c a l c i u a c a r b o n a t e , and t h e
l e v e l s o f d i r ~ o l v e dCOZ. F i g u r e r 2 - 1 , 2 , 3 show t h e pH dependency o f t h e r e
factor^ and t h u s t h e d a t a upon w h i c h t h e s p e c i f i e d pH r a n g e o f o p e r a t i o n was
chosen. T h i s r a n g e i s l i f l i t e d on t h e a c i d s i d e by l o s s o f C02 due t o
o u t g a r s i n g and on t h e b a a i c s i d e t o 1) l o w C02 c o n c e n t r a t i o n and 2 ) c a l c i u m
c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The l a t t e r i a c r i t i c a l i n w a t e r r i n w h i c h t h e r e i s
a l o t o f c a l c i u m w h i c h c o u l d p r e c i p i t a t e c a u ~ i n gr t u r b i d i t y p r o b l e m and
e s p e c i a l l y c r i t i c a l where t h e a l k a l i n i t y i s low, a 9 i n s e a w a t e r . Here
c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e s u l t s i n a m a j o r l o s s o f b u f f e r i n g and
carbon storage capacity. When t h e c a l c i u a c o n c e n t r a t i o n is l o w (1-4mH) and
t h e a l k a l i n i t y m o d e r a t e l y h i g h ( 1 2 - 4 0 s H ) , p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s not a problem.
The f i g u r e s were c o n s t r u c t e d assuming i n f i n i t e s o l u b i l i t y o f c a l c i u m
carbonate. A t f i n i t e s o l u b i l i t y (indicated i n the figures) the figures are
s t i l l a c c u r a t e when c a r b o n a t e a l k a l i n i t y i s much g r e a t e r than calcium
concentration, On t h e o t h e r hand, s e a w a t e r c h e m i s t r y changes c o n s i d e r a b l y as
calcium carbonate p r e c i p i t a t e s .
 T a b l e 2-1. C h e m i s t r y of Water Resources

.............................................................................
Seawater S a l t o n Sea Type I L Low TDS T y p e 11 L Exp't.
.............................................................................
BDR .95 .95 ,125 .25 .I25 .I27

Ca removed - 600 500 0-40 125 1100

P Pm

Na2C03 - 1500 1250 0- 100 0 2750

a d d e d , ppro

Ca, mtl 10.3 10.3 .5 1-4 1-4 1-4

pH r a n g e 6.5-8.0 6.5-8.0 8-8.5 7.5-8.5 8.0-8.5 8.0-8.5

8-9 7.5-9.0 8-9 8.0-9.0
7.3-9.5

C out,
gm/m2/d

C storage
timc,hrs

Pond d e p t h = 20 c o , p r o d . =49m/n2/ h r = . 03mfl C / h r ,~ ~ 04mihr

s 0f o r ~
outgassing
Six water r e s p u r c s s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n T a b l e 2-1. The f i r s t two r e p r e s e n t
h i g h TDS w a t e r s which cannot b e a r much c o n c e n t r a t i o n due t o e v a p o r a t i o n
w i t h o u t s e v e r e l y l i m i t i n g t h e number of s p e c i e s which w i l l prow
p r o d u c t i v e l y . Thus s e a w a t e r i s a r e s o u r c e t h a t r e q u i r e s s u b s t a n t i a l
blowdown. The S a l t o n Sea water can be used a t the proposed e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t e
i n s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a t o s i m u l a t e s e a w a t e r a s a once through r e s o u r c e , a f t e r
c o n d i t i o n i n g t o remove more t h a n h a l f of t h e calcium. ( S a l t o n Sea water h a s
2.5 t i n e s a s much c a l c i u m a s r e g u l a r s e a w a t e r ) . For s e a w a t e r t h e upper limit
on pH i s r a t h e r s t r i c t l y s e t b y calcium c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e
a l k a l i n i t y i s s o low, a s d i s c u s s e d above. The lower l i m i t i s s e t , b y C02
o u t g a s s i n g , a t pH about 6.5. Due t o t h e low a l k a l i n i t y , o n l y about one h o u r s
worth of carbon can be s t o r e d i n t h e w a t e r . I f pond d e p t h were halved o n l y a
h a l f h o u r s worth of carbon could be s t o r e d .

The s a l i n e g r o u n d w a t e r s examined b y SERI were e v a l u a t e d f o r t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s

i n open ponds s y s t e m s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e major water r e s o u r c e c i t e d ,
t h e Type I Low i s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . I t h a s t o o much c a l c i u m ,
r e q u i r i n g S 2 4 0 0 l a c r e l y r f o r c o n d i t i o n i n g i n chemical c o s t a l o n e . Although
t h e Type I moderate h a s a more f a v o r a b l e r a t i o of a l k a l i n i t y t o c a l c i u m , i t
e n d s up r e q u i r i n g more sodium c a r b o n a t e because i t must be blown down more.
The low w a t e r s can b e a r an e i g h t f o l d c o n c e n t r a t i o n whereas t h e moderate can
bear o n l y a twofold c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The Type I h i g h h a s a f a v o r a b l e
a l k a l i n i t y t o calcium r a t i o meaning t h a t t h e calcium can be removed b y
e q u i l i b r a t i o n w i t h a i r i n a s e t t l i n g pond t o a l l o w p r e c i p i t a t i o n of calcium
c a r b o n a t e , followed b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n . However t h e water i s s o h i g h i n TDS
t h a t i t c a n n o t be c o n c e n t r a t e d f u r t h e r and t h u s t o o much of i t would be
r e q u i r e d . Not only does i t become very e x p e n s i v e t o pump s o much w a t e r , b u t
t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t enough of t h i s r e s o u r c e e x i s t s . So f o r t h e
p u r p o s e s of a n a l y s i s t h e Type I w a t e r s a r e u n s u i t a b l e . If s i m i l a r w a t e r , but
lower i n c a l c i u m were found i t could be u t i l i z a b l e . A t 50 t o n s / a c r e / y r a l g a l
p r o d u c t i v i t y , and a blondown r a t i o of , 1 2 5 , t h e chemical c o s t of c a l c i u m
removal i s about a h a l f c e n t per kg d r y w e . of biomass p e r 100 ppm calcium.

A s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e Type I 1 water of TDS 4ppt can be used

d e s p i t e i t s high calcium. The much h i g h e r a l k a l i n i t y r e s u l t s i n
p r e c i p i t a t i o n of most of t h e calcium a s c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e upon e q u i l i b r a t i o n
w i t h t h e a i r . The low Type I 1 water can be c o n c e n t r a t e d many f o l d i n t e r m s
of TDS. I t i s n o t c l e a r whether h i g h TDS o r h i g h a l k a l i n i t y would f i r s t
limit t h e e x t e n t t o which t h i s water t y p e c o u l d b e c o n c e n t r a t e d . Whether
magnesium would p r e c i p i t a t e a s t h e water c o n c e n t r a t e s i s an i s s u e t h a t must
be a d d r e s s e d by e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . If n o t t h e r e would be no water c o n d i t i o n i n g
c o s t s beyond a s e t t l i n g pond and p o s s i b l y some f i o c c u l a n t t o remove c a l c i u m
c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t e s . If a a g n e s i u s needed t o be removed, l i m e would be
used. A complete water c o n d i t i o n i n g a n a l y s i s would be needed. However,
p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t about 6-8 mM l i m e would r e d u c e t h e
magnesium c o n t e n t 6 0 % , t h e a l k a l i n i t y 70%, l e a v e l i t t l e r e s i d u a l c a l c i u m , and
i n c r e a s e t h e pH t o about 9 - 9 . 5 . T h i s would c o s t about one c e n t per k g
biomass. The u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e water c o n d i t i o n i n g s t a t u s r e s u l t s i n an
u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e a l k a l i n i t y of t h e t r e a t e d w a t e r . S t a r t i n g w i t h an e x c e s s
of a l k a l i n i t y over c a l c i u m of 10 m M , an e i g h t f o l d c o n c e n t r a t i o n by
e v a p o r a t i o n i n t h e ponds would l e a d t o a " s t e a d y s t a t e " a l k a l i n i t y of 80mM.
This would r e q u i r e a pH of c l o s e t o 9 t o avoid c o n s i d e r a b l e o u t g a s s i n g , I t
m i g h t be d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d organisms which grow well a t such a h i g h a l k a l i n t y
and pH ( a l t h o u g h t h e C02 c o n c e n t r a t i o n would s t i l l be q u i t e h i g h ) .
2.2. LARGE SCALE DESIGN WATER

The w a t e r s o u r c e s e l e c t e d f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e s y s t e a d e s i g n is Type 11 s a l i n e
g r o u n d w a t e r w i t h an i n i t i a l TDS o f 4 p p t , S i n c e r e m o v a l o f c a l c i u m , some
magnesium, and concommitant a l k a l i n i t y i s l i k e l y , t h e d e s i g n i n c l u d e s a w a t e r
h o l d i n g pond t o b e used t o s e d i m e n t p r e c i p i t a t e s . A f t e r c o n d i t i o n i n g and
e v a p o r a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h a , 1 2 5 blowdown r a t i o t h e s t e a d y s t a t e
s a l i n i t y i s 32 p p t w i t h an a l k a l i n i t y o f 3 2 - b 0 mM. I t i s areumed t h a t
c a i c i u a and magnesium have been l o w e r e d t o l e v e l s n h i c h do n o t cause
p r e c i p i t a t e problems. 0 f c o u r s e , i t i s a l s o assumed t h a t an a d e q u a t e
r e s o u r c e base e x i s t s + o r t h i s t y p e w a t e r ,

G i v e n t h i s w a t e r r e s o u r c e , w i t h an a l k a l i n i t y o f g r e a t e r o r e q u a l t o 32 m f l ,
t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f p H is d i c t a t e d by t h e g r o w t h r e s p o n s e o f t h e a l g a e t o
C02 c o n c e n t r a t i o n . I f t h e o r g a n i s m grows w e l l a t o r b e l o w a i r l e v e l s o f
C02 t h e n t h e pH c o u l d go up t o 9 o r h i g h e r . I f i t r e q u i r e s h i g h e r COq
t h e n a pH o f 8.5 i s more s u i t a b l e , The l o w l i m i t i s s e t b y o u t g a s s i n g , w h i c h
i n c r e a s e s s t e e p l y b e l o w pH 8 due t o t h e h i g h a l k a l i n i t y as shown i n F i g u r e
2-3. B u t , a l s o due t o t h e h i g h a l k a l i n i t y , l a r g e amounts of c a r b o n can b e
s t o r e d w i t h a s m a l l change i n pH. W i t h j u s t one c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n p e r
pond, a pond o+ 40 acres c o u l d b e o p e r a t e d , F o r a s m a l l e r pond, the pH r a n g e
could be narrowed, f u r t h e r l o w e r i n g t h e o u t g a s s i n g l o s s (by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
l o w pH l i m i t ) o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e m i n i r u m CQ2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( b y d e c r e a s i n g
t h e h i g h pH l i m i t ) ,

2.3. EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM WATER RESOURCES AND GROWTH MEDIA

The p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t e i s l o c a t e d i n B r a w l e y , C a l i f o r n i a i n t h e
Imperial Valley. The s i t e b o r d e r s t h e s o u t h w e s t s i d e o f t h e S a l t o n Sea.
Water f r o m t h e sea i s a v a i l a b l e b y p i p e l i n e o r b y d r i l l i n g a s h a l l o w w e l l ,
An e x i s t i n g 1700 gpm w e l l p r o v i d e s b r a c k i s h (2.5 p p t ) g r o u n d w a t e r . As
d i s c u s s e d above, s a l i n e g r o u n d w a t e r s can b e e x p e c t e d t o c o n t a i n h i g h l e v e l s
o+ a l k a l i n i t y a f t e r concentration, On t h e o t h e r hand n a t e r s t h a t a r e
o r i g i n a l l y h i g h l y s a l i n e , l i k e s e a w a t e r , c o n t a i n l i t t l e a l k a l i n i t y . The
w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e on t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e can b e mixed i n v a r i o u s
proportions, a f t e r conditioning, t o obtain waters t h a t are representative o f
b o t h h i g h and l o w a l k a l i n i t y r e s o u r c e s . The p r i m a r y e x p e r i m e n t a l a l k a l l n i t y
n i l 1 b e 24meq/l. I n some cases, however i t w i l l be c o n v e n i e n t t o o p e r a t e a t
lower a l k a l i n i t i e s . The b a s i c f o r m u l a f o r t h e e x p e r i . n e n t a 1 w a t e r r e s o u r c e
f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n system is a m i x t u r e o f S a l t o n Sea water ( a f t e r r e a o v a l
o f a l l o f t h e Ca) and w e l l n a t e r i n a r a t i o 04 about 19: 1- a c h i e v i n g a TDS o f
4 p p t and an a l k a l i n i t y o f a b o u t 3 n e q / l . A f t e r e v a p o r a t i o n , the TDS is 32
p p t and t h e a l k a l i n i t y is 24 meq/l. Any s t a r t i n g TDS is a c h i e v a b l e b y u s i n g
a d i f f e r e n t r a t i o o f S a l t o n Sea w a t e r t o w e l l w a t e r . T h i s allows v a r i a t i o n
o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f m a j o r i o n s ( a l t h o u g h n o t i n d e p e n d e n t l y ) and b l o w donn
ratio. S i n c e only t h e S a l t o n Sea n a t e r needs c o n d i t i o n i n g , t h e c o s t p e r a c r e
p e r y e a r i s a b o u t $300. The c o n d i t i o n i n g c a n be a c h i e v e d by a d d i t i o n o f l i n e
and soda ash i f b o t h c a l c i u m r e m o v a l and magnesium r e m a v a l is r e q u i r e d . If
o n l y c a l c i u m i s t o b e removed, soda ash a l o n e is added. .The p r a c t i c a l
methods o f n a t e r c o n d i t i o n i n g t h a t would b e used a t t h e l a r g e s c a l e w i l l b e
t e s t e d i n s m a l l s c a l e h o l d i n g ponds.
 SECTION 3.0

ANALYSIS OF CARBONATION SYSTEMS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

I n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n , t h e c a r b o n s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f s e v e r a l w a t e r s was
analyzed. T h i s , a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f m i n i m i z i n g d i s s o l v e d C02
l e v e l a t t h e l o w e s t pH and m a x i m i z i n g i t a t t h e h i g h e s t pH d e f i n e d b o t h t h e
pH r a n g e o f o p e r a t i o n and t h e t r a n s i t t i m e a l l o w e d between c a r b o n a t i o n
stations. T h i s t r a n s i t t i m e was based on t h e summertime d a i l y demand
a v e r a g e d o v e r 12 h o u r s , w h i c h i s e q u a l t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f 4 qm/m2/hr of
a l g a l biomass. When demand i s l o w e r , t h e pH r a n g e can be n a r r o w e d a n d / o r t h e
carbon i n f l o w r a t e diminished. I n t h i s s e c t i o n t h e means w i t h w h i c h t h l s
maximal r a t e i s s u p p l i e d f r o m t h e gas s t r e a m t o t h e pond l i q u i d i s a n a l y z e d .
The b a s i c c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g o f g a s - l i q u i d t r a n s f e r i s p r e s e n t e d i n t w o
a p p e n d i c e s i A1 and A I I . The r e s u l t s f o r t w o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c a r b o n a t o r s ,
a b u b b l e c o v e r and an i n - p o n d sump, a r e d i s c u s s e d below. Along w i t h t h e
p a r a m e t e r s r e l e v a n t t o each manner o f t r a n s f e r , t h e consequences on t h e
m i x i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e ponds a r e a n a l y z e d .

3.2 COVERED AREA CARBONATORS--BUBBLE COVERS

By c o v e r i n g a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e pond a r e a w i t h a membrane-covered
s t r u c t u r e submerged a t i t s edges, gas t r a n s f e r c a n o c c u r p a s s i v e l y t h r o u g h
t h e pond s u r f a c e u n d e r t h e c o v e r . The c o v e r s e r v e s t o t r a p a gas volume w i t h
a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f C02. The f l o w o f gas u n d e r t h e c o v e r can be
t u r b u l e n t o r l a m i n a r , d e p e n d i n g on t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e s .
L a m i n a r f l o w a l l o w s somewhat h i g h e r s t r i p p i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s s i n c e t h e gas b l e d
o f f w i l l c o n t a i n t h e l o w e s t C02 c o n c e n t r a t i o n . A gas b l e e d i s n e c e s s a r y
s i n c e d e s o r p t i o n o f oxygen and n i t r o g e n w i l l o c c u r u n d e r t h e c o v e r . I f the
p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e i s l o w t h e b l e e d r a t e needed i s even a l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e o f
t h e i n f l o w r a t e , s o i t h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e c a r b o n t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y .

The p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e o f t h e pond depends on t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e o f GO2 u n d e r

t h e cover. As d e t a i l e d i n Appendix A I , t h i s depends on t h e h y d a u l i c s u n d e r
t h e c o v e r , i . e . , t h e r a t e o f t u r n o v e r o f an e l e m e n t o f w a t e r s u r f a c e .
S e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e used t o i n c r e a s e t h i s s u r f a c e r e n e w a l r a t e .
A n y t h i n g which i n c r e a s e s t h e h y d r a u l i c s l o p e under t h e cover, l i k e i n c r e a s i n g
t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y by lowering t h e depth, increases t h e renewal r a t e .
However, s i n c e t h e a r e a o f c o v e r a g e i s n o t n e g l i g i b l e , t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s
i n c r e a s e d m i x i n g on t h e o v e r a l l power and head l o s s must b e c o n s i d e r e d .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e roughness c o e f f i c i e n t under t h e cover can be increased.
The r e a n s p r o p o s e d f o r d o i n g t h i s i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e r o u g h n e s s o f t h e
u n d e r s i d e o f t h e c o v e r and p l a c e t h e c o v e r p a r t i a l l y i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
water. T h i s " r i p p l e d " c o v e r d e s i g n can b e e f f e c t e d b y u s i n g a c o r r u g a t e d
m a t e r i a l f o r t h e cover. I n t h i s manner t h e a v e r a g e s u r f a c e e l e m e n t l i f e t i m e
f o r a 20 cm deep pond m i x e d a t 20 c r / s , c o u l d b e d e c r e a s e d f r o m 50 s t o l e s s
t h a n 4 s ( c o r r u g a t i o n s p a c i n g o f 5 cm). T h i s , t o o , w i l l increase t h e head
l o s s and m i x i n g power r e q u i r e d b u t o n l y a b o u t 5 - I O X , much l e s s so t h a n i f t h e
same l o w t u r n o v e r t i m e were a c h i e v e d b y l o w e r i n g t h e d e p t h t o 10 cm and
i n c r e a s i n g t h e v e l o c i t y t o 40 cm/s u n d e r t h e c o v e r . As shown b e l o w this
l a t t e r d e s i g n i n c r e a s e s t h e o v e r a l l m i x i n g head and power r e q u i r e d b y 50%.

The r e s u l t s o f the a n a l y s i s are shown i n T a b l e 3 - 1 , Three basic cases a r e

detailed: a pond 30 cm deep mixed a t 15 crn/s, a pond 20 cm deep ~ i x e da t 20
c m / s , and a s h a l l o w pond o n l y 10 cm deep mixed f a s t a t 30 cm/s. Several
s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i a n s were made i n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e t a b l e ; t h e m a j o r ones
b e i n g t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o n ~ t a n ta t 30° C, t h a t t h o water can a t o r e t h e
c a r b o n t r a n s f e r r e d , and t h a t t h e d i l u t i o n b y O 2 o u t g a s s i n g is n e g l i g i b l e .
I t can b e seen f r o m t h e r e s u l t s t h a t a l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n C02 g a s phase
( l i k e f l u e g a s ) would r e q u i r e much t o h i g h a p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e i n a l l cases.
I n o r d e r f o r t h e c o v e r a g e t o b e less t h a n 5 X , a t u r n a v e r t i n e o+ l e s s t h a n 10
s i s r e q u i r e d , w h i c h i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a mass t r a n s f e r
c o e f f i c i e n t o f . 0 4 - , 0 5 m/hr. The c o e f f i c i e n t s used i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
T a b l e 3-1 were o b t a i n e d f r o m e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n o f s t r e a m f l o w d a t a ( s e e
Appendix AI). The c o e f f i c i e n t s measured b y Weissman and Goebel El3 i n h i g h
r a t e ponds 20 cm deep m i x e d a t 20 c n / s w e r e h i g h e r b y a f a c t o r o f 3 . 4 t h a n
those c a l c u l a t e d using t h e c o r r e l a t i o n , I f t h e higher, reasured values are
used t h e n each o f t h e v a l u e s f o r Z c o v e r a g e i n T a b l e 3-1 c o u l d b e r e d u c e d b y
m u l t i p l y i n g by , 3 , The p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e f o r e a s e s 2% and 3 t h e n become B X
and 4% r e s p e c t i v e l y . I f i n a d d i t i o n , t h o r i p p l e d cover is ured i n s t e a d o f
t h e smooth one, then t h e c o v e r e d a r e a f o r c a s e Za i s r e d u c e d 9rom 0% t o 2%.
I n case 3, t h i s r e d u c t i o n i s o n l y f r o m 4% t o 2% s i n c e t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e was
i n i t i a l l y shorter.

The a s s u m p t i o n h e r e i s t h a t a c o v e r e d a r e a c a r b o n a t o r i s feasible i f t h e
p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e i s l o w [about 2 % ) . This may b e a c h i e v a b l e w i t h a smooth
c o v e r i n s h a l l o w , f a s t mixed ponds, i n 20 cm deep ponds i f t h e area under t h e
c o v e r i s made s h a l l o w , o r i n t h e s e m o d e r a t e l y deep, i a s d ~ r a t e l ym i x e d ponds i 9
a r i p p l e d c o v e r is used. The e f f e c t s on m i x i n g head and power can b e
e x p e c t e d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t when a p o r t i o n a f t h e p o n d - i ! 3 made s h a l l o w , hut
m a l l when t h e roughness and w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r a r e i n c r e a s e d b y a r i p p l e d
cover.

3.3 IN-POND C A R B O N A T I O N SUMPS

I n a l t e r n a t i v e nay o f t r a n s f e r r i n g C U 2 t o t h e pond water is t o i n j e c t t h e
g a s a t o r n e a r t h e b o t t o ~o f a sump w h i c h spans a l l o r p a r t o f t h e c h a n n e l .
As i n t h e case o f t h e c o v e r e d c a r b o n a t o r , t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s must b e t a k e n
as o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e s i n c e t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s i n v a l v e d i s complex. I n all of
t h e s e gas t r a n s f e r p r o b l e m s , t h e r e a l answer i s o n l y o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e
operation o f p i l o t s . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s do g i v e a senee
o f what is possible and e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e . The c h e a i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g
t r e a t a e n t o f sump c a r b o n a t i o n i s detailed i n Appendix IP. The major r e s u l t s
o f t h a t a n a l y s i s and t h e m a j o r u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n v o l v e d w ~ , l l b e summarized
first,
 T a b l e 5-1. Covered C a r b o n a t o r - % f i r e a l Coverage

..............................................................................
Case 1a lb 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b

Depth 30 10 20 10 20 10 10
Cm
Vel. 15 45 20 40 20 30 30
cm/ s
KL ,013 ,070 ,022 ,061 ,085 ,047 .085
m/hr
c i n 9 0 0 2200 640 1900 2463 1400 2465

% area 44 8 26 10 6.7 12 6.7

head 100 170 300 450 --- 1700 ---

X la
power 100 170 400 600 --- 3500 ---
X la

Carbon s u p p l y ( C i n ) and c a r b o n demand 1C r e q . ) a r e i n a a o l e s / m 2 / h r

Assumes p u r e C02 e q u i l i b r a t e s t o 29mH and b a c k p r e s s u r e i s n e g l i g i b l e .
F o r f l u e gas 115% C02) m u l t i p l y c o v e r a g e b y 6.7.
The d e p t h s and v e l o c i t i e s l i s t e d a r e t h o s e u n d e r t h e c o v e r . Case a ) o f each
g r o u p g i v e s t h e d e p t h and v e l o c i t y f o r t h e pond s i n c e n o changes o c c u r u n d e r
t h e cover i n these instances.
Cases 2c and 3b r e f e r t o t h e r i p p l e d c o v e r , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s K L m
KL = ( d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t / t u r n o v e r t i n e ) l i 2
The v a l u e s i n t h e t a b l e a r e based on an e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n g i v e n i n t h e
literature. h c t u a l v a l u e s h a v e been measured t o b e o v e r t h r e e t i m e s f a s t e r ,
see t e x t .
Gas t r a n s f e r is q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t i n sumps. Under b u b b l e c o v e r s t h e
h y d r a u l i c s o f t h e f l o w u n d e r t h e c o v e r d e t e r m i n e s t h e mix.ing t h a t i s needed
t o d i s r u p t t h e t h i n f i l m w h i c h e f f e c t s t r a n s f e r and m i x e s t h e d i s s o l v e d gas
with the bulk liquid. I n sumps i t is t h e movement o f t h e b u b b l e swarm
r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l o w i n g l i q u i d which "renews" t h e t r a n s f e r surface. Thus t h e
b e h a v i o r o f b u b b l e swarms d e t e r m i n e s t r a n s f e r r a t e s . This behavior i s q u i t e
c o m p l i c a t e d and t h e models used t h u s o n l y a p p o x i m a t e t h e a c t u a l process.

The inajor u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e m o d e l i n g a r e t h e b u b b l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t l a n , t h e
consequent a v e r a g e r i s e v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e w a t e r , and t h u s t h e a v e r a g e
r a t e o f g a s - l i q u i d t r a n s f e r . In t h e t r e a t m e n t i n Q p p e n d i x I T , an a v e r a g e
b u b b l e r i s e v e l o c i t y , r e l a t i v e t o t h e w a t e r , o f 30 cm/s was assumed. I t was
f u r t h e r assumed t h a t t h e mass t r a n s f e r r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n 1s v e r y n a r r o w .
These a s s u m p t i o n s have e m p i r i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n , i n t h a t i t has been f o u n d
t h a t a f t e r a b o u t .5-1.0 m e t e r o f r i s e t h e b u b b l e s c o a l e s c e t o a minimum
e q u i l i b r i u m s i z e w i t h these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , However i t h a s been n o t e d C6,71
and measured Cl,b,73 t h a t i n s h a l l o w sumps t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e s exceed, by a
l a r g e f a c t o r , t h o s e p r e d i c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h i s e q u i l i b r i u m ,
C o n s e q u e n t l y , we w i l l a n a l y z e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t o assumed t r a n s f e r r a t e .
Given a t r a n s f e r r a t e , one can e s t i m a t e t h e a v e r a g e b u b b l e d i a m e t e r and t h e n
t h e r a t e o f r i s e , W i t h t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e b a s i c p a r a m e t e r s o f sump
t r a n s f e r can be c a l c u l a t e d . These p a r a m e t e r s a r e t h e d e p t h o i t h e sunp
r e q u i r e d t o s t r i p a s p e c i f i e d p e r c e n t a g e o f C02 and t h e gas h o l d - u p w h i c h
d e t e r m i n e s ( f o r a g i v e n sump d e p t h ) t h e head g a i n e d by t h e w a t e r column i n
c o - c u r r e n t f l o w o r t h e head o p p o s i n g t h e w a t e r f l o w i n c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t f l o w ,
One more c a s e o f i n t e r e s t i s when t h e sump does n o t c o n t a i n a b a f f l e t o
d i r e c t t h e water f l o w , I n t h i s case o f " l a t e r a l " f f o n t h e gas h a s l i t t l e
e f f e c t ( e x c e p t c a u s i n g some e x t r a t u r b u l e n c e ) on w a t e r Read,

The a v e r a g e hold-up,e, i s g i v e n by t h e f o l l o n i n q f o r m u l a f a r c a - c u r r a n t f l o w !

Q g i s t h e g a s f l o w r a t e , QL i s t h e w a t e r f l o w r a t e , V g i s t h e a v e r a g e
r l s e v e l o c i t y o f t h e bubble. r e l a t i v e t o t h e w a t e r , V L i s t h e w a t e r
v e l o c i t y , and Cp, i s t h e average pressure c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r t h e
c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e g a s a t s u b s u r f a c e depths. hppendix T a b l e A I I - 1 g i v e s
v a l u e s f o r t h i s c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r as a f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h . F o r pure C02 a
f u r t h e r c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is r e q u i r e d s i n c e t h e v o l u ~ co f gas d e c r e a s e s w i t h
t i m e as gas i s absorbed. T h i s f a c t o r is t h e l o g mean o f t h e f l o w r a t e a t t h e
e n t r a n c e t o t h e sunp and a t the e x i t . There i s a l s o a p r e s s u r e f a c t o r t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e g a s volume is a t t h e l o n e r depthe.
T h i s i s somewhat a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n e d t h e v a l u e o f ~ , ~ , / p 2 ~ 3 b, u t i s o n l y
o f t h e o r d e r o f 10% f o r s h a l l o n sumps, For counter-current f l o w the term
i n s i d e t h e p a r e n t h e s e s i n t h e d e n o m i n a t o r becomes V B- / V L
-
- 1 where
V B > V L and b o t h a r e c o n s i d e r e d a b s o l u t e ( p o s i t i v e ) values. The h o l d - u p i s
r e l a t e d t o t h e l i f t o r head by:
where ho i s t h e l e v e l o f o u t f l o w above t h e sump s p a r g e r , hi i s the
d i s t a n c e between t h e i n f l o w l i q u i d l e v e l and t h e s p a r g e r l e v e l , g i s the
a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g r a v i t y , and K i s a f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f o r l o s s e s upon e n t r y ,
t r a n s i t t h r o u g h , and e x i t i n g t h e sump. These l o s s e s a r e s m a l l a t low l i q u i d
velocities.

As d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix 1 1 , t h e s t r i p p i n g r a t e o f oxyqen has been f o u n d t o

be . 7 X l s o r , a t a b u b b l e r i s e v e l o c i t y o f 30cmIr i n s t i l l w a t e r , . 7 X / f o o t .
The t r a n s f e r f o r C02 i s r e l a t e d t o t h a t o f oxyqen by t h e r a t i o o f t h e
d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s t o t h e t w o - t h i r d s power t i m e s t h e r a t i o o f t h e
solubilities. A t 20° C t h i s r a t i o i s about 18, y i e l d i n g a s t r i p p i n g r a t e
f o r C02 o f 12.5%/$. T a b l e 3-2 shows t h e sump d e p t h r e q u i r e d f o r s t r i p p i n g
9 5 t o f t h e i n f l o n i n g gas f r o @ t h e b u b b l e s g i v e n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s t r i p p i n g
r a t e s p e r second. T h i s s t r i p p i n g r a t e has t o be c o n s i d e r e d an unknown
parameter s i n c e measured v a l u e s have been f o u n d t o depend on sump d e p t h , some
have been f o u n d t o be much g r e a t e r , and t h e b u b b l e s i z e i s known t o depend on
s p a r g e r t y p e and f l o w r a t e as wellC6,71. For l o w f l o w r a t e s , s p a r g e r s which
produce f i n e b u b b l e s (and hence a r e more e x p e n s i v e ) can be used. These w i l l
l i k e l y p r o v i d e t r a n s f e r ' r a t e s h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e c a l c u l a t e d based on t h e
oxygenation experiences, since i t r a y take a considerable f r a c t i o n of t h e
sump h e i g h t f o r an e q u i l i b r i u m b u b b l e s i z e t o be reached. As f l o w r a t e
i n c r e a s e s , due e i t h e r t o t h e use o f r e c y c l e o r i n t h e f l u e gas u t i l i z a t i o n
case, n o t o n l y does i n i t i a l b u b b l e s i z e i n c r e a s e i n a d e v i c e s p e c i f i c manner,
b u t t h e t y p e o f d e v i c e may need t o be changed t o one which can h a n d l e t h e
h i g h e r f l o w r a t e s a t moderate c o s t . U s u s a l l y t h i s aeans t h a t t h e d e v i c e
produces l a r g e r b u b b l e s t o b e g i n w i t h . To add t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e
s a l i n i t y o f t h e medium a f f e c t s t h e e q u i l i b r i u r i b u b b l e s i z e and t h e r a t e o f
a t t a i n m e n t o f e q u i l i b r i u m due t o t h e i n h i b i t o r y a c t i o n o f charged s p e c i e s on
b u b b l e coalescence. S i g n i f i c a n t enhancement o f t r a n s f e r r a t e s has been seen
a t TDS as l o w as 5 p p t 183.

The l o w e s t r a t e shown i n T a b l e 3-2 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e r a t e f o u n d f o r

o x y g e n a t i o n ( a d j u s t e d f o r C O Z ) , t h e n e x t l o w e s t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e minimum
v a l u e t h a t would e x i s t i n a s h a l l o w sump when p u r i f i e d C02 i s used, and t h e
l a s t i s a v a l u e which i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d b y Weisraan and Goebel f 1 3 i n
a water column o f 20 cm. The t a b l e shows t h e sump d e p t h s f o r c o - c u r r e n t ,
c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t , and l a t e r a l ( n o b a f f l e t o d i r e c t water f l o w ) f l o w . In
a d d i t i o n , t h e b u b b l e s i z e and b u b b l e r i s e v e l o c i t i e s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e
a n a l y s i s o f A i b a e t alC71 which would y i e l d t h e g i v e n s t r i p p i n g r a t e , a r e
shown. These v a l u e s must be t a k e n as h i g h l y approximate, b u t do a i d i n
choosing sparger type. As b u b b l e s g e t above .2-.25 c r , t h e y change f r o m
b e i n g r i g i d spheres t o h a v i n g d e f o r m a b l e w a l l s . One consequence o f t h i s i s
t h a t t h e r a t e o f gas t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e b u b b l e s becomes somewhat i n s e n s i t i v e
t o b u b b l e s i z e because t h e volume t o s u r f a c e a r e a r a t i o decreases w i t h
d e f o r m a t i o n . A t even moderate gas f l o w r a t e s , t h e t u r b u l e n c e p r e v e n t s t h e
b u b b l e s i z e f r o m g e t t i n g v e r y much l a r g e r t h a n .5-1 cm. I n t h o end, o n l y
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i l l y i e l d r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s and d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
The c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a sump depends on sump depth. N o t o n l y does t h e
n a t e r i a l r e q u i r e m e n t i n c r e a s e w i t h d e p t h , but i n a d d i t i o n , deep ~ m p rs e q u i r e
more e x p e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n methods. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e sump d e p t h is t o be
k e p t below 1 . 5 m o r so. C o s t s o+ c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s r a n g e o f d e p t h a r e
r e l a t i v e l y low.

A method t h a t can be used t o keep t h e sump s h a l l o w i s t o c o v e r i t w i t h a

membrane, c a p t u r e t h e gas, and r e c y c l e i t v i a a b l o w e r back down t o t h e
sparger. Given a suap d e p t h of 1 . 5 meters, t h e r e c y c l e r a t i o required t o
a c h i e v e 9 0 - 9 5 2 ( u s i n g p u r e C 0 2 ) o r 80% (using f l u e p a s ) o v e r a l l s t r i p p i n g
of c a r b o n i s shown i n T a b l e 3-3 f o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i a n s , 4 l o u e r
reroval e f f i c i e n c y i s used f o r f l u e gas because t h e b a c k p r e s s u r e from
dissolved C O q becomes s i g n i f i c a n t a 5 carbon is s t r i p p e d f r o m t h e d i l u t e
gas. S i n c e t h e d e p t h o f t h e sumps c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d p r e c i s e l y , r e c y c l e
adds f l e x i b i l i t y t o t h e ways i n w h i c h a g i v e n sump d e p t h t a n b e made
adequate.

T a b l e 3-2. E f f e c t o f Assumed T r a n s f e r R a t e on Sump D e p t h

- - ~ ~ - l - - - l - I - , ~ ~ * - L " L * - - - - - - - I - I - I - , I I I I - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - " - - - " - ~ - - - ~ - - - m - ~ - - - - - -

T r a n s f e r R a t e , % Remaval/s 13 25 50

B u b b l e Dialeter , crl >.2 .125 .08

Rise ~ c l o c i t ~ , c r / s ~ 30 15 9

D i s t a n c e T r a v e l e d h , cm
Co-current
Lateral
Counter-current

Time R e q u i r e d , 95X O v e r a l l
Removal, s

Suap Depth, 95% Overall

Removal, m
CP-current
Lateral
Counter-current

L i q u i d v e l o c i t y = 20cmls

171 and S t o k e ' s Law

 T a b l e 3-3. Sump W i t h Gas R e c y c l e
..............................................................................
Transfer Rate Over a1 1 REEYE~E-Rp!!
X Removal/s Removal , X Inflow
..............................................................................
P u r e GO2

Lateral

L a t e r a1 13

Sump Depth = 1.5 meter

L i q u i d v e l o c i t y =. 20 c e / s
T a b l e 3-4 g i v e s t h e a v e r a g e h o l d - u p as a f u n c t i o n o f C02 demand f o r
c o - c u r r e n t f l o w i n a sump o f d e p t h 1.5 m. T h i s g i v e s a r a n g e o f head l i f t t o
be expected d u r i n g c a r b o n a t i o n . The assumed s t r i p p i n g r a t e may be t o o h i g h
f o r f l u e gas r e l a t i v e t o p u r e C02 s i n c e t h e g a s f l o w r a t e s , and
consequently t h e hold-up a r e so high, The l i f t f o r t h e f l u e gas c a s e i n
w h i c h i n f l o w o f gas i s p r o v i d e d 24 h o u r s a day i s j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o m i x t h e
8 h e c t a r e pond. However, t h e CD2 i n j e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s q u i t e low.

T a b l e 3-5 g i v e s results f o r c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t f l o w . Here t h e w a t e r v e l o c i t y

can be l o w e r e d b y w i d e n i n g t h e sump beyond t h e v a l u e o f t h e pond d e p t h t o
p r e v e n t wash-through o f t h e a v e r a g e b u b b l e , and t o r e d u c e t h e head o p p o s i n g
the c h a n n e l f l o w . As c a n b e seen f r o m t h e t a b l e , t h e o p p o s i n g head is
a l r e a d y s i g n i f i c a n t when p u r e CU2 i s used and p r o h i b i t i v e when f l u e g a s i s
used. To a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n , t h e h o l d - u p i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o sump
width. An e q u a t i o n is g i v e n i n t h e T a b l e 3-5 r e l a t i n g h o l d - u p t o t r a n s f e r
r a t e , sump volume, and gas f l o w f a r t h e c a s e i n w h i c h t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t y i s
equal t o t h e a v e r a g e b u b b l e r i s e v e l o c i t y but opposed t o i t . I n t h i s c a s e
h o l d - u p depends on t h e s t e a d y s t a t e r a t i o o f gas t o l i q u i d volumes. I t can
be d e c r e a s e d b y d e e p e n i n g t h e sump.

The v a l u e s o f h o l d - u p and head shown i n T a b l e s 3-4 and 3-5 were c a l c u l a t e d

f o r an e i g h t h e c t a r e pond, w h i c h was t h e s i z e chosen f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e
design. I f a pand s i z e o f f o u r h e c t a r e s was chosen, h a l v i n g t h e f l o w o+
GO2 i n t o t h e sump, n o a d j u s t m e n t i s r e q u i r e d i n h o l d - u p and head i f t h e
l e n g t h t o w i d t h r a t i o i s changed so t h a t c h a n n e l w i d t h i s a l s o h a l v e d ( t h u s
h a l v i n g t h e liquid f l o w r a t e ) , B y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e same l e n g t h t o w i d t h r a t i o
o f 20, t h e l i q u i d f l o w r a t e o n l y d e c r e a s e s b y a f a c t o r o f 1.4, Thus t h e r a t i o
o f gas t o l i q u i d f l o w r a t e s i n t h e sump d e c r e a s e s b y a f a c t o r o f 1.4,
d e c r e a s i n g h o l d - u p and head b y t h e same f a c t o r a t l o w f l o w r a t e r a t i o s , and
somewhat less a t h i g h r a t i o s . Head a t t a i n e d w i t h gas l i f t puaps i s d i s c u s s e d
more f u l l y i n S e c t i o n 4.0.
 T a b l e 3-4. Average Hold-up and L i f t i n 1.5 m Deep C a r b o n a t i o n Sumps

............................................................................
C o - c u r r e n t , t r a n s f e r r a t e = ~ ~ X I SV B, 15cn/s
.............................................................................. a

C02 r e q . ,gm/m2/hr 8.6 8.6 4.3 4.3

Gas C o m p o s i t i o n , Z C02 100 15 100 15

No R e c y c l e , O v e r a l l Removal = 71%
I n p u t Gas F l o w r a t e , l / s 167 1129 83 56 1

Gas f l o w r a t e / L i q . f l o w r a t e ,056 .65 ,028 .32

Head, cm 4.4 39 2.2 22

With Recycle

O v e r a l l Removal, % 95 80 95 80

I n p u t Gas F l o w r a t e , 1 1 s 116 925 58 462

Gas f l o n r a t e / L i q . f l o w r a t e .06 1.04 .03 .52

Head, cm 4.4 54 2.2 33

C02 r e q . = (1.2) 11.8) x a l g a l p r o d u c t i v i t y ( e i t h e r 4 o r 2 gm/m2/hr,

i n c l u d e s 20% f o r i n c r e a s e d C c o n t e n t o f h i g h l i p i d p r o d u c i n g a l g a e .
Pond a r e a = 8 h e c t a r e
I n p u t gas f l o w r a t e a t 1 atm, 30° C.
L i q u i d f l o w r a t e t h r o u g h sump = 1725 l / s (43.1 RI w i d e c h a n n e l , 20cm deep, V =
2Ocu1/s, sump spans c h a n n e l , sump w i d t h e q u a l s pond d e p t h )
F o r p u r e C02 cases, gas f l o w r a t e ( f o r r a t i o ) i r l o g mean o f gas f l o w r a t e
a t sump b o t t o m and sump t o p , p r e s s u r e c o r r e c t e d .
See T a b l e 3-3 f o r r e c y c l e r a t i o s .
 T a b l e 3-5, Average Hold-up and L i f t i n C o u n t e r - C u r r e n t Sumps

. ..-
.-. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- . . .
. .. . .. .

Counter-current, t r a n s f e r r a t e = I S X I s , Vg = 30cm/s
-1--1----1-----111--------1----a----------------a---------------------m-=-----

CD2 r e q . , g m / a 2 / h r 8.b 8.6 4.3 4.3

Gas C o m p o s i t i o n , X C02 100 15 100 15

No R e c y c l e , O v e r a l l Removal 8 6 2 , Sump Depth 1 . 5 rn

I n p u t Gas F l o u r a t e , l / s 128 060 64 430

Gas~lowrate/Liq.flowrate .03 .SO ,015 .25

Hold-up, % 5.3 48 2.7 32

Head, cm 0.0 72 4.1 48

With R e c y c l e , Sump Depth = 1.0 m

O v e r a l l Removal, X 95 85 95 85

Recycle R a t i o ,31 .17 .31 .17

I n p u t Gas F l o w r a t e , l/s 116 870 50 435

Hold-up, X

Head, cn

Counter-current, V B = VL
10---1--------11-----.I----r-----o-----------1-----------------------------0---

P u r e C02:
Holdup = I n p u t gas f l o w r a t e / t r r n a f e r r a t e / c u n p depthlsump Xgec, a r e a
F l u e gasr hold-up g e t s v e r y l a r g--e a s unabsorbed g a s b u i l d s up, u n t i l
channeling occers,

F o r c o n d i t i o n s see T a b l e 3-4.
3.4 RECYCLE OF NON-LIPID CARBON FROM EXTRACTION RESIDUES

S i n c e c a r b o n i s one o f t h e most e x p e n s i v e i n p u t s t o t h e system, and s i n c e

o n l y p a r t of t h e carbon i s e x t r a c t e d i n l i p i d p r o d u c t s , r e c y c l e o f t h e carbon
r e m a i n i n g i n t h e u n e x t r a c t e d r e s i d u e s must b e c o n s i d e r e d . An e f f e c t i v e
method o f p r o c e s s i n g t h e r e s i d u e s i s t o a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t them, A covered
lagoon i s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e l a r g e s c a l e design f o r t h i s . W i t h 60% of t h e
a l g a l b i o m a s s a s l i p i d and 90% o f t h i s e x t r a c t e d , t h e r e s i d u e s c o n t a i n 46% o f
t h e a l g a l carbon. 65% o f t h i s w i l l d e g r a d e i n t h e l a g o o n t o methane and
C02 i n a r a t i o o f 614. The o t h e r 35% w i l l b e s p l i t between t h e t w o l i q u i d
compartments o f t h e lagoon; t h e s l u d g e and t h e l a g o o n w a t e r . Both t h e
gaseous comeponents and t h e l a g o o n w a t e r ( e f f l u e n t ) can b e r e c o v e r e d . The
d i g e s t e r gas i s combusted t o o p e r a t e an e n g i n e g e n e r a t o r , The r e s u l t a n t f l u e
gas i s a b o u t 14% C02, and c o n t a i n s 31X o f t h e o r i g i n a l a l g a l c a r b o n .
H i x i n g t h i s w i t h t h e p u r e C02 i n p u t , i n a r a t i o ( b y volume a t STP) o f 7 : 1 ,
y i e l d s a gas c o n t a i n i n g 35% COZ. I f t h i s i s t h e n i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e ponds
w i t h a 90-95% e f f i c i e n c y , and t h e d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n i n t h e d i g e s t e r e f f l u e n t
i s r e c y c l e d back t o t h e ponds, t h e r e s u l t i s a d e c r e a s e i n o v e r a l l CQ2
i n p u t f r o m 2 . 4 k g / k g a l g a e t o 1 . 6 k g / k g ( s e e T a b l e 6-31.

The 35% C02 gas phase c a n be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e ponds j u s t as any o t h e r

gas phase. Now, however, an o v e r a l l s t r i p p i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f 90% i s assumed
a s opposed t o 95% w i t h p u r e C02 s i n c e b a c k p r e s s u r e r e d u c e s t h e d r i v i n g
f o r c e n e a r t h e t o p o f a sump. A g a i n , t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e is n o t c e r t a i n . With
90X o v e r a l l r e m o v a l , t h e sump w o u l d have t o b e 5 . 3 ITI deep i f t h e t r a n s f e r
r a t e i s 13X/s and 1 . 3 m deep i f t h e r a t e i s 25X/s, f o r l a t e r a l f l o w o f t h e
pond r e l a t i v e t o t h e b u b b l e s . I f t h e g a s i s i n j e c t e d c o - c u r r e n t l y , more head
c a n b e g a i n e d t h a n i n t h e p u r e C02 c a s e due t o t h e l a r g e r g a r v o l u a e . For
t h e two t r a n s f e r r a t e s , t h e sump d e p t h s r e q u i r e d a r e 7-9 a and 2.3-3 r
respectively. The l i f t s o b t a i n e d a r e 28-53 c a amd 19-27 c a r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Thus t h e l i f t g a i n e d b y c o - c u r r e n t i n j e c t i o n o f a m i x t u r e o f p u r e and
r e c y c l e d d i g e s t e r f l u e gas matches t h e m i x i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e s y s t e m when
m o d e r a t e t r a n s f e r r a t e s a r e assumed.

The r e c y c l e o f n o n - l i p i d c a r b o n h a s p e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l f o r
r e d u c i n g t h e c o s t o f t h e l i p i d s p r o d u c e d o f any s i n g l e f a c t o r . T h i s w i l l be
more f u l l y d i s c u s s e d i n s e v e r a l e n s u i n g c h a p t e r s .

3,s OXYGEN DESORPTION

The d e s o r p t i o n o f oxygen, and n i t r o g e n t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , a f f e c t s t h e

e f f i c i e n c y o f C02 t r a n s f e r i n b o t h sumps and u n d e r c o v e r s . The r a t i o o f
oxygen mass t r a n s f e r t o C02 t r a n s f e r depends a p p r o x i m a t e l y on t h e r a t i o o f
d r i v i n g forces, since d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s are similar. f i s s u r i n g n o C02
b a c k p r e s s u r e , w h i c h i s v e r y n e a r l y t r u e i n t h e p u r e CD2 c a s e even w i t h 95%
a b s o r p t i o n , and a d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a t i s 500Y. o f s a t u r a t i o n ,
t h e d i l u t i o n o f C02 b y O2 u n d e r a c o v e r e d a r e a c a r b o n a t o r i s o n l y a b o u t
10%. That i s , a t s t e a d y s t a t e t h e g a s phase u n d e r t h e c o v e r would b e o v e r
90% C02 and t h e b l e e d r a t e wauld b e a b o u t i O X . If C02 moved b y p l u g f l o w
a c r o s s t h e u r i p p l e " c o v e r e d c h a n n e l , t h e n a t t h e end t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e n o u l d
b e s l o w e d somewhat b y oxygen d i l u t i o n , b u t t h e gas b l e d o + f would h a v e a
h i g h e r oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , in sumps t h e C02 t r a n s f e r r a t e
would d e c r e a s e n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e sump n h e r e t h e d i l u t i o n o f t h e gas phase
n i t h oxygen is g r e a t e s t . T h i s d i l u t i o n would n o t a f f e c t t r a n s f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e p u r e C02 case, because ample d r i v i n g f o r c e o f C D 2
would r e m a i n u n t i l v e r y n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e sump. S i n c e f l u e gas i s a l r e a d y
d i l u t e i n C02, f u r t h e r d i l u t i o n would a l s o n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e p t a t t h e
t a i l end of t r a n s f e r . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d , however, t h a t t h e b a c k p r e s s u r e o f
d i s l o l v e d C02 may b e s i g n i f i c a n t when c a r b o n a t i n g m o d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e
w a t e r s t o n e a r n e u t r a l pH when f l u e gag i s used, w i t h o r w i t h o u t f u r t h e r
d i l u t i o n b y oxygen,

P o t e n t i a l l y more s e r i o u s ' i s t h e d e s a r p t i o n o f s u p e r s a t u r a t e d oxygen i n a

sump due t o n u c l e a t e d b u b b l e f o r m a t i o n , U s i n g t h e mass t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t
f o r o u t g a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e o f a 20 e m deep pond m i x e d a t 20 c m h and
t h e s u p e r s a t u r a t i a n l e v e l o f 500% f o u n d b y Weissman and Ooebel t 1 3 a b o u t 402
o f t h e oxygen p r o d u c e d o u t g a s s e d due t o mass t r a n s f e r t h r o u g h t h e sur#ace o f
t h e pond. Since these c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t e d f o r prolonged perlode o f time, 60%
can b e e s t i m a t e d t o have d e s o r b e d due t o n u c l e a t e d b u b b l e f o r m a t i o n . I+
oxygen l o s s i n a o u a p , f o r example, r e d u c e d s t e a d y s t a t e l e v e l s t o 200%
s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n , t h e mass t r a n s f e r 1055 t h r o u g h t h e p ~ n ds u r f a c e w o u l d b e
o n l y 25X o f t h e oxygen produced, A t t h e l o w e r DO nucleated b u b b l e f a r m a t i o n
would be s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d , i m p l y i n g t h a t a b o u t 50X o f t h e oxygen
p r o d u c e d w o u l d need t o be removed i n t h e sump t o m a i n t a i n such a l o w DO. The
r e s t o f t h e oxygen d e s o r b s , due t o n u c l e a t e d b u b b l e f o r m a t i o n , t h r o u g h t h e
pond s u r j a c e , The r a t e o f d e s a r p t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e b y b u b b l e f o r m a t i o n
( a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m mass t r a n s f e r ) c a l c u l a t a d + r o @ t h e above c o n d i t i o n
( 5 0 0 X ) i s ,007 mH/s. I n o r d e r f o r t h e D O t o be dropped f r o m 500% t o 200% b y
s p a r q i n g a i r i n a sump w i t h g a s r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f 4 s, t h e d e s o r p t i s n r a t e
would h a v e t o b e 25 t i a e s as g r e a t . A t t h i s p o i n t no d a t a e x i s t s concerning
t h e d e s o r p t i o n o f s u p e r s a t u r a t e d oxygen due t o c a t b b n a t i o n o r a e r a t i o n .
However i f such a r e d u c t i o n was a t t a i n e d i t would d i l u t e t h e gas volume o f
p u r e C02 by 30-BOX, d e p e n d i n g on t h e r a t i o o f i n p u t g a s f l o w r a t e t o t h e
f l o w r a t e o f pond l i q u i d t h r o u g h t h e c a r b o n a t o r . T h i s would h a v e i m p a c t on
sump d e s i g n , i . e . , sump d e p t h r e q u i r e d f o r a g i v e n t r a n a f e r e f f i c i e n c y ,
especially i n sumps w i t h r e c y c l e . The d e s o r p t i o n o f s u p e r s a t e r a t e d oxygen
and t h e i m p a c t on sump d e s i g n w i l l b e t e s t e d i n t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l
system. O f c o u r s e , i f v e r y e + f i c i e n t r e m o v a l o f oxygen were a t t a i n a b l e , a
s e p a r a t e sump j u s t f o r t h i s p u r p o s e would be c o n 3 t r u c t e d ahead s f t h e
c a r b o n a t i o n sump. I n t h e case o f f l u e gas c a r b o n a t i o n , t h e d i l u t i o n is
5 - l o % , w h i c h wauld f u r t h e r a g g r a v a t e t h e b a c k p r e s s u r e p r o b l e m f a r t r a n s f e r
near t h e t o p 25% o f t h e sump.
The d e s o p r t i o n i n sumps by s p a r g e d gas w i l l b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
p r a c t i c a l i t y o f u s i n g a e r a t i o n as a means o f p r e v e n t i n g t h e b u i l d - u p o f
oxygen t o i n h i b i t o r y l e v e l s , i . e . , t o d e t e r m i n e how many sumps w o u l d be
r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e DO w i t h i n s p e c i f i e d l i m i t s .

3.6 CHEMICAL ENHANCEMENT OF CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSFER

A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s o f C02 w i t h o t h e r d i s s o l v e d
s p e c i e s , and t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s on t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s , i s g i v e n i n
Appendix I. Even a t t h e h i g h e s t a l k a l i n i t i e s and pH i m a g i n e d f o r a l g a l
ponds, t h e enhancement due t h e r e a c t i o n o f C02 and h y d r o x y l i o n s i s
negligible. The pH i n d e p e n d e n t , f i r s t o r d e r r e a c t i o n o f C02 and w a t e r t o
f o r m b i c a r b o n a t e i s f a s t enough t o enhance t r a n s f e r r a t e s t h a t have n o t
a l r e a d y been enhanced h y d r a u l i c a l l y by i n c r e a s e d s u r f a c e r e n e w a l . The t n o
p r o c e s s e s a r e c o m p e t i t i v e , so t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l enhancement i s s t i l l v e r y
s m a l l i n sumps, where s u r f a c e r e n e w a l r a t e s a r e on t h e o r d e r o f 100-150 p e r
second. The c o v e r e d a r e a s y s t e m s were d e s i g n e d s o t h a t s u r f a c e r e n e w a l r a t e s
were as h i g h as p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t r a n s f e r r a t e s . The r e n e w a l r a t e s
d i s c u s s e d above were on t h e o r d e r o f . 2 5 / s f o r 2% c o v e r a g e and . 0 1 6 / s f o r
13% c o v e r a g e . C h e m i c a l enhancement due t o a f i r s t o r d e r r e a c t i o n goes as t h e
s q u a r e r o o t o f 1 + k / s where k i s t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t and s i s t h e
surface renewal r a t e . k i s equal t o about .02/5. Thus p h y s i c a l t r a n s f e r
r a t e s w o u l d h a v e t o b e s m a l l , meaning h i g h a r e a l c o v e r a g e , f o r c h e m i c a l
enhancement t o h a v e much e f f e c t . I t say b e o f i n t e r e s t t h a t s e v e r a l
c a t a l y s t s w h i c h have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e f i r s t o r d e r r a t e c o n s t a n t may
be p r e s e n t i n an a l g a l system. These i n c l u d e c a r b o n i c a n h y d r a s e w h i c h i s
o f t e n s e c r e t e d b y a l g a e and p h o s p h a t e w h i c h i s a media component.
Enhancement due t o t h e s e can be t e s t e d b y c o m p a r i n g t r a n s f e r i n media n o t
i n c l u d i n g t h e s e s p e c i e s t o t h a t i n a e d i a w h i c h does c o n t a i n them.

3.7 LhRGE SCALE SYSTEM CARBONATOR DESIGN

The Base Case d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n a t i o n s y s t e m f o r t h e l a r g e

s c a l e s y s t e m w i l l b e t a k e n a s a 1.5 m deep sump f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p u r e
C02. P u r e C02 m i x e d w i t h a n a e r o b i e d i g e s t e r f l u e gas s e r v e s as a c a s e
with significant cost reduction possibilities. The u s e o f u n p u r i f i e d power
p l a n t f l u e gas w o u l d most l i k e l y r e q u i r e deeper sumps. I n addition, unless
t h e power p l a n t i s a c t u a l l y w i t h i n a b o u t 1 km f r o m t h e pond system, t h e
t r a n s p o r t o f d i l u t e C02 becomes t o o e x p e n s i v e 121, Thus even i f power
p l a n t d e r i v e d gas i s u s e d t o s e r v e m u l t i p l e l a r g e pond s y s t e m s 1 9 3 , i t may
w e l l have t o be p u r i f i e d f o r t r a n s p o r t .

The s h a l l o w d e p t h o f t h e sump i s s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e due t o t h e

f l e x i b i l i t y p r o v i d e d by gas r e c y c l e . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e C02 w i l l b e
c o n t r o l l e d b y pH on an o n / o f f b a s i s . Due t o t h e l a g t i m e f o r r e t u r n of t h e
w a t e r t o t h e c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n , 2.5 h o u r s f o r an e i g h t h e c t a r e pond, t h e
l o w l i m i t pH s e t p o i n t must a l l o w f o r s t o r a g e o f enough C02 t o meet t h e
maximum demand f o r t w o t r a n s i t t i m e s . A t l o w e r demand t h e u p p e r pH r e a c h e d
i n t h e pond n i l 1 n o t b e a s g r e a t a s when t h e demand i s h i g h . Thus t h e f l o w
r a t e o f C02 must b e a b l e t o meet t h e e x p e c t e d a v e r a g a h o u r l y demand, ~ h i c h
r a y change o v e r l o n g time p e r i o d s ( s e a s o n s ) . An a l t e r n a t i v e nay o f
c o n t r o l l i n g C02 i n p u t is t o c o n t r o l t h e f l o w r a t e o f g a s so t h a t a
s p e c i f i e d amount o f c a r b o n is s t o r e d . T h i s c o u l d be accomplished w i t h a
m i c r o c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l l e r , programmed t o c a l c u l a t e o r d e t e r m i n e f r o m a t a b l e ,
c a r b o n s t o r a g e a s a f u n c t i o n o f pH change. One w o u l d want t o use such a
s y s t e m i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e a l k a l i n i t y is l o w , r e q u i r i n g many c a r b o n a t i o n
s t a t i o n s per u n i t area. Such a scheme w o u l d p r e c l u d e i n s t a l l i n g more
s t a t i o n s t h a n needed t o meet t h e maximum h o u r l y demand, i . e . , o n l y enough
c a r b o n i s needed f o r one as opposed t o t w o t r a n s i t times.

3.8 EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM DESIGNS hND TESTS

The e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d t o a l l o w d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n a t i o n
p a r a m e t e r s and d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s needed t o remove most o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
t h a t now e x i s t s , I n a d d i t i o n , several o f the a l t e r n a t i v e types a t
c a r b o n a t i o n s y s t e m s d e s c r i b e d above w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d and t e s t e d . Yet t h e
p r i m a r y method is s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s h a l l o w rumps w i t h p u r e C02.
T e s t s w i l l i n c l u d e m e a ~ u r e m e n to f o v e r a l l t r a n s f e r e d + i c i e n e y , i n b o t h
u n i n o c u l a t e d medium and a l g a l s u s p e n s i o n s , as a f u n c t i o n o f a p a r g e r t y p e , gas
f l o w r a t e , g a s t o l i q u i d f l o w r a t e r a t . i o , sump d e p t h , and p o n d DO. DO r e m o v a l
w i l l a l s o be aeasured. C o v e r e d c a r b o n a t o r s w i t h smooth and r i p p l e d s u r f a c e s
w i l l be t e s t e d f o r t r a n s f e r e f + i c i e n c y as a f u n c t i o n af c o v e r e d a r e a , .
h y d r a u l i c s l o p e under t h e c o v e r , and b l e e d r a t e . I f n e c e s s a r y gas r e c y c l e
w i l l b e t e s t e d i n sumps a s w e l l .
 SECTION 4.0

ANALYSIS OF MIXING SYSTEM

4.1 OPEN CHQNNEL FLOW

Some f o r m o f m i x i n g i s r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n c e l l s i n s u s p e n s i o n , t o p r e v e n t
t h e r m a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and t o d i s p e r s e n u t r i e n t s . The most w i d e l y u s e d
f o r m u l a f o r open c h a n n e l f l o w i s t h e M a n n i n g ' s f o r m u l a :

where: V = velocity, meters/sec

Rh = h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , meters ( = depth f o r wide c h a n n e l s )
S = hydraulic s l o p e = head l o s s / u n i t l e n g t h
n = Manning's r o u g h n e s s , sec m e t e r s ' 0 a 3

F o r a g i v e n v e l o c i t y and c h a n n e l l e n g t h , t h e e q u a t i o n can be r e a r r a n g e d t o
s o l v e f o r t h e head l o s s :

where: h ~ = head l o s s , m e t e r s
L = channel l e n g t h , meters

T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f n a r e 0.010 f o r v e r y smooth s u r f a c e s , 0.014 f o r u n f i n i s h e d

c o n c r e t e , 0.017-0.025 f o r s r o o t h e a r t h ( c a n a l s and d i t c h e s ) , 0.029 f o r
gravel. A v a l u e o f 0.018 was u s e d i n t h e head l o s s c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e
l a r g e s c a l e ponds, These ponds w i l l b e l i n e d w i t h g r a d e d c r u s h e d r o c k ,
r o l l e d t o a smooth f i n i s h . The m i x i n g power r e q u i r e m e n t i s g i v e n by:

where: P = power, w a t t s
A = pond a r e a , m e t e r s 2
e = o v e r a l l m i n i n g system e f f i c i e n c y

N o t e t h a t t h e power v a r i e s as t h e cube o f t h e m i x i n g speed, and a c t u a l l y

i n c r e a s e s s l i g h t l y a t lower depths. The e f f i c i e n c y t e r m i n c l u d e s b o t h t h e
h y d r a u l i c e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e pumping d e v i c e and t h a t o f t h e d r i v e . Overall
e f f i c i e n c i e s can be a h i g h a s 70% f o r l a r g e c e n t r i f u g a l pumps, whereas 30-40%
i s more t y p i c a l f o r p a d d l e w h e e l s o r a i r l i f t pumps.
4.2 PADDLE WHEELS

P a d d l e wheels have emerged a s a preferred method for mixing high-rate ponds

for t h e following reasons: ( 1 ) They a r e well matched t o the p u m p i n g
requirements of high-rate ponds in t h a t they a r e high volume, low head
devices ( i . e , h i g h s p e c i f i c speed); ( 2 ) Their g e n t l e mixing action minimizes
damage t o colonial or flocculated algae, which i n p r o v e s h a r v e s t a b i l i t y ;
( 3 ) They a r e mechanically aimpie, requiring a minimun o f maintanence; ( 4 )
Their drive t r a i n can e a s i l y be designed t o accamodate a wide range o f speeds
(high turn-down r a t i o ) without d r a s t i c changes i n efficiency; ( 5 ) They do not
require an intake sump, b u t simply a shallow depressien for maximum
e + f i c i e n c y , Some of t h e disadvantages are: ( 1 ) The paddle wheel i t s e l + must
be custom designed; (2) They are l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o other types of mixers,
e s p e c i a l l y a t higher heads; (3) They a r e f a i r l y expensive, though not
p a r t i c u l a r l y so for a low shear type p u m p , ( 4 ) For p r a c t i c a l purposes, the
maximum head i s limited t o 0 . 5 meters. T h i s would only be a c o n s t r a i n t in
very large 0 2 0 h e c t a r e s ) ponds. or a t high 0 3 0 cm/sec) v e l o c i t i e s in
moderate sized ponds,

The two primary c o n p e t i t o r s for pond mixing a r e a i r l i f t pumps and Arckemedes

screw p u m p s , The a i r l i f t pump has a lower i n i t i a l c o g t , b u t i s generally
considered t o be a low e f f i c i e n c y d e v i c e , Actual e 9 f i c i e n c i e s appear t o be
very design s p e c i f i c , although t h e o r e t i c a l e f f i c i e n c i e s ( s e e Section 4 , s ) a r e
comparable t o paddle wheels. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e p o t e n t i a l ebficiency o f paddle
wheels a r e probably g r e a t e r . about IOX o f t h e losses in paddle wheel systems
can b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e v a r i a b l e speed u n i t , which may not b e necessary i n
t h s l o n g run. Air l i f t pumps probably produce higher shear f o r c e r than
paddle wheels, which could i n t e r f e r e w i t h a u t ~ f l o c c u a l t i o n . The hrchemedes
screw pump has been s u c c e s s f u ~ l yused f a r high r a t e pond m i x i n g , b u t has a
higher f i r s t c a s t and r e q u i r e s an intake sump. A t high heads. 0 0 . 5 m e t e r ) ,
the screw pump may b e more economical than p a d d l e wheels,

Although paddle wheels a r e chosen in the l a r g e s c a l e system d e s i g n , t h e

experimental system will include one 50 mZ p o n d nixed w i t h an a i r l i f t .
T h i s will allow s t u d i e s o f combined mixing and carbonation a s outlined i n t h e
next s e c t i o n . The optimization o f mixing systems, although o f i n t e r e s t , i s
not a s c r i t i c a l a technical i s s u e a s harvesting or a p e e i e s c o n t r o l ,

The actual design o f t h e p a f f l e wheels i s covered in Section 7.3.

4.3 GAS L I F T M I X I N G

Gas l i f t m i x i n g i s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o p a d d l e w h e e l m i x i n g w h i c h d o e s n ' t r e q u i r e
l a r g e . custom f a b r i c a t e d mechanical p a r t s . I t i s an i n t e r e s t i n g o p t i o n i n
s y s t e m s f o r w h i c h c a r b o n i s s u p p l i e d v i a an i n - p o n d sump due t o t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r c o m b i n i n g t h e c a r b o n a t i o n and m i x i n g systems. I n t h i s s e c t i o n , gas l i f t
i s a n a l y z e d i n i t s own r i g h t , b u t i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o t h e c a r b o n demand of t h e
svstem. When f l u e gas i s used f o r c a r b o n a t i o n t h e l i f t mav be d e r i v a b l e f r o m
t h e c a r b o n a t i o n a l o n e f o r p a r t o f t h e t i m e , b u t most l i k e l v an a i r s u p p l y
s y s t e m w o u l d need t o be a v a i l a b l e t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e f l u e gas when c a r b o n
demand i s l o w and d u r i n g t h e n i g h t t i n e . When p u r e C02 i s used,
s u p p l e m e n t a r y a i r w o u l d a l w a v s be r e q u i r e d .

The b a s i c r e l a t i o n s needed t o a n a l y z e gas l i f t m i x i n g a r e d e r i v e d i n Appendix

1 Two o f them a r e used i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n and a r e t h u s
reproduced, The e f f i c i e n c v o f t h e gas l i f t i s g i v e n b y , f o r a d i a b a t i c
compression o f a i r :

Cpe i s an a v e r a q e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r c o m p r e s s i o n o f a i r w i t h d e p t h
g i s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g r a v i t y , 980 c m / s / s
ho i s t h e d e p t h o f t h e sump i n em
V L i s t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t v i n t h e sump i n c m l s
V B i s t h e a v e r a q e r i s e o f t h e gas b u b b l e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i q u i d i n cm/s
H i s t h e l i f t i n cm
~ ~ i s t h~e t o t a~l f r i c~t i o n l 1o s s f o2r l i q u i d e n t e r i n g , t r a v e r s i n g and
l e a v i n g t h e sump
Em, i s t h e compressor m o t o r e f f i c i e n c y

Ed i s t h e dynamic e f f i c i e n c y w h i c h c o v e r s l o s s e s due t o t h e i r r e v e r s i b l e
n a t u r e o f t h e r e a l compressor and i s t a k e n e q u a l t o . 7

) ( i5 t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a d i a b a t i c work o f c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e g a s ~ c m 3

K = Cp/Cv = 1.4 f o r a i r

nTR = ( 1 , 2 1 0 x 1 0 ' ~ mol OK) ( 8 . 3 1 ~ 1 0 7 e r g / s o l O K ) = 1 . 0 1 2 ~ 1 0 f~o r 1

cm3 gas e n t e r i n g t h e compressor a t 1 atm a t any t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e l i f t i s e q u a l t o t h e a a s hold-up t i m e s t h e s u m p d e o t h minus f l u i d flow

For s h a l l o w sumps, ( 1 0 meter or s o , Table 4 - 1 shows t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c v

d o e s n ' t change w i t h sump d e a t h f o r c o n s t a n t r a t i o o + q a s and l i ~ u i d
v e l o c i t i e s . For moderate l i q u i d v e l o c i t i e s , a i l terms i n e q u a t i o n 4-1 a r e
n e a r l v e q u a l t o u n i t y e x c e p t f o r t h e e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s and t h e v e l o c i t v
r a t i o t e r m , Thus t h e e f f i c i e n c y i s q ~ v e r n e db y t h e v e l o c i t v r a t l o . Table 4-2
shows t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c v a s a f u n c t i o n o f l i q u l d v e l o c i t v . Gas b u b b l e
r i s e v e l o c i t y was t a k e n a s 30 cm/s which i s c o n s i s t e n t f o r a s i t u a t i o n where
t h e flow r a t e of g a s i s n o t e x p e c t e d t o b e v e r v low, The e f f i c i e n c v i s o n l y
25% a t t h e design l i q u i d v e l o c i t v o i 20 cmis. I n c r e a s i n g t h i s t o 40 c m / s , bv
narrowing t h e sump t o b a f f l e d i s t a n c e t o 1 0 cm, i n c r e a s e s e f f i c i e n c v t o
34%. F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n e f f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e even h i q h e r l i q u i d v e l o c i t i e s
( r e l a t i v e t o g a s b u b b l e r i s e r a t e , w h i c h c o u l d be a t t a i n e d b y d i r e c t i n a pond
channel f l o w i n t o a s h a l l o w sump l e a d i n q i n t a a s e t o f d r a f t t u b e e n t r a n c e s .
The l i q u i d v e l o c i t v i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e r a t i o sf c h a n n e l c r o s s
sectional area t o t o t a l d r a f t tube cross sectional area, If this option i s
chosen t h e n t h e e f f i c i e n c y can be much h i q h e r , U s u a l l y , however, l a r g e
v e i o c l t i e s a r e used f o r svotems with v e r y l a r g e l i + t , b e c a u s e t h e v e l o c i t v
h e a d , which i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t h i g h v e l o c i t y , i s e a s i l y l o s t upon e x i t +ram
t h e d r a f t tube.

The l i f t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r a t i o of g a s a n d l i q u i d +low r a t e s t h r o u g h t h e
sump a s well a s t h e r a t i o of t h e v e l o c i t i e s . The two dependencies on
v e l o c i t v r a t i o a c t t o q e t h e r i n t h a t d e t r e a s i n q t h e r a t i o of q a s t o l i q u i d
v e l o c i t i e s , i n c r e a s e s both t h e e f f i c i e n c y and t h e l i f t , T a b l e 4-3 g i v e s t h e
e f f i c i e n c y i n terms of l i q u i d v e l o c i t y and l i f t f o r a system w i t h t h r e e d r a f t
t u b e s . The f l u i d l o s s e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t when t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t y e x c e e d s 100
rm/s.
 T a b l e 4-1. E f f e c t of Sump Depth on Air L i f t E f f i c i e n c y

1 ,954
1.5 ,934
3.0 ,966
5.0 ,816
0.0 ,740
10.0 ,699
SO. 0 ,365
100.0 .24S

T a b l e 4-2. Gas L i f t E f f i c i e n c y a s a F u n c t i o n o f L i q u i d V e l o c i t y
..............................................................................

* A l l o t h e r e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s a ~ s u m e d e q u a l t o .9x.7. . 9 5 f o r s h a l l o w
sumps. V e l o c i t y head l o s s e s n e g l e c t e d .
 T a b l e 4-3. L i f t and E f f i c i e n c y o f a Draft Tube h i r L i f t System

Area r a t i o 2.5 5 i0 25

Pipe D, cm 120 85 bO 38

Lift, C(A 20 20 20 20

Tube r i s e l e n g t h , cm 130 120 100 95

Efficiency. X 38-36 45-36 43-24 26-6

F o r t h r e e d r a f t tubes
Ratio of g a s to l i q u i d flourate = . 3
Ed€,, .7x.9 = m63

T h i s assuaes a f l a r e d entrance, one r e g r e n t e d 9a0 b e n d , smooth pipe, and a

t o t a l d r a f t tuba l e n g t h o f about 200 em.
The r a n g e i n lasts and i n efficiency corresponds t o OX o r 100% lass o f t h e
velocity head,
The c o m b i n a t i o n o f gas l i f t n i x i n g and c a r b o n a t i o n r e q u i r e s m a t c h i n g t h e
m i x i n g system performance t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s s e t by t h e carbonation. As
shonn above, t h e a i r l i f t e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e s i n l i q u i d
velocity. However, t h e i n j e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f C02 i n c r e a s e s o n l y w i t h gas
bubble r i s e t i m e which decreases as l i q u i d v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s u n l e s s t h e
h e i g h t o f r i s e i s made g r e a t e r . As an example c o n s i d e r n a r r o w , l o n g d r a f t
t u b e s i n t o w h i c h t h e c h a n n e l f l o w h a s been d i r e c t e d . he l i q u i d f l o w r a t e
increases i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e area c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o . This increase leads
t o a s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e t i m e a gas b u b b l e s t a y s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l i q u i d and
t h u s a decrease i n t h e o v e r a l l t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y , u n l e s s t h e t u b e l e n g t h i s
a p p r o p r i a t l e y lengthened. The d e g r e e o f d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n t e r e d i n t r y i n g t o
o p t i m i z e a combined g a s l i f t and c a r b o n a t i o n system, depends on t h e d i s t a n c e
w h i c h must b e b r i d g e d between t h e i n i t i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and r e q u i r e m e n t s of
each. W i t h p u r e C02 t h e l i f t a t t a i n a b l e was much l o w e r t h a n r e q u i r e d t o
m i x t h e pond w h i l e w i t h f l u e t h e l i f t was much g r e a t e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y . When
c a r b o n i s r e c y c l e d f r o m d i g e s t e r f l u e g a s e s mixed w i t h p u r e C02, a good
match i s a c h i e v e d between t r a n s f e r and m i x i n g needs d u r i n g t i m e s o f maximal
c a r b o n demand.

When p u r i f i e d C02 i s u s e d as t h e gas f o r m i x i n g , t h e t o t a l f l o w r a t e o f gas

i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h a t r e q u i r e d t o c a r b o n a t e t h e pond. I t was c o n c l u d e d i n .
S e c t i o n 3 . 0 t h a t even f o r an 0 h e c t a r e pond w i t h 43m w i d e c h a n n e l s , t h e gas
f l o w r a t e w o u l d be l o w enough t o a t t a i n a t r a n s f e r r a t e o f 2 5 % / s and a gas t o
l i q u i d f l o w r a t e r a t i o o f a b o u t . 0 2 f o r sumps w i t h o u t r e c y c l e and ,056 f o r
s h a l l o w e r sumps w i t h r e c y c l e . The f o r m e r sumps were 4 . 2 m deep t h e l a t t e r
o n l y 1.5 m deep. The l i f t p r o v i d e d b y t h e s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s was o n l y 4 em.
O n l y by i n c r e a s i n g t h e pond s i z e d r a a a t i c a l l y ( a n d a l s o i n c r e a s i n g t h e c a r b o n
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f t h e medium) can t h e l i f t a t t a i n a b l e b e i n c r e a s e d f a s t e r
t h a n t h e l i f t r e q u i r e d . T h a t i s , i f t h e pond a r e a i s i n c r e a s e d X f o l d ,
m a i n t a i n i n g t h e same l e n g t h t o w i d t h r a t i o , t h e r a t i o o f g a s f l o w t o l i q u i d
f l o w i n c r e a s e s by xli2, T h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e l i f t . The l i f t i s a l s o
increased by i n c r e a s i n g t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t y , accomplished by a d j u s t i n g t h e
b a f f l e p l a c e m e n t . Hany w o r k a b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e . F o r example, a
40 h e c t a r e h e c t a r e pond c o u l d b e m i x e d a t 20 cm/s b y p u r e C02 s p a r g e d i n t o
a 5.5 r deep sump, when C02 demand i s h i g h e s t . A t o t h e r times, a i r would
be needed t o d i l u t e t h e C02. S i n c e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f such a s e t u p w o u l d be
35-40% and a i r w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d a b o u t 75% o f t h e t i m e , t h e o v e r a l l power
r e q u i r e m e n t w o u l d b e a b o u t t h e same as w i t h a p a d d l e w h e e l m i x i n g system. For
s m a l l e r pond s i z e s t h e mismatch between l i f t needed and p u r e C02 r e q u i r e d
f o r c a r b o n a t i o n i s t o o g r e a t . I f l o n g d r a f t t u b e s a r e used, t h e r i s e t i m e of
t h e b u b b l e s s t i l l needs t o be 12 s f o r 9 5 % s t r i p p i n g e f f i c i e n c y . The t u b e s
w o u l d need t o b e 20 m deep ( l o n g ) and h a v e an a r e a o f one t e n t h o f t h e
c h a n n e l c r o s s s e c t i o n t o p r o v i d e a l i f t o f 20ca.
W i t h f l u e gas, as w i t h d i l u t i o n o f t h e C02 b y a i r , t h e l i f t i n c r e a s e s due
t o the increased flow. I t can b e assumed t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n g a s f l o w r a t e
would l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e b u b b l e s i z e and hence an i n c r e a s e i n . t h e
d e p t h needed t o r t r i p C O p e f f i c i e n t l y . F o r f l u e gas, a t a maximal a v e r a g e
c a r b o n demand o f 0 g n / m 2 / h r , t h e l i f t a t t a i n a b l e i n a 6.2 a deep sump ( 0 0 %
i n j e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y ) i s o v e r 7 4 em. The gas f l o w c o u l d b e lowered b y
c a r b o n a t i n g 18-24 h o u r s a day i n t o a medium c o n t a i n i n g s u f f i c i e n t a l k a l i n i t y
t o m i n i m i z e pH f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e upward d i r e c t i o n d u r i n g t h e day and
downward d u r i n g the n i g h t . This lowers t h e l i f t t o 39 em, about t w i c e that
needed, The most p r o m i s i n g p o s s i b i l i t y f o r combined p r e c e s s e s w o u l d b e t o
s u p p l y t h e c a r b o n as f l u e g a s o v e r 24 h o u r s d u r i n g t h e h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y
months b u t o n l y o v e r 12 h o u r s when p r o d u c t i v i t y i s l o w e r , During these times
a i r would s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e C l u e gas a t n i g h t , when m i x i n g speeds c o u l d b e
l o w e r , r e d u c i n g t h e power i n p u t . S i n c e t h e c o s t o+ t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e f l u e g a g
t o the s i t e includes the cast of pressurization s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n j e c t i o n the
o v e r a l l power c a s t s w o u l d b e low. I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e l i f t enough, t h e
b a f f l i n g would need t o be a r r a n g e d t o l o w e r t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t y i n t h e sump
t o , say, 10 cm/s. Then, an e i g h t h e c t a r e pond c o u l d be mixed a t 20 cm/s b y
f l u e gas i n a 5 m deep sump when demand f o r CU2 i s ( a v e r a g e d a v e r 24 h o u r s )
2 qa/n2/hr. The a i r l i f t e f f i c i e n c y would be low, a b o u t 15-20% and t h e deep
sump r e q u i r e d w o u l d b e a s u b s t a n t i a l c a p i t a l c o s t and in increased
m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t , but nu a d d i t i o n a l c o s t would be i n c u r r e d f o r m i x i n g p6wer.
O f c o u r s e t h e power p l a n t needs t o b e v e r y c l o s e t o t h e pond system t o
transport i t unpurified.

G i v e n t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s +or b o t h c a r b o n a t i o n and gas l i f t

t a k e n a l o n e , d e s i g n and c o s t e s t i m a t i o n o f a combined system must a w a i t t h e
r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t s proposed. A c o n f i g u r a t i o n w h i c h a l l o w s economic
use o f C02 f o r g a r l i f t nay b e p o s s i b l e , b u t i t a u s t be k e p t in m i n d t h a t
c a r b o n i s t h e most e x p e n s i v e i n p u t i n t o an a l g a l b i o m a s ~p ~ o d u c t i a nr y ~ t e m ,
Any s y s t e n f o r c o m b i n i n g a i r l i f t and c a r b o n a t i o n r u s t use t h e C02 w i t h t h e
h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c y , e s s e n t i a l l y as h i g h an e f f i c i e n c y as c a r b a n a t i o n a l o n e
~ o u l da c h i e v e .

4.4 HIXING SYSTEH SPECIFICATION

F o r t h e 1000 a c r e system, b o t h p a d d l e w h e e l and a i r l i f t m i x i n g . systems were

designed. The f o r m e r r e q u i r e s t w i c e t h e c a p i t a l t o c o n s t r u c t as t h e l a t t e r ,
b u t t h e r e i s more e x p e r i e n c s on n h i c h t u base i t s e f f i c i e n c y , AB discussed
i n S e c t i o n i1.0, t h e impact o f t h i s e o s t d i f f e r e n c e on p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s is
small, The a i r l i f t s y s t e m i s c o m p r i s e d o f t h r e e d r a f t t u b e s , each 2 m l o n g ,
as d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 4-3, The c a l c u l a t e d e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n
was t h e same as f o r t h e p a d d l e w h e e l system, a b o u t 40%. However, c o n f i r m a t i o n
o f this e s t i m a t e , f r o m t h e e x p e r i m a n t a l system, i s n e c e s s a r y .

No s p e c i f i c d e s i g n i s s p e c i f i e d f o r a combined gas l i f t m i x i n g - c a r b o n a t i o n
system. The gas t r a n s f e r p a r a m e t e r s a r e n o t known w e l l eneugh t o f o r m u l a t e a
meaningful design a t t h i s time. Again, the i m p a c t o f c a p i t a l c o s t s a v i n g s i s
minimal ,
 SECTION 5 . 0

ANALYSIS OF HARVESTING SYSTEMS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Harvestinq a l g a l biomass from d i l u t e suspension (.uS-.lX) i s u s u s a l l v a two

s t e p process: a primary c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t e p which reduces t h e volume o+ water
20-50 f o l d and a secondary s t e p , u s u a l l v c e n t r i f u o a t i o n , which f u r t h e r reduces
t h e volume 5-10 f o l d . The c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n q c o s t s ot i n d u s t r i a l
c e n t r i f u g e s a r e so high t h a t i t p r e c l u d e s t h e i r use without t h e i n ~ t i a l
c o n c e n t r a t i n q s t e p . In s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a s i n t h e h a r v e s t i n a of
Selr~i~!g w i t h s c r e e n s , only one s t e p 1s n e c e s s a r v , This i s due t o t h e h l q h
value of t h e a l g a l biomass i n t h i s c a s e , a s well a s t o t h e l a r a e s i z e o+ t h e
f i l a m e n t s and t h e manner i n whlch they pack on s c r e e n s whlch allows h i q h flow
r a t e s ot water. An i n c l i n e d s c r e e n or v i b r a r i n q screen 1 9 used. G e n e r a l l y ,
however, a h a r v e s t i n g p r o c e s s must be a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e v a r l e d t y p e s of
c e l l s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e h a r v e s t e r e f f l u e n t s a r e t o be r e t u r n e d t o t h e
qrowth ponds. Any organisms which t h e harvesting p r o c e s s fa115 t o remove from
t h e r e c y c l e stream, w i l l be qiven a p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t competitave
advantaqe i n t h e growth pond C l l l . Only i n r a r e circumstances a s t h e growth
medium so s e l e c t i v e f o r a chosen oraanism t h a t t h i s advantage w i l l not r e s u l t
i n dominance of an unwanted s p e c i e s , T h u s , t h e h a r v e s t i n g p r o c e s s must not
onlv remove t h e d e s i r e d organism, b u t a l s o any p o t e n t i a l contaminants.

Four prlmary h a r v e s t i n g methods were examined: m i c r o s t r a i n i n g , b e l t

f i l t e r i n g , f l o t a t i o n with f l o a t c o l l e c t i o n , and sedimentation i n two s t a g e s .
Each of t h e s e methods d i s c r i m i n a t e s on a s i z e and/or d e n s i t y b a s i s i n
performing t h e biomass s e p a r a t i o n . The s t r a i n e r and +liter a r e , of c o u r s e ,
s l z e d i s c r i m i n a t o r s , w i t h performance characteristics t h a t improve a s t h e
a l g a l p a r t i c l e s i z e i n c r e a s e s . However, t h e f i l t e r i s a l s o more e f f i c i e n t + o r
oraganisms which form a mat, t h u s d e c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e pore s i z e .
Sedimentation and flotation d e v i c e s c o l l e c t biomass on t h e b a s i s of both s i z e
and d e n s i t y . Since t h e o p e r a t i o n of each of t h e s e d e v i c e s becomes tenuous f o r
small c e l l s ( ( 6 - 8 m i c r o n s ) , and s i n c e t h e h a r v e s t e r must, i n a s t r i c t sense be
u n i v e r s a l i n i t s removal c a p a b i l l t i y , some u n i v e r s a l l y effective method i s
r e q u i r e d t o transform a l l c e l l s i n t o a form which can be removed b y t h e chosen
c o l l e c t i o n device. As w i l l be shown, t h e maJor c o s t of a h a r v e s t i n q system
l i e s i n t h i s t r a n s + o r m a t i o n process.

5.2 C A P I T A L COSTS OF P R I M A R Y H A R V E S T I N G D E V I C E S

The f o u r t y p e s of primary h a r v e s t i n q d e v i c e s vary c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e i r

i n s t a l l e d c a p i t a l c o s t s . Conventional d i s s o l v e d q a s f l o t a t i o n u n i t s c o s t
about . 2 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s per m i l l i o n p a l l o n s per day ot suspension. The
c o s t s of m i c r o s t r a i n e r s , b e l t f i l t e r s , and s e t t l i n g ponds, on t h e same b a s i s
a r e , 0 9 , . 1 2 , and . 0 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t no p r e t r e a t m e n t of
t h e c e l l s were r e q u i r e d t o 1) make each d e v l c e work e f f i c i , e n t l y . and 2 ) make
each work u n ~ v e r s a l l y , the c a 0 1 t a 1 cost differences would n o t tran5late to
large d l + f erences in annualized p r ~ d u c t l o n cost. The most expensive device,
the dissolved oas f l o t a t i o n u n i t , would add 5 0 % t o t h e capital costs o+ t h e
s y s t e m , but these o n l y contribute LO-25% of t h e annual production, The
important point i s that none o f the collectors functions either well or, more
importantly, universailv on ~ t own. s H rouqh calculation shows t h a t I +
conditioner is added to t h e suspension prior to primary harvestinq, +or eacn
c e n t ot c o n d ~ t i o n e r added per k g o f b ~ o m a s sharvested, t h e production cost
increases b y about 10%. The c o n c i u s ~ o n is t h a t while cost di#terences do
exist amonq various p r l m a r v harvesting devlces, t h e i m p a c t a + t h e s e
di+terences is small compared to the potentla1 Impact o f the co%t ot
pretreating the biomass so that an; or a11 o f the devices are, in f a c t ,
useable,

5.3 PRETREATMENT OPTIONS

There is a m p l e experience wrth chemical flocculation o + suspended solids to

imprave the separation characteristics. T.he thrust o+ recent work with
chemical #locculants is t o manu#acture new chemicals, or devise new
c o m b i n a t i o n s of known chemicals, which reduce the dose and cost o f t h e
+iocculation s t e p , rhis subject will not be reviewed here, except t o s a y that
work on the use o+ flocculants i e advancing due to the recently a c q u i r e d
c a p a b i iity o f manufacturing v e r y h i g h molecular weiqht pslymers, I f enough
f l ~ c c u l a n t is added, the deslred characteristics can be induced. A t present,
the use ot standard c h e m i c a l s , like iron chloride, would require a b o u t ,75-iwfl
per gm biomass, or about 4-6 cents per k q biomass. Thus an alternative t o
conventional flocculants is required.

One alternative 1s to condition the algae without addino flocculants.

Nitrogen deprivation is generally recognized to enhance t h e sedimenting
characteristics o f alqae, a l t h o u g h data in the literature is not applicable to
the situation here. Sedimentation r a t e s were generally not measured and t h e
a l g a e were usually starved f o r prolonged periods of times, well p a s t a n v
active growth. H report, b y one o f the.authors, an t h e ,other hand presents
data supportinq the hypothesis that normally non-settling, unicellular,
flagellated organisms ( h f i a i i g L l a r can be made t o settle at rates h i q h e n o u g h
f o r collection in settlinq ponds, b y short term nitrogen deprivation L4I.
T h i s process was found t o work w i t h a i l but the smallest orqanisms ( 2 - 5
micron) a n d even with an ~ ~ ~ ~ containing
h ~ ~6 0 %~lipid.
~ ~But ,the ~ e r
question o f universality of t h e process still poses a proslea,

Anuther alternative is to utilize the supersaturated oxygen to tloat t h e cells

to t h e surface of the pond, to a foam collector. The a d v a n t a g e o+ t n i s over
sedimentation lies in the f a s t rate 04 rise due to the digsolved g a s coming
out o f solution, However, the u n i v e r s a l ~ t y of this approach is, a g a l n , open
t o question.
P r e l i m i n a r v e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e been p e r t o r m e d , a t M i r r o b i a i P r o d u c t s , I n c a ,
u s i n q h i o h Charge d e n s t i y , h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i q h t p o l y m e r s t o f l o c c u l a t e a t e s t
o r q a n l s m i n s a l i n e medium, A C h i o r q l L g - g p , was u s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t even
s m a l l c e l l s ( 3 - 5 u 1 c a n be c l a r i f i e d b v s i m p l e s e d i m e n t a t i o n when f i r s t
p r e t r e a t e d w i t h t h e polvmer. The media u s e d t o qrow t h e a l q a , t o a d e n s i t v o f
500 pom o r a a n i c d r y w e i g h t , c o n t a i n e d 32 o p t TDS, m o s t l y a s NaCl, hlkalinitv
was 30 mH, pH was 8.45, and h a r d n e s s was 5mM. The c e l l s were n l t r o q e n
su+ficient. The dose o t p o l y m e r n e c e s s a r v t o e t f e c t c o m p l e t e c l a r i t i c a t i o n
w l t h an a d e q u a t e sedimentation r a t e o i t h e f l o c s 0 5 0 c m l h r ) was lppm p o l v m e r
Per 5uU ppm b i o m a s s . t h i s i s t h e b a s i s t o r t h e d e s i a n assumption used i n t h i s
report. The experiments were o t a v e r v p r e l i m i n a r v n a t u r e , and n o t
necessarilv ootimized, However. n o r h a v e t h e y Peen v a l i d a t e d on a l a r o e
s c a l e . h a v i n q Peen p e r t o r m e d I n j a r t e s t s w i t h 250 m i o t s u s p e n s i o n . The
u n i v e r s a l l t v o t t h e a p p r o a c n h a s a l s o n o t been d e m o n s t r a t e d , b u t t h e t v p e o t
o r o a n i s m Used p r o v i d e d a s t r i n q e n t t e s t . I t 1s t h e o p l n i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s
t h a t such an a p o r o a c n i s h i q h l v p r o m i s i n o , b u t u s e on a l a r q e s c a l e must be
accompanied b y c o n t i n u a l m o n i t o r i n q o t t h e e S i e c t i v e n e s s o t t h e t l o c c u l a t i o n
as oond c o n d i t i o n s chanpe, I h e t y p e and m l x t u r e s o t podvmer u s e d mav n a v e t o
be chanqed on an o n a o i n q b a s i s t o a v o i d s e l e c t i n g t o r o r g a n i s m s w h l e h e l u d e
entrapment by a p a r t i c u l a r + l o c c u l a n t .

The p r i m a r v method o f h a r v e s t i n a t h e b i o m a s s p r o d u c e d i n t h e l a r q e s c a l e and

e x p e r i m e n t a l systems i s s p e c i f i e d as p r e t r e a t m e n t w l t h polymer f o l l o w e d bv
s e d i m e n t a t i o n i n a deep pond. l h e n i t r o q e n d e p l e t e d condition o f t h e b i o m a s s
s h o u l d , i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a u t h o r s , p r o m o t e f l o c c u l a t i o n and
sedimentation. The s l u r r y t r o m t h i s pond i s t h e n f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d i n
t h i c k e n i n p t a n k s o t much r e d u c e d volume.

f h e b u d q e t + o r t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t h a s Sundr s p e c i f i e a l l v f o r t a s t l n q and
m o n i t o r i n q polymer induced h a r v e s t i n g .
 SECTION B . 0

SUMHARY OF ANALYSIS AND I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR SYSTEM DESIGN

b.1 WATER CHEMISTRY

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e d e s i r a b l e i n a w a t e r r e s o u r c e are low h a r d n e s s ,

an e x c e s s of a l k a l i n i t y over h a r d n e s s , a n d low TDS ( b u t s t i l l t o o s a l t y 9er
c o n v e n t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e ) , Any h a r d n e s s which c a n n o t be removed b y t h e
a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a l k a l i n i t y ( b y e q u i l i b r a t i o n w i t h t h e atmosphere) c a s t s f.005
per k g a l g a e produced per 100 ppm h a r d n e s s t o be removed. Lower TDS r e s u l t s
i n l o ~ e rnet w a t e r u s a g e , a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e becomes l e s s as t h e
blowdown r a t i o ( = r e c i p r i c o l 0 4 s a l t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a e t o r ) d e c r e a s e s .
C o n s i d e r i n g a TDS o f 40 p p t a s t h e p r a c t i c a l upper l i m i t f o r p r o d u c t i v e
c u l t i v a t i o n , a s e a w a t e r system uses 4 . 5 t i m e s a s much water a s a s y s t e m w i t h
an i n p u t water TDS o f 4 p p t , f o r t h e same r a t e o f e v a p e r a t i o n .

The water c h e m i s t r y d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a r b o n a t i o n s y s t e m s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n d the

pH range o f o p e r a t i o n s . The lower l i m i t of p H i s d e t e r m i n e d b y o u t g a s s i n g o f
C02. S i n c e C02 i s t h e s i n g l e most c o ~ t l yi n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m , o u t g a s s i n g
must be minimized. W i t h low t o moderate mixing v e l a e i t i e s 113-20cm/s) and
p r o p e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e l o w pH l i m i t , o v e r a l l l o s s of c a r b o n d u e t o
o u t g a s s i n g can be k e p t t o l e s s t h a n 5% o f t h e c a r b o n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
bioflass. The upper l i m i t of p H , f o r p r o p e r l y c o n d i t i o n e d w a t e r s , i s
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e of t h e a l g a e t o d i s s o l v e d C a p
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s i s unknown, b u t a s a f e l e v e l ( o n e t h a t shauld n o t l e a d
t o s u b s t a n t i a l loss o f p r o d u c t i v i t y ) i s 3-b t i m e s a i r s a t u r a t i o n o r 30-6QuM.
The c a r b o n s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y of t h e medium depends on t h e a l k a l i n i t y a n d t h e
pH r a n g e of o p e r a t i o n . I t d e t e r m i n e s t h e number o f c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s
r e q u i r e d f o r a pond o f s p e c i f i e d s i z e , d e p t h , and l i q u i d velocity, o r
a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e mrximua pond s i r e s e r v i c e a b l e w i t h one C02 tati ion. t h e
d e t a i l s o f interaction between a l k a l i n i t y , p H , and C02 c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e
discussed i n Section 2,O.

All of t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s combine t o d e t e r m i n e water r e s o u r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s

and p H of o p e r a t i o n . The c o m b i n a t i o n used f o r t h e 1000 a c r e d e s i g n a r e the
f o l l o w i n g : water r e s o u r c e i s Type IJ a t 4 p p t TDS w i t h e x c e s s a l k a l i n i t y 04
4 m e q / l , nu w a t e r c o n d i t i o n i n g chemical c o s t s , and g i g h t f o l d e v a p o r a t i v e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n a aedium w i t h TDS = 32 p p t , a l k a l i n i t y o f 32
m e q / l , and a pH r a n g e f o r o p e r a t i o n n o t t o exceed 0 . 0 - 9 . 0 . Water usage
c a l c u l a t e s t o (assuming an a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e of .01m/n2/day) 11.5
l i t e r s / n 2 / d r y or 16.5 x a 3 / 4 0 0 h a / y r . When t h i s w a t e r i s a b t a i n e d
f r o m wells o f 50 II pumping d e p t h , t h e e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y c o s t O,Ob5/KW-hr) i s
$220,000 o r S l b l a c r e - f t .

I n t h o o p e r a t i o n of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m , t h e l a r g e s c a l e water
s p e e ' i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e s i m u l a t e d b y a m i x t u r e o f t h e two t y p e s of w a t e r s t h a t
a r e p l e n - t i f ' u l on t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e : 5X S a l t o n Sea w a t e r , p r e c o n d i t i o n e d b y
a d d i n q s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e a t a c o s t o f $300 p e r a c r e p e r y e a r o r $ 4 5 0 / a c r e - f t
u s e d and 95% w e l l w a t e r a v a i l a b l e a t 1700 qpm. The c e s p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e
w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i s t a b u l a t e d i n S e c t i o n 10.0.

6.2 CARBONATION

The C02 r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e a l g a l b i o m a s s w i t h SOX l i p i d i s 2 . 2 k g / k g

biomass. Even a t t h e l o w e s t e x t r a p o l a t e d c o s t o f C02 E91, t h e c o s t o f t h i s
i n p u t c o m p r i s e s o v e r 50% o f t h e a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n c o s t . Thus t h e most
i m p o r t a n t aspect o f t h e design i s t h e e f f i c i e n t use o f carbon. In this
s u b s e c t i o n , t h e methods o f t r a n s f e r r i n q C02 i n t o t h e p o n d s a r e summarized.
R e c y c l e o f c a r b o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , and a l l n u t r i e n t s i n g e n e r a l , i s d i s c u s s e d
i n s u b s e c t i o n 6.3 below.

Tno typms o f c a r b o n a t o r s ~ m r ma n a l y z e d 8 c o v e r e d aria c a r b o n a t o r s and

c a r b o n a t i o n sumps, The f o r m e r t y p e may b e f e a s i b l e when p u r e C02 i s used,
t h e l a t t e r i s f e a s i b l e f o r b o t h p u r e C02 and f l u e gases. The p r a c t i c a l
e f f i c i e n c y a p p r o a c h e s 9 3 % f o r s t r i p p i n g a p u r e C02 l n p u t gas and 80% f o r a
f l u e gas i n p u t .

G a s - l i q u i d mass t r a n s f e r was a n a l y z e d f r o m f i r s t p r i n e i p l e s and e v a l u a t e d i n

l i g h t o f t h e l a r g e body o f b i o c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a t h a t h a s been
accumulated. Nonetheless, a great u n c e r t a i n t y remains i n t h e trans9er r a t e
t h a t i s t o b e e x p e c t e d i n l a r g e s c a l e a l g a l systems. I n t h e sump c a r b o n a t i o n
p r o b l e m , t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e s were shown t o depend on t h e a v e r a g e r a t e o f r i s e
o f b u b b l e swarms, w h i c h depends on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u b b l e s i z e s . This i s
d e t e r m i n e d b y s p a r g e r o r i f i c e , gas f l o w r a t e , and b u b b l e c o a l e s c e n c e f a c t o r s
( s a l i n i t y , surfactants, turbulence). The r a t e o f r e m o v a l p a r u n i t l e n g t h o f
sump d e p t h can be much f a s t e r t h a n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d i f t h e b u b b l e swarms
t r a v e l t h r o u g h a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r c e n t o f t h e sump d e p t h b e f o r e t h e
e q u i l i b r i u m s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a t t a i n e d and/or i f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m bubble
s i z e i s s m a l l due t o a n t i - c o a l e s c e n c e f a c t o r s . Although t h e e m p i r i c a l data
f r o m C02 t r a n s f e r i n t o a l g a l ponds i s s p a r s e , and based en s m a l l systems,
i t h a s been f o u n d g e n e r a l l y t h a t t r a n s f e r i s + a s t e r t h a n an e q u i l i b r i u m
a n a l y s i s w o u l d p r e d i c t i n t h e absence o f some o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g f a c t o r s .
The c o v e r e d a r e a c a r b o n a t o r was a n a l y z e d i n t e r m s o f s u r f a c e r e n e w a l t h e o r i e s
o f g a s - l i q u i d t r a n s f e r w i t h parameters determined u s i n g e m p i r i c a l
c o r r e l a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d f o r s t r e a m and c h a n n e l a e r a t i o n . A g a i n , however,
e x p e r i m e n t s on t r a n s f e r t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e o f a l g a l ponds, y i e l d e d r a t e s
s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a l t e r t h a n were p r e d i c t e d . Thus w i t h e i t h e r c a r b o n a t i o n
method, t h e d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n e c a n n o t b e f i x e d w i t h g r e a t p r e c i s i o n u n t i l
rvasults from c a r e f u l l y designed experiments a r e obtained. A t present t h e
f o l l o w i n g o p t i o n s a r e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e 1000 a c r e system.
1 " R i p p l e " c o v e r e d a r e a c a r b o n a t o r c o v e r i n g 2% o f t h e pond a r e a f o r p u r e
C02, 90-952 e f f i c i e n c y .
2. 1 . 5 m deep c a r b o n a t i o n sump f o r p u r e C02, 95X e f f i c i e n c y .
3. 2-3 m deep sump f o r f l u e gas, w i t h c a r b o n a t o r gas r e c y c l e f l o w of
100-200%, BOX e f f i c i e n c y .
4. 2-3 r deep sump f a r t h e m i x t u r e o f p u r e C02 w i t h d i g e s t e r f l u e gas, no
r e c y c l e , 90% e f f i c i e n c y .
0 p t . i o n 2 i s used i n t h e Base Case economic a n a l y s i s , b u t o p t i o n 4 has t h e
m s t p o t e n t i a l +or r e d u c i n g l i p i d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s .

The e x p e r i m e n t a l system w i l l b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c a r b o n a t i o n

parameters. B o t h c o v e r e d and sump c a r b o n a t o r s w i l l b e t e s t e d , I n addition,
t h e e f f e c t o f oxygen d e s o r p t i o n , d u r i n g c a r b o n a t i o n , on t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f
C02 i n p u t w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d . These t e s t 3 w i l l a l s o s e r v e as t h e b a a i r f o r
t h e d e c i s i o n as t o whether i s t s f e a s i b l e t o remove d i s s o l v e d oxygen f r o m
s o l u t i o n , and t h e r e b y r e l i e v e i t s p o t e n t i a l l y i n h i b i t o r y a f f e c t on
photosynthesis. -

6.3 NUTRIENT RECYCLE

S i n c e c a r b o n i s such a s i g n i f i c a n t i n p u t i n t o t h e systcn, r e c y c l e a # t h e
c a r b o n l e f t i n t h e r e s i d u e f r o m t h e l i p i d e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s was c o n s i d e r e d ,
I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f t h e s e r e s i d u e s i n a c o v e r e d
l a g o o n would a l l o w r e c y c l i n g o f 34% o f t h e a l g a l c a r b o n , r e d u c i n g c a r b o n
~ n p u tf r o m 2 . 2 k g / k g a l g a l biomass p r o d u c e d t c 1 . 4 5 k g / k g . This recycled
c a r b o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a v a i l a b l e a t no c a s t , i n t e r m s o f o p e r a t i o n s , due t o t h e
e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y d e r i v e d f r o n t h e inethane g a s p r o d u c e d w h i c h is used t o
p r e s s u r i z e t h r r e c o v e r e d C02 f o r i n ~ e c t i o ni n t o t h e pondB. The c a p i t a l
c a r t o f t h e digmrtor-generator r y s t e a i s included i n t h e economie evaluation
of thie option, The f l u e gas o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e c o a b u s t i o n of t h e d i g e s t e r
gases i s 14% COZ. Wnen c o l b i n e d i n the r e q u i r e d v o l u r c t r i c p r o p o r t i o n w i t h
p u r i f i e d C a p , t h e r e r u l t r n t m i x t u r e is 35% C02. T h i s w i l l b e more
e x p e n s i v e t h a n p u r r CO2 t o i n j e c t i n t o t h e ponds b u t l e e r a x p ~ n s i v et h a n
f l u e gas. The e x t r a expense comes as a c a p i t a l c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i n g deeper
c a r b o n a t i o n sumps, and p o s s i b l y use o f r e c y c l e . Since operating costs,
e s p e c i a l l y t h e c o s t o f c a r b o n , w i l l be shown t o d o m i n a t e a n n u a l c o s t s , t h e s e
i n c r e a s e d c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s have l i t t l e i m p a c t on p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s . The
30% s a v i n g r i n C02 i n p u t ha5 significant i m p a c t .

I n a d d i t i o n t o c a r b o n , much o f t h e n i t r o g e n and p h o s p h o r u s r e m a i n i n g i n t h e
e x t r a c t r e s i d u e s can b e r e c y c l e d . The p o t e n t i a l f o r r e c y c l e is even g r e a t e r
t h a n f o r carbon, T a b l e 6-1 summarizes t h e e l e m e n t a l b a l a n c e f o r C , N , and P
i n t h e anaerobic d i g e s t i o n process. The p a r t i t i o n o f t h e , e l e m e n t s i n the
l i q u i d p o r t i o n s o f t h e d i g e s t e r can o n l y be r o u g h l y e s t i a a t e d a t t h e p r e s e n t
t i m e , b u t i t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s f o r these e l e a e n t s t o be
recovered t o a s i g n i f i c a n t extent.
 T a b l e 6-1. N u t r i e n t P a r t i t i o n i n g i n an Anaerobic Lagoon

..............................................................................
D i g e s t e r Compartment X of Total C X of Total M Y. o f T o t a l P
..............................................................................
Gas Phase 65 0 0

Liquid Effluent 18 75 50

Sludge

I n c o n s t r u c t i n g T a b l e 6-1, i t i s assured t h a t 65% o f t h e c a r b o n e n t e r i n g t h e

d i g e s t e r i s g a s i f i e d (39% t o methane,26% t o C 0 2 ) , t h a t t h e n i t r o g e n i s
p r e d o m i n a n t l y s o l u b o l i z e d t o ammonium, and t h a t t h e phosphorus p a r t i t i o n s
e v e n l y between t h e l i q u i d and s l u d g e f r a c t i o n s . The gas and l i q u i d e f f l u e n t
f r a c t i o n s a r e r e c y c l a b l e . T a b l e 6-2 g i v e s t h e r e c y c l e d n u t r i e n t s as a per
c e n t ' o f t h e t o t a l , u s i n g t h e assumptions t h a t t h e a l g a e i s 60% carbon, l i p i d
i s 70% carbon, s o l u b l e n u t r i e n t s a r e r e c y c l e d w i t h 100% e f f i c i e n c y and t h e
gaseous c a r b o n i s u t i l i z e d w i t h 90% e f f i c i e n c y due t o l o s s e s upon i n j e c t i o n
i n t o t h e pond.

T a b l e 6-2. Recycle o f N u t r i e n t s

..............................................................................
Nutrient Kg Recovered/Kg a l g . Kg L o s t / K g a l g . Net I n p u t Kg/kg

Carbon ( . 2 5 ~ . 1 8 ) + ( . 2 5 ~ . 6 5 ~ . 9 ) r . 1 9( . 2 5 ~ . 1 7 + . 3 5 ) / . 9 = . 4 4 .44

Nitrogen ,04x, 750.03 .04x.25=.01 .0 i

Phosphorus .005x.S0=.0025 , 0 0 5 ~ .5Q=. 0025 ,0025

R e c y c l e t h u s l o w e r s t h e n u t r i e n t demand, per kg a l g a l biomass produced, t o

1.6 kg f o r carbon ( f r o m 2.4 k g ) , t o .01 kg f o r n i t r o g e n ( f r o m .04 k g ) , and t o
,0025 kg f o r phosphurus ( f r o m ,005 k g ) .

A c o v e r e d l a g o o n d i g e s t e r and e n g i n e g e n e r a t o r i s s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e 1000 a c r e
system. I f budget c o n s t r a i n t s a l l o w , a t e s t l a g o o n w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system, b u t w i t h o u t combustion o f d i q e s t o r gas, as e n g i n e
g e n e r a t o r s a r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y e x p e n s i v e a t such a s m a l l s c a l e . The
r e c y c l e o f N and P w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d and t h e use o f d i g e s t e r f l u e gas can be
s i m u l a t e d by d i l u t i n g p u r e C02 w i t h a i r .
6.4 N U T R I E N T LOSSES

[he l o s s o + nutrients t r o m t h e s v s t e m is a p o t e n t i a l l v s i g n r f i c a n t p r o b l e m
u n l e s s c a r e i s t a k e n i n t h e d e s i c n and operation a + t h e s v s t e m t o p r e v e n t s u c n
losses. I h e l o s s o f c a r b o n , p r i m a r i l y as CU2 t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e , has been
d i s c u s s e d extensively i n S e c t i o n s d a U and 3.0, I n t h e base Lase d e s i g n , t o b e
s p e c i t l e d I n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 10.0, t h e p o n d d e p t h i s 20 cm and t h e m i x i n q
v e l a c i t v i s 20 cmrs. S h a l l o w e r d e p t h and h i g h e r m i x i n o v e l o c i t v b o t h a c t t o
aqgravste o u t g a s s i n g , w h i c h becomes a b o u t 2.5 t i m e s q r e a t e r i f d e p t h i s
h a l v e d and m i x i n q v e l o c i t v i n c r e a s e d t o 50 c m f s . I n a d d i t i o n , carbon storaqe
i n t h e medium, on an a r e a l b a s i s , d e c r e a s e s w i t h d e c r e a s e s 1.n d e p t h . For
m e d i a o t t h e same a l k a l i n i t y and t h e same r a n q e o f d r s s o l v e d COZ
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e s h a l l o w e r , t a s t e r m i x e d pond must b e o u e r a t e d i n a n a r r o w e r
p H r a n g e t o a c h i e v e t h e same e t f i c i e n c v o t u s e o t c a r b o n . I ' h i s means t h a t
mare c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d p e r u n i t a r e a o t o r o w t h pond.

Ammanla IS a n o t h e r v o l a t i l e s p e c i e s when p r e s e n t i n u n i o n i z e d t o r m . in f r e s h
w a t e r , t h e pK o+ t h e ammonium-ammonia a c i d - b a s e o v s t e m i s 9 . 5 , l4ctivitv
c o e + f i c i e n t s d e c r e a s e as I o n i c o f t h e medium i u n c r e a s e s . I n t h e mixed a c r d i t v
c o n s t a n t c o n v e n t i o n ( p r o t o n s e x p r e 5 s e d i n activity, o t h e r saecleg e x p r e s s e d i n
c o n c e n t r a t l o n j t h e pK f o r t h e ~ o n i z a t i o no f ammonium i n c r e a s e s . In the
a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h a t t h e a c t i v i t v c o e f f l c l e n t + o r ammonium i s t h e same a s f o r
b i c a r b o n a t e , t h e pK i n a medium w i t h t h e i o n i c s t r e n g t h o f s e a w a t e r i s 9 . 8 5 .
I + a l l o f t h e n i t r a o e n demand o f t h e a l g a e i s i n t r o d u c e d a 5 ammonia a t t h e
b e g l n n n l n q o+ each b a t c h c y c l e [ a w o r s t c a s e s c e n a r i o ) t h e n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f t o t a l a m m o n i a - n i t r o o e n w o u l d b e a b o u t 2.5mM. fit pH 8 . 5 and 9 , 0 , t h e
t r a c t i o n o f t h i s t o t a l t h a t i s p r e s e n t a 5 ammonra is, r e s p e c t i v e l y " 0 4 and
.12. W i t h a mass t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e t o f , 0 6 m / h r t o r t r a n s t e r t h r o u q h t h e
s u r i a c e , t h e l a s s o+ ammonia i s , a t t h e t w o p H ' s , , 0 3 n M / L / h r and . 0 9 m f l / L / h r .
T h i s 1 s l o w c o m ~ a r e dt u t h e r a t e o f n l t r o q e n u p t a k e b y a l g a e , However. i+
a q a i n t h e p o n d d e p t h i s h a l v e d and t h e m i x i n q v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d t o 30
c m / s , t h e r a t e o f o u t a a s s i n p i s f i v e t i m e s a!! h i g h ( t h e v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f
u p t a k e b y a l g a e is a l s o t w i c e a s q r e a t ) , SO t h e o u t g a s s i n g l o s s e s o i c a r b o n
a t l o w pH combined w i t h t h e o u t g a s s i n q l o s s e s o f ammonia a t h i g h pH a c t t o
squeeze t h e pH o f o p e r a t i ~ nd o w n , and more s e v e r l v so w i t h s h a l l o w e r , f a s t e r
rnlxed p o n d d e s i g n s . I n t h e Base Case, n i t r o g e n l o s s e s were s p e c i f i e d a t 3 0 % .
w h i c h s h o u l d b e amply c o n s e r v a t i v e even when t h e a u t g a s s i n q d u r i n g carbonation
and a i r l i + t is i n c l u d e d ,

6.3 N I X I N G SYSTEM

t h r e e o p t i o n s w e r e a n a l y z e d + o r m i x i n q t h e ponds: p a d d l e w h e e l s , a i r l i + t , and
c o m b i n e d c a r b o n a t i o n and m i x i n g i n sumps. The o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t h r e e
m e t h o d s a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l v 4 0 % , 4 0 % , and 20%. The l o w e r e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e
combined s y s t e m is due t o t h e need t o o p t i m i z e f o r e f f i c i e n t t r a n s h r a+
C02. However, t h e n e t power consumed i n t h i s o p t i o n i s o n l y 35% h i q h e r t h a n
t h e o t h e r t w o because t h e C02 c o s t i n c l u d e s power f o r c o m p r e s s i o n , and a i r
u s e i's on1 y s u p p l e m e n t a r y , The p a d d l e w h e e l s y s t e m is t w i c e - a s c a p i t a l
i n t e n s i v e as t h e a i r l i f t s v s t e m , The c o m b i n e d c a r b o n a t i o n - m i x l n g s v s t e t n c o s t s
a l m o s t as much as t h e paddlwwheei svstem because t h e sump used must b e deee t o
i n s u r e e f t i c i e n t carbon u t i l i z a t i o n .

The d e c i s i o n on w h i c h svstem, p a d d l e w h e e l s o r a i r l i f t , i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r m l x i n q
a l g a l a r o w t h ponds, must a w a i t t h e r e s u l t s o t e x p e r i m e n t s i n w h i c h an o p t i m a l
d e s i o n f o r each h a s been t e s t e d . rhey a r e n o t a c t u a l l y b e i n a compared on an
equal b a s i s i n t h i s r e p o r t . The p r a c t i c a l e f t l c i e n c v o f t h e p a d d l e w n e e l system
i s much b e t t e r known, i . e . , t h e dvnamic l o s s e s a r e more e a s i l v f a c t o r e d i n t o t h e
analysis. Thus t h e 40% e f f i c i e n c y i s most l i k e l y a c h i e v a b l @ . The a l r l i t t
svstem, on t h e o t h e r hand, was e v a l u a t e d f r o m f i r s t p r l n c l p l e s , w l t h an ac-hgc
t a c t o r i n s e r t e d t o r dynamic l o s s e s . No a i r l i f t h a s been d e s l a n e d , t o t h e
a u t h o r s ' knowledqe, w h i c h b o t h + i t s t h e a p p l ~ c a t i o nh e r e and i s s c a l a b l e t o
l a r o e systems, The e n g i n e e r i n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a i r l i f t s 1 s based on much h i o h e r
l i f t s used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h d i f f i c u l t t o h a n d l e m a t e r i a l s o r i n a i r i i f t
fermenters. The e f f i c i e n c y a c h i e v a b l e i n a p o n d l n ~a p l l l c a t i o n is v e t t o be
determined.

Based on t h e l i t e r a t u r e , c o n s u l t a n t i n p u t , and p r e v i o u s experience, a

p a d d l e w h e e l s y s t e m t h o u a h t t o be s t r u c t u r a l l v sound and e 9 f l c i e n t h a s been
desiqned. S e v e r a l c o n f i q u r a t i o n s o+ a i r l i f t , and combined q a s l t f t - c a r b o n a t o r s ,
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 4.0. These c o n f i q u r a t i o n s a r e m e r e l y p l a u s i b l e a t t n i s
p o i n t . s i n c e t h e b e h a v i o r o t b u b b l e swarms i n r e l a t i v e l v s h a l l o w sumps i n s a l i n e
w a t e r w h i c h may c o n t a i n s u r f a c t a n t s , needs t o be e m p i r i c a l l v d e t e r m i n e d . Thus
t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m h a s been d e s i q n e d f o r t h e measurement o i t n e
r e l e v a n t parameters.

A n o v e l t y p e o f m i x i n q system, a p p l i c a b l e t o v e r y l a r g e systems, h a s been

a n a l y z e d based on t h e d e s i g n specifications o f a hydraulic c o n s u l t a n t . The f a n
pump h a s p o t e n t i a l l y v e r v h i g h e f f i c i e n c y when pushang l a r q e f l o w s , a t l o w
v e l o c i t y a o a i n s t r e l a t i v e l y l o w head ( a m e t e r o r m o r e ) . U l t h o u q h t h i s
a l t e r n a t i v e h a s n o t been i n c l u d e d i n t h e 1000 a c r e d e s l q n , n o r t h e e x p a r l m e n t a l
system, i t does open up t h e p o ~ s i b i l i t vo f o p e r a t i n q much l a r a e r ponds t h a n h a s
been c o n s i d e r e d p r a c t i c a l up t o now.

6.6 M I X I N G VELOCITY AND DEPTH

The m i x i n q v e l o c i t y and d e p t h s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e 1000 a c r e d e s i g n a r e 20 cm/s and

20 cm. These a r e c o n s i d e r e d s u f t i c i e n t t o s e r v e t h e r e s p e c t i v e p u r p o s e s o f
k e e p i n g a l g a l s o l i d s suspended and p r o v i d i n g c a r b o n s t o r a g e i n t h e medium.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s same e v i d e n c e f o r enhanced p r o d u e t i v i t v a t i n c r e a s e d m i x i n g
v e l o c i t y and l o w e r d e p t h when d e v i c e s a r e i n s t a l l e d an t h e ponds t o i n d u c e
o r q a n i z e d m i x i n q regimes t31, t h e evidence i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e . This
s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n c r e a s e s c a p i t a l c o s t s . stemminq f r o m m e n u f a c t u r i n q t h e a i r f o i l s
used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o r g a n i z e d m l x i n g and t r o m t h e i n c r e a s e I n b o t h maxinq
s y s t e m c o s t s ( d u e t o t h e h i q h e r r t i x i n q v e l o c i t y ) and c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t s (due t o t h e l o w e r a r e a l carbon s t o r a g e c a p a c i t v ) . I n addition, the
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s i n c r e a s e due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d power i n p u t f o r m l x s n g , w h i c h
~ n c r e a s e sa s t h e v e l o c i t y t o t h e 2 . 5 - 3 p o w e r a n d d e p t h t o t h e n e q a t i v e l i 3
p o w e r . C U 2 u t l l l z a t i o n e f f i c ~ e n c va l s o can b e e x p e c t e d t o d e c r e a s e a s t h e
mass t r a n s t e r c o e f f i c l e n t f o r o u t q a s s l n g i n c r e a s e s W I t h m i x i n a v e l o c i t v
i n c r e m e n t s and depth d e c r e m e n t s ( t h e s u r f a c e t u r n o v e r r a t e ~ n c r e a s e s ) , I h e
p o t e n t i a l ~ m p r a c t l c a l i t yo f t n s t a l l i n a a i r f o l l s a t r e a s o n a b l e c o s t makes
b a s l n o the e n t i r e s y s t e m d e s i g n on t h l s t e n u o u s .

i h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s v s t e m i s a l s o d e s i g n e d f o r 20 cm d e p t h a n d 20 cm/s m i x i n q
v e l o c i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m will b e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e f l e x i b i l i t y t o
varv both,

6.7 POND L I N I N G

Yome f o r m o f p o n d 1 1 n i n q 1s r e q u i r e d t o e l l m ~ n a t el o s s o f w a t e r d u e t o
p e r c o l a t ~ o n , I n t h e l a r q e s c a l e d a s i q n , t h e l i n ~ n qspecified 1s c r u s h e d r o c k
o v e r a c l a y s e a l e r . f h l s c o m b i n a t i o n 1s ~ n e x p e n s i v ewhen t h e m a t e r i a l s a r e
n o t t o o d i s t a n t + o r n t h a s i t e , T h e major q u e s t ~ o n st o be i n v e s t i a a t e d d u r i n g
t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a r e t h e d e q r e c o f s e a h n g t h a t 1s a c h i e v a b l e w l t h
t h l ~l i n l n ~and t h e e t f e c t o n m i x i n q p o w e r i n p u t and C02 o u t g a s r e d . B o t h
a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e somewhat qreater t h a n w i t h a p l a e t l c l i n e r a u e t o t n e
i n c r e a s e d r o u g h n e s s o f t h e pond b o t t o m . S l n c e t h e r o c k i s q r a d e d a n d r o l l e d ,
t h e a n t i c i p a t e d rouqhness c o e f i l c i e n t i s ,018 c o m p a r e d t o v e r v s m o o t h l y
a p p l i e d p l a s t i c l i n i n g o f r o u g h n e s s ,012.

P l a s t i c l i n e r s were c o n s i d e r e d b u t n o t c h o s e n a s a p r i m a r v d e s i g n
speci+ication due to i n i t i a l cost, i n s t a l l a t i o n d i f f i c u l t v , maintenance
p r ~ b l e m s , a n d q u e s t i o n s a s t o w h e t h e r l i n i n g s w o u l d p e r f o r m a s well a s
expected. The l e a s t e x p e n s i v e p l a s t i c l i n i n g w o u l d c o s t b e t w e e n $ 1 . 3 - 2 . 0 per
m2 i n s t a l l e d . However. t h e s e l i n e r s would n e e d t o b e c o n s t a n t l y u n d e r
water t o a v o i d p h o t o d e a r a d a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e r v s m a l l thickness ( 1 0
mil) p r e d i s p o s e s s u c h a l i n i n q t o d e v e l o p i n g small h a l e s w h i c h l e a k . R o d e n t s
may a l s o wreak h a v o c b v c h e w i n o t h r o u g h t h e l i n e r . T h e h i g h q u a l i t y p l a s t i c
h n e r s c o s t $5.5 per n2. A l t h o u q h p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s w o u l d b e much e a s i e r
t o a c h i e v e w i t h e x p e n s i v e liners, p r o b l e m s w i t h r o d e n t damage c o u l d be
serious. T h e h i q h c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e s e l i n e r s , $23 m i l l i o n p e r 1 0 0 0 a c r e s ,
makes t h e economics o f t h e i r u s e n a r q i n a l . I t d o u b l e s the d e p r e c i a b l e
c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t , b u t DCI o n l y c o n t r i b u t e s 10-20% t o t h e a n n u a l i z e d
p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s . I f a p l a s t i c l i n e r w e r e required, + e w e x p e r t s r e c o m m e n d
the c h e a p e r l i n e r o v e r the e x p e n s i v e one.

High q u a l i t y p l a s t i c l l n e r s a r e s p e c i f i e d f o r a l l ponds I n t h e p r o p o s e d
e x p e r i m e n t a l s v s t e m e x c e p t + o r t h e l a r q e s t p o n d s . I n o n e a+ t h e s e . 4 h e c t a r e
p o n d s , c l a y s e a l e r w ~ t ha c r u s h e d r o c k o v e r b u r d e n will b e t e s t e d , T h e o t h e r
will be p l a s t i c l i n e d ( h v p a l o n ) , T h u s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f b o t h o p t i o n s w i l l
be evaluated.
6.8 HARVESTING SYSTEM

P r i m a r v h a r v e s t i n q was e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f d e v i c e s f o r c o n c e n t r a t i n q t h e
a l o a l b i o m a s s and i n t e r m s o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t v and u n i v e r s a l i t v o t each method.
f l i c r o s t r a i n i n q and a i r p l u s DO f l o t a t i o n p r o v e d t o be more e x p e n s i v e t h a n
u s i n a a b e l t f i l t e r , w h i c h was a n a l v z e d a s more e x p e n s i v e t h a n s i m p l e
sedimentation. I t was n o t e d , however, t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o s t s , b o t h
c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n q , would n o t t r a n s l a t e i n t o a l a r q e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
o v e r a l l cost of producing a l g a l bioaass(see Section 11.0). The most i m p o r t a n t
c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t none o f t h e d e v i c e s , i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s , c o u l d be
expected t o be v e r y r e l i a b l e i n t h e longterm. Each d i s c r i m i n a t e s on t h e b a s i s
o f s i z e a n d / o r d e n s i t v , w h i c h w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o a situation where
organisms t h a t eluded t h e p r i m a r y c o l l e c t i o n would be g i v e n a c o m p e t i t i v e
a d v a n t a g e i n t h e q r o w t h ponds.

I t i s n e c e s s a r v t o d e v e l o p a means o t p r e t r e a t i n g t h e biomass, w i t h
f l o c c u l a n t s , s o t h a t a l l b i o m a s s 1s c o l l e c t e d bv w h a t e v e r d e v i c e i s used.
Recent work w i t h v e r v h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t , h i g h l y c h a r g e d p o l y m e r s a p p e a r s
t o be a p r o m i s i n g method o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s . W g i v e n polvmer f l o c c u l a t e s a
w i d e v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i s m s f r o m a g i v e n medium. I n a d d i t i o n , a r e p e t o i r e BC
s i m i l a r p o l v m e r can b e t a i l o r e d , on s i t e , t o d e a l w i t h chanqes I n pond f l o r a
o r s i m p l y changes I n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t f l o c c u l a n t needs.
The c o n c l u s r o n IS t h a t h a r v e s t i n a m i c r o a l q a e a p p e a r s f e a s i b l e b u t w i l l r e q u i r e
constant monitoring. Fhere does n o t appear t o be one s i n q l e answer, i n t e r m s
o f c h e m i c a l a d d i t r v e s , u n l e s s pond c o n d i t i o n s a r e e x t r e m e l y c o n s t a n t .

F i n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e biomass i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b v c e n t r i f u o a t i o n . The
c o s t o f t h i s s t e p does depend on t h e d e v i c e used i n t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
Flows from m i c r o s t r a i n e r s a r e expected t o be f i v e t i m e s those from s e t t l i n q
ponds and f l o t a t i o n c o l l e c t o r s . A b e l t f i l t e r concentrates, o r i s expected t o
c o n c e n t r a t e somewhat more t h a n t h e o t h e r methods.

6.9 PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT AND SPECIES CONTROL

D i s s o l v e d oxvgen a c c u m u l a t e s t o h i q h c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n m o d e r a t e t o l a r q e ponds
d u r i n o a c t i v e growth o f algae. Recent e x p e r i m e n t s C11 as w e l l as a w e a l t h of
l a b o r a t o r y and l i m n o l o g i c a l d a t a i m p l i c a t e oxyqen as an i n h i b i t o r o f
photosvnthesis. The d e s o r p t i o n o f oxyqen i s a p r o b l e m w h i c h i s n o t amenable
t o a n a l y t i c s o l u t i o n i n a l l b u t h i q h l v s p e c i f i e d cases. It i s a
n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m , n u c l e a t i o n p r o c e s s w h i c h i s s p e c i f i c t o b o t h t h e c h e m i c a l and
h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f each p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . Thus t h e f e a o i b a l i t y
o f i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e s t r i c t i n g DO l e v e l s t o w i t h i n p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t 2 w i l l be
t e s t e d e m p i r i c a l l y i n t h e proposed experitnent. The r e s u l t s w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d
so as t o s u g g e s t l a r g e s c a l e approaches. I t w i l l a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o measure
b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t v a s a f u n c t i o n o f DO i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e need f o r DO
r e m o v a l and t h e c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f l o w e r i n g i t t o a g i v e n l e v e l .
f i n o t h e r p o s s l b i e p r o d u c t i v i t v enhancement method ~ n v o l v e sc r e a t l n q c o n d i t i o n s
o f o r p a n r z e d m i x i n s i n t h e ponds, S e v e r a l means o t a c c a m p l l s h i n a this were
a n a l y z e d , i n c l u d i n q c o n t a u r t n g t h e pond b o t t o m t o i n c l u d e + l o w o b s t a c l e s ,
i a v i n a r o w s o f o b s t a c l e s on t h e b o t t o m , and u s m a a r r t m l s . None were
determined t o b e a t t r a c t i v e l n t e r m s o f e f + e c t i v e n e s s o f p r o m o t i n g t h e d e s l r e d
f l ~ wp a t t e r n s a n d / o r i n t e r m s o f c o s t . U n t i l e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y 1s
f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e a s s u m p t i o n used i n t h i s r e p o r t 1s t h a t p r o d u c t i v i t y i s
d e t e r m i n e d b y c l i m a t e , medium, and e s p e c i a l l y s t r a i n cultivated, C e r t a i n l y
t h e a + f e c t o f r e c v c l i n g t h e medium on l o n q t e r m p r o d u c t i v i t v w l l l be m a n l t o r e d
i n t h e experiment.

Lonqterm s p e c i e s c o n t r o l i s r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i v i t y . S t r a i n s u s e d must be
h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e and competitive as w e l l . Up t o now, e x c e p t i n e x t r e m e
c o n d i t i o n s o f medium c o m p o s i t i o n ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n l o w p r o d u c t ~ v i t v )n a t u r a l
s t r a i n s h a v e d o m i n a t e d a l l o u t d o o r p o n d i n q systems. One a d v a n t a g e o f
p r o d u c i n g c a r b o h y d r a t e s i n s t e a d o f l i p i d s i s t h a t a l l o f t h e s e dominant
organisms observed t o d a t e , accumulate t h e tarmer under n i t r o q e n l i m n t i n q
conditions. /4 c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u r v e y o t s t r a i n s w h i c h a c c u m u l a t e l i p i d and a r e
h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e as w e l l i s , however, just underway.

6.10 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

O f t h e many t e c h n i c a l , r e s o u r c e , and l o g i s t i c o b s t a c l e s w h i c h must b e overeome
f o r t h e p r o p o s e d p r o c e s s t o be s u c c e s s + u l , one h a s n e t r e c e i v e d enough
attention. I h e b l o w down w a t e r r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n i + i c a n t d i s p o s a l p r o b l e m .
W i t h t h e s p e c i f i e d blowdown r a t i o o f 1 / 8 o f t h e i n f l o w , or 1 / 7 o f t h e
e v a p o r a t i v e l o s s e s , t h e volume o f w a t e r p e r h e c t a r e p e r y e a r i s o v e r 5000
m3. The mass o f s a l t s ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y NaCI) i s o v e r 150 M t , or a b o u t 1.5 lit
s a l t p e r H t d r y biomass. T h i s w a t e r mass can b e e v a p o r a t e d i n ponds w i t h an
a r e a o+ A 4 h e c t a r e p e r h e c t a r e o f q r o w t h ponds. These ponds need n o t be
l i n e d , s i n c e t h e p r e c i p i t a t e s w i l l q u i c k l y s e a l them, Even sa t h e y must be
dredqed, +orminq s a l t "mountains" i n s h o r t o r d e r . E i t h e r t h i s s a l t must b e
s t o r e d as such i n d e f i n i t e l y , o r i t must b e t r a n s p o r t e d t o a d ~ s p a s a ls i t e ,
i . e . , t h e n e a r e s t g u l f o r ocean. Thus an o p e r a t i n g c o s t s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d
f o r the transport of t h i s material. The o n l v wav t o r e d u c e t h e amount o f s a l t
p r o d u c e d , f r o m open system5, i s t o u t i l i z e l e s s saline w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d / o r
t o d e c r e a s e t h e blowdown r a t i o . Assuminq t h a t seepage and p e r c o l a t i o n l o s s e s
a r e n o t p e r s i s t e n t , t h e l o w e r l i m i t on b l o w down is s e t b y t h e s e c o n d a r y
concentration. I f 10-20% s o l i d s i s t h e f l n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e + o r c p r o c e s s i n g ,
and , 0 0 5 - - 1 % s o l i d s a r e i n t h e pond e f f l u e n t t h e minimum b l o w down is 2% o f
evaporation, U n l e s s f r e s h w a t e r is used, t h i s mintmum is u n r e a l i s t i c . For
p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , i f a w a t e r r e s a u r c e c o n t a i n i n q 2 p p t TDS is u s e d and t h e
blowdown r a t i o is . 0 4 , t h e n t h e volume o f w a t e r and mass o f s a l t coming o u t s f
t h e s y s t e m p e r h e c t a r e p e r y e a r become 1600 e3 and 80 M t o r .75 H t / N t
biomass. These a r e s t 1 1 1 l a r g e numbers. fi c o s t o f $ . 0 0 6 7 p e r k q o f s a l t i s
assumed f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e s y s t e m t o t r a n s p o r t t h e salts t o a d i s p o s a l s l t e ,

The o r q a n i c m a t t e r t h a t i s n o t e i t h e r a p r o d u c t stream o r r e c y c l e d back t a t h e

g r o w t h ponds, must b e d r e d g e d f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e a n a e r o b i c l a a o o n
periodically. T h i s s l u d g e can b e d r i e d and d i s p o s e d o f on s i t e .
 SECTION 7 . 0

POND CONSTRUCTION

T h i s s e c t i o n examines t h e b a s i s f o r c h o o s i n g a p a r t i c u l a r pond d e s i g n , and

Presents s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s r e l a t i n g t o i t s construction. Section 7.1
d i s c u s s e s t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e g r o w t h pond s i z e and geometry.
S e c t i o n 7 . 2 s p e c i f i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n chosen, and l i s t s t h e
d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s o f i m p o r t a n c e t o pond c o n s t r u c t i o n . S e c t i o n 7.3 p r e s e n t s
t h e s p e c i f i c d e s i g n o p t i o n s and t h e i r c o s t s f o r each m a j o r e l e m e n t o f pond
construction. The h i g h - r a t e pond c o n c e p t , c o n s i s t i n g o f open, s h a l l o w
c h a n n e l s i n w h i c h t h e c u l t u r e c i r c u l a t e s , i s u s e d a s t h e b a s i s o f pond d e s i g n
i n t h i s report. T h i s c h i o c e i s based on b o t h e x p e r i e n c e ( o f t h e a u t h o r s and
o t h e r s ) , and on an a n a l y s i s o f a l t e r n a t i v e d e s i g n s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
f u e l s p r o d u c t i o n , where t h e c o s t c o n s t r a i n t s a r e e x t r e m e . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d
t h a t w i t h i n t h e b a s i c h i g h - r a t e pond f r a n e w o r k , t h e r e i s s t i l l ample room f o r
i n n o v a t i o n and c o s t o p t i m i z a t i o n , a s t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l show.

7.1 POND SIZE AND GEOMETRY

The b a s i c g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s i n h i g h - r a t e pond d e s i g n a r e pond s i z e , number

o f c h a n n e l s , and l e n g t h t o w i d t h (L/W) r a t i o . The l a t t e r i s d e f i n e d i n t h i s
r e p o r t as t h e l e n t h o f t h e c e n t e r d i v i d e r w a l l ( i . e , t h e l e n g t h o f a s i n g l e
channel w i t h o u t bends) d i v i d e d by t h e s i n g l e channel width. I n general, a
s i n g l e loop (two channels) i s p r e f e r r e d from a h y d r a u l i c standpoint. If t h e
pond i s l a r g e enough, t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n can t a k e f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f a p a d d l e
wheel m i x e r (123. The c h o i c e o f pond s i z e and shape i s d r i v e n b y economic
f a c t o r s and t h e e f f e c t on o t h e r s y s t e m e l e m e n t s , such a s m i x i n g and
carbonation. A s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c o p t i m i z a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l a r g e pond
w i t h a l o w L/W r a t i o g i v e s t h e most pond a r e a f o r t h e l e a s t w a l l l e n g t h , as
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 7-1, f o r t h e c a s e o f t w e l v e ponds i n r s i d e - b y - s i d e
(shared w a l l s ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n . Since t h e w a l l s are a s i g n i f i c a n t cost item,
and s i n c e o t h e r pond e l e m e n t s a l s o show economies o f s c a l e , ponds need t o be
made as l a r g e a s p r a c t i c a l . The c h o i c e o f L/W r a t i o must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e t r a d e - o f f between m i n i m i z i n g w a l l l e n g t h and o t h e r f a c t o r s w h i c h a f f e c t
costs. A t l o w L/W r a t i o s , t h e c h a n n e l w i d t h i n c r e a s e s , a s does t h e c o s t o f
t h o s e elements r e l a t e d t o channel width, such a s a i x i n g s t a t i o n s ,
c a r b o n a t i o n sumps, e t c . Once a t e n t a t i v e s i z e and L/W r a t i o i s chosen, t h e
head l o s s ( w h i c h depends a l s o on v e l o c i t y and r o u g h n e s s ) can be c a l c u l a t e d by
M a n n i n g ' s f o r m u l a , and e v a l u a t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r o p o s e d n i x i n g system. The
c h a n n e l l e n g t h may t h e n need t o be a d j u s t e d t o f u l l y u t i l i z e t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s
o f t h e m i x i n g system.

F i g u r e 7-2 shows t h e c o s t o f t h e g r o w t h ponds a s a f u n t i o n o f pond s i z e f o r

t h e r a n g e o f 2-10 h e c t a r e s . F o r each p o i n t , t h e number o f ponds i s a d j u s t e d
t o m a i n t a i n r t o t a l s y s t e m a r e a o f a b o u t 200 h e c t a r e s , so t h e economies o f
s c a l e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f i g u r e are a r e s u l t of geometric f a c t o r s r a t h e r than
declining unit costs. (One e x c e p t i o n i s f o r l a s e r g r a d i n g , w h i c h has a
s l i g h t s c a l e economy b u i l t i n t o u n i t c o s t f u n c t i o n , s i n c e t h e c o s t d e p e n d s
s o m e w h a t o n t h e c h a n n e l w i d t h ) . The f i g u r e s h o w s a m a r k e d i n c r e a s e i n c o s t
b e l o w 4 h e c t a r e s , w i t h d i m i n s h i n g r e t u r n s a b o v e 10 h e c t a r e s , B o t h t h e c o s t
f i g u r e s and s h a p e of t h e cost c u r v e a r e u n i q u e t o t h e s p e c i f i c d e s i g n
p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , and may n o t a p p l y t o o t h e r d e s i g n s . A f u r t h e r
p o i n t w i t h r e g a r d t o F i g u r e 7-2 i s t h a t i t i n c l u d e s o n l y t h e c o s t o f p o n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n , m i x i n g , a n d c a r b o n a t i o n , a n d d o e s n o t i n c l u d e h a r v e s t i n g , water
or c a r b o n s u p p l y , e n g i n e e r i n g , e t c .
An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l " r a c e t r a c k H c o n f i g u r a t i o n d e s c r i b e d above
w a s s u g g e s t e d b y Dr. James H a r d e r o f t h e U.C. B e r k e l e y , a s a m e t h o d o f
generating c i r c u l a r flow p a t t e r n s (secondary flowo), f o r cycling t h e c u l t u r e
i n a n d o u t o f t h e l i g h t w i t h a minimum af h e a d l o s s . fi l o w a u u n d w i t h
s l o p i n g s i d e s w o u l d be c a n s t r u c t e d u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h n o v i n g e q u i p m e n t .
The c h a n n e l w o u l d t h e n be b u i l t i n a s p i r a l p a t t e r n on t h e mound. T h i s would
p r o d u c e a c o n t i n u o u s l y s l o p e d b o t t o e , a s r e q u i r e d + o r s h a l l a n , mixed ponds.
(Each channel would be l a t e r be g r a d e d f l a t a c r o r r i t s w i d t h i f n s c e r s r r y ) .
T h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r c h a n n e l s w o u l d be j o i n e d b y a n i n v e r t e d s i p h o n , w i t h the
m i x i n g h e a d p r o v i d e d b y a n l a r g e d i a m e t e r , l o w s p e e d a x i a l flow pump ( " f a n
p u m p n ) , c u s t o m d e s i g n e d f o r t h e h e a d r e q u i r e m e n t s a f t h e p o n d , The spiral
c o n ! i g u r a t i o n r a y have d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f v e r y l a r g e
p o n d s 0 2 0 h e c t a r e s ) , a l t h o u g h t h e s e c o n d a r y flows a r e r i n i m a l a t l a r g e r a d i i
o f c u r v a t u r e . I t replaces t h e a b r u p t c h a n n e l b e n d s w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s g r a d u a l
bend, e l i m i n a t i n g the need f o r f l o w d e f l e c t o r s , and p r o v i d i n g a more u n i f o r m
m i x i n g r e g i m e , S i n c e it^ o h a p e i s m o r e c o m p a c t t h a n a l o n g n a r r o w p o n d , i t
n a y b e t t e r eonforn t o a g i v e n t e r r a i n a n d r e d u c e t h e i n i t i a l r o u g h g r a d i n g
c o s t s . ( H o w e v e r , t h e f i n e g r a d i n g will l i k e l y be m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n w i t h
s t r a i g h t c h a n n e l s ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s p i r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n was n o t e m p l o y e d i n
t h e b a s e l i n e design, i t does deserve c o n s i d e r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n the context
o f v e r y l a r g e ponds.

7 . 2 POND A N D SYSTEM CONFIOURATIDN

For t h e l a r g e - s c a l e system a p o n d s i z e o f 8 h e c t a r e s ( 1 9 . 8 a c r e s ) , w i t h a L/W

r a t i o o f 2 0 / t was c h o s e n . Key d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 7.1 f o r
t h e i n d i v i d u a l p o n d , a n d i n T a b l e 7.2 f o r t h e 192 h e c t a r e p o n d system,
e o n u i o t i n g o f 24 p o n d s a s shown i n F i g u r e 7-3, F i g u r e 7-4 s h o w s r p l a n view
o f a s i n g l e p o n d . T h e time r e q u i r e d t o c o m p l e t e o n e loop a r o u n d t h e p o n d a t
20 c a / s e c i s a b o u t 2.6 h o u r s . A s i n g l e c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n wilt s a t i s f y t h e
carbon storage requirements, given t h e assumptions about water chemistry
o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 2. R e f e r r i n g b a c k t o F i g u r e -7-3, t h e 8 h e c t a r e p o n d
t a k e s f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e e c o n o m i e s o f s c a l e , w i t h o u t p u a h i n g t h e sire i n t o
a r e g i o n o f d i m i e h i n g r e t u r n s , some o f w h i c h a r e n o t r e a d i l y q u a n t i f i a b l e
le.g. l o s s of o p e r a t i o n a l f l e w i b i l i t y , p r o b l e a r o f s o l i d s d e p o s i t i o n , e t c l .
 Table 7-1 Pond D e s i g n C a l c u l a t i o n s - S i n g l e Pond

DESCRIPTION NAME VALUE

----
Pond Area AREA 0.0 hectare5
# o f Channels #CHAN 2 -
t / W Ratio L/W 20 -
Depth DEPTH 20 em
Channel V e l o c i t y VEL 20 cm/sec
Manninas ' n ' MANN ING 0.010 sec/mA0.33
Paddle E f f . PW. E F f 0.6 -
Drive Eff. DR. EFF 0.7 -
PW Width/Chan W i d t h PAD/CHAN 0.75 -
E v a p o r a t i v e R a t e (max EVAP 1 . 5 0 cm/day
Blowdown R a t e (maxl BLOWDOWN 0.21 cm/day
D e t e n t i o n Time DET.TIME 4.00 days
Wall H t . (above grade) WALL.HT. CI 40 c m
W a l l H t . ( b e l o w grade) WALL, HT* 0 10 c m
Sump D e p t h SUMP.DEPTH 1.5 m e t e r s

DESCRIPTION NAME S.I. UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

----
Channel W i d t h CHPIN. W I D 43.06 meters 141.3 feet
P a d d l e Width PAD,WID 32.30 meters 106.0 feet
Centerwall Length CW. LEN 861.25 meters 2825.6 feet
S i n g l e Channel L e n g t h CHAN, LEN 928.89 meters 3047.5 feet
T o t a l Channel L e n g t h TOT.CHAN.LEN 1857.78 meters 6095.0 feet
T o t a l Wall H e i g h t TOT, WALL. HT 0250 m e t e r s
Slope SLOPE 1.107 x 10"-4 1.107 x 10"-4
T o t a l Head L a s s HEAD. LOSS 20.98 cm 8.26 inches
Total Efficiency TOT. EFF 42% 42%
H y d r a u l i c Power HYD. PWR 3477 w a t t s 4.66 hp
T o t a l Power T O T . PWR 8278 w a t t s 11.10 hp
T o t a l U n i t Power TOT.UNIT.PWR 0.10 w a t t s / s q m 0.10 w/sq m
V e l o c i t y a t Paddle VEL. PPID 26.7 cm/sec Ob87 + t h e e
Pond Volume VOLUME 16000 cu m e t e r s 565035 cu f t
Evap. F l o w r a t e Q. EVAP 1200 cu m i d a y 4 2 3 7 8 cu f t / d a y
(alternate units) 833 l i t e r s / m i n 220 gpm
Blowdonn F l o w r a t e 168 cu m/day 5933 cu f t / d a y
(alternate units) 117 l i t e r s h i n 31 gPm
Harvest Flowrate 4000 cu m/day i 4 1 2 5 9 cu f t / d a y
laltsrnate units) 2770 l i t e r s / m i n 734 gprn
 T a b l e 7-2 Pond D e s i g n C a l c u l a t i o n s - Pond Svstem

Uses i n p u t f r o m t a b l e above, as w e l l a s t h e f o l l o w i n g :

* INPUTS*
DESCRIPTION NAME VALUE
------------ ----
# o f A d j a c e n t Ponds #CIDJ.PONDS
S e t s o f A d j . Ponds #SETS

*OUTPUTS* A l l o u t p u t s r e f e r t o t h e e n t i r e pond s y s t e m

DESCRIPTION NAME S. I. UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

----------- -.-

---- ---------- -------------

T o t a l # o f Ponds #PONDS 24
T o t a l Pond System Area S.AREA 192 hectares 474.4 acres
(alternate units) 1920000 sq m e t e r s 20666304 sq f t
Center Wall Length S. CW. LEN 20670 meters 67814 feet
T o t . S t r a i g h t Wall Length S.STR.W.LEM 43062 meters 141279 feet
Curved # a l l L e n g t h S.CUR. #. LEN 6494 meters 21304 feet
T o t a l Wall Length S.TOT.W.LEN 49556 meters 162583 feet
T o t a l W a l l Area S.TOT. W.AREA 48695 5q m e t e r s 524149 sq f t
System Pond Volume S. VOLUME 384000 cu meters 13560845 cu f t
Evap. F l o w r a t e S.Q.EVAP 28800 c u mlday 1016928 cu f t l d a v
(alternate units) 19999 literslmin 5284 gpm
Blowdown F l o w r a t e S.Q.BLOWDOWN 4032 c u m/day 142370 cu f t l d a y
(alternate units) 2800 liters/min 740 gpm
Harvest Flowrate S.Q.HARVEST 96000 c u mlday 3389760 cu f t l d a y
(alternate units) 66662 liters/min 17612 gpm
 Table 7-3 Growth Pond C o s t Summary - 192 Hectare System

INSTALLED COST FUR 192 HECTARE SYSTEM

- - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - 1 - - - - - -

24 PONDS 8 HECTARES EACH

DESCRIPTION QUAN UNITS UNIT $ TOT $ $/HECTARE

1----1--1---. --.I- ----- --...- ----. - - - = - - - m e

GROWTH PONDS
Earthworks
Rough Grading 474.4 acre 500 $237,21b $1,236
L a z a r L e v e l 1i n g 474.4 acre I , 000 474,432 2,471
Finish Grading* 474.4 acre 2,500 1,1861080 6,178
Sump E x c a v a t i o n 19293 c u yd 2.5 48,232 251

Walls & S t r u c t u r a l
Straight Wallr 231761 sq f t 4.0 927,044
Curved w a l l s 34949 rq f t 3.0 174,744
Flow D e f l e c t o r s 10485 sq f t 5.0 32,424
Sump bottom 1956 cu y d 100 195,635
Sump ends 104 cu y d 200 20,729
Rails 8 Piers 13359 ft 12.0 162,713
S o l i d s Removers 61,000

M i x i n g System
Paddle Wheels 24 8 PW 35,790 858,960 4,474
P.M. S t r u c t u r a l 24 # ponds 1,500 36,000 108
P.W. Depression 331 cu y d 150 49,377 238

C a r b o n a t i o n System 24 # Ponds 14,640 351,360 1,830

Instruaentation 24 t Ponds 4,000 96,000 500

------
-.----
GROWTH PONDS TOTAL

* I n c l u d e s crushed r o c k l i n e r
 7.3 POND DESIGN ALTERNATIVES AND COSTS

T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u a l d e s i g n s o f t h e v a r i o u s g r o w t h pond elements,
a l o n g w i t h an e s t i m a t e of t h e i r c o s t s . I n some cases, a b r i e f a n a l y s i s i s
i n c l u d e d , and a l t e r n a t i v e d e s i g n s a r e e x p l o r e d . Sections 7 . 3 . 1 through 7 . 3 . 8
t r e a t e a r t h w o r k s , w a l l s and d i v i d e r s , sumps, s o l i d s r r r o v a l , c a r b o n a t i o n , and
mixing respectively. I n s e c t i o n 7.3.9 a summary o f c o s t s , based on t h e chosen
a1ternative.s i s presented. H a r v e s t i n g i s t r e a t e d i n S e c t i o n 8.

- A s a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l a s e r l e v e l l i n g , t h e pond grade i s e s t a b l i s h e d r o u q h l y
w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h m o v i n g equipment. The amount o f rough g r a d i n g w i l l
v a r y from a l m o s t n i l on f l a t t e r r a i n t o major q u a n t i t i e s o f c u t and fill # h e r e
t h e t e r r a i n i s r o u g h o r s l o p i n g , r e q u i r i n g t e r r a c i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e pond
grade. Compaction o f f i l l s i s e s s e n t i a l t o p r e v e n t s e t t l e m e n t and can be a
s i g n i f i c a n t cost. Presence o f r o c k s , r o o t s , and o t h e r m a t e r i a l can add
appreciably t o rough grading costs. Dikes or d r a i n s t o c o n t r o l s u r f a c e
d r a i n a g e may a l s o be r e q u i r e d . E a r t h w o r k s f o r access reads, s t o r a g e
r e s e r v o i r s , etc., i s not included. For f a v o r a b l e t e r r a i n , r o u g h g r a d i n g c o s t s
can v a r y f r o m 0 t o 9 4 0 0 0 l h e c t a r e . A v a l u e o f S 1 2 0 0 l h e c t a r e i s used i n t h e
cost estimate,

Laser l e v e l l i n g i s needed t o a c h i e v e t h e t o l e r a n c e s r e q u i r e d f u r s h a l l o w pond

o p e r a t i o n , and t o e s t a b l i s h t h e v e r y f l a t channel s l o p e s t o meet h y d r a u l i c
requirements. I t has become a w i d e l y used t e c h n i q u e i n a g r i c u l t u r e , where t h e
c o s t can be as l o w as $ 9 0 0 / h e c t a r e f o r l a r g e f i e l d s . For pond c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
t h e c o s t w i l l be g r e a t e r , s i n c e t h e s l o p e must be s e t s e p a r a t e l y f o r each
channel, and t o l e r a n c e s w i l l be q u i t e r i g o r o u s . A value of t2500/hectare i s
used i n t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e .

The c o s t c o n s t r a i n t s o f f u e l p r o d u c t i o n may p r o h i b i t t h e use o f s y n t h e t i c pond

l i n e r s , n h i c h a l o n e would c o s t $38,000-50,00Q/hectare depending on t h e q u a l i t y
o f l i n e r used. I n t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e , i t i s assumed t h a t t h e ponds w i l l be
b u i l t on t i g h t s o i l , which i s s u f f i c i e n t l y impermeable t o c o n t r o l seepage.
Seepage r a t e s g e n e r a l l y d e c l i n e w i t h t i m e as a r e s u l t o f c l o g g i n g by o r g a n i c
m a t t e r and i n o r g a n i c p r e c i p i t a t e s . I n s o r e cases, a c l a y l i n e r (15-30 cin)
say b e n e c e s s a r y . O f t e n , t h e c l a y i s a v a i l a b l e o n - s i t e , as i n t h e case o f .
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f a c i l i t y d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 12. I f not, finished grading
c o s t s c o u l d b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r , i f l o n g h a u l d i s t a n c e s were i n v o l v e d ,
However, even a d o u b l i n g o r t r i p l i n g o f f i n i s h e d g r a d i n g c o s t s would have a
m i n o r a f f e c t on o v e r a l l pond c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s . F i n i s h g r a d i n g is u s u a l l y
r e q u i r e d on c l a y s o i l s due t o l o s s o f g r a d e f r o m c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t e s such
as t r e n c h i n g , e t c . The s o i l w i l l b e o v e r l a i n w i t h a minimum t h i c k n e s s
b l a n k e t ( 3 - 9 crn) o f c r u s h e d r o c k o r o t h e r c o a r s e g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l t o c o n t r o l
s u s p e n s i o n o f fines, The p a r t i c l e s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n and d e g r e e o f c o m p a c t i o n
o f t h i s r o c k o v e r b u r d e n w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a n n e l roughness. Transport
c o s t s f o r i m p o r t e d g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l can be a p p r e c i a b l e i f l o c a l m a t e r i a l i s
unavailable. The t o t a l c o s t f o r f i n i s h g r a d i n g and c r u s h e d r o c k l i n e r w i l l
l i k e l y c o s t between $4000-B,OOO/hectare, A design v a l u e o f JbZOOlhsctare i g
used i n t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e ,

A v a r i e t y o f wall c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques are conceivable, ranging from

e a r t h e n berms t o slipfurm c o n c r e t e . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l examine f i v e o p t i o n s ,
c i t e t h e i r p r o s and cons, and g i v e c o o t e s t i m a t e s f o r each. Four o f t h e s e
o p t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 7-5. I n g e n e r a l , w a l l s need t o b e a b o u t
0.4 m e t e r s h i g h , e x c e p t i n a r e a s where wave a c t i o n n o u l d r e q u i r e more
f r e e b o a r d ( e . 9 . downstream o f p a d d l e w h e e l s ) , o r where w a t e r a c c u m u l a t e s
under q u i e s c e n t c o n d i t i o n s . V e r y l a r g e ponds w o u l d p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e h i g h e r
w a l l s since l a r g e r w i n d i n d u c e d waves c o u l d o c c u r . I n general, the center
w a l l w h i c h d i v i d e s t h e t w o c h a n n e l s can b e o f i d e n t i c a l c o n s t r u e t i o n as t h e
e x t e r i o r walls. I n s m a l l ponds w i t h l o w head l o s s e s i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o
uee a l e s s e x p e n s i v e method f o r t h e d i v i d e r s ( e , g . membrane d i v i d e r s ) .

E a r t h berms must be c o n s t r u c t e d o f compacted f i l l by o v e r - b u i l d i n g , t r i m m e d

t o g i v e 8maoth r i d e s l o p e s , and t h e n p r o t e c t e d a g a i n a t e r o s i o n . A minimum
t o p w i d t h before t r i m m i n g i s a b o u t 2 m e t e r s , f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p a c t i o n
equipment. S l a p e p r o t e c t i o n m a t e r i a l would have t o b e s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e
t h i c k n e s s o f t h e b o t t o m b l a n k e t , because o f more d i f f i c u l t c o n s t r u c t i o n and
greater erosion potential, Even so, t h e r e i s l i k e l y t o b e h i g h maintanence
costs associatad w i t h slope protection, E x t r a p r o t e c t i o n , e.g. g u n n i t e , w i l l
be r e q u i r e d where wave a c t i o n t e n d s t o c o n c e n t r a t e . Weed g r o w t h on t h e top
and s i d e s o f e a r t h berms is a l s o a p o t e n t i a l l y c o s t l y m a i t a n e n c e p r o b l e a .
More l a n d is r e q u i r e d as compared t o narrow walls. A l t h o u g h i t may he
p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t berms f a r a5 l i t t l e ae $ l b l l i n e a r meter w i t h s p e c i a l
e q u i p n e n t , t h e O t f l d i s a d v a n t a g e s weigh h e a v i l y a g a i n s t e a r t h berms. Earth
berms say be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w a l l s w h i c h f o r m t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e pond
system, s i n c e an access r o a d w i l l be needed a r o u n d t h e p e r i m e t e r , and
d r a i n a g e c o n s i d e t o t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e i t t o be elevated.
A n o v e l t e c h n i q u e , used b y Dodd i n S i n g a p o r e , employs c o r r u g a t e d
asbestos-cement r o o f i n g s h e e t s embedded in a s h a l l o w c o n c r e t e - f i l l e d t r e n c h .
The l h e e t s a r e c u t and d r i l l e d o # f - s i t e , t h e n i n s t a l l e d w i t h the c o r r u g a t i o n s
running v e r t i c a l l y , A d j a c e n t p i e c e s a r e c a u l k e d and b o l t e d t o g e t h e r , f o r m l n g
a f r e e s t a n d i n g , w a t e r p r o o f w a l l which can expand and c o n t r a c t w i t h changes
i n temperature, H a t e r i a l c o s t s a r e about $9/m@ter, w i t h t o t a l i n s t a l l e d
c o s t s estimated a t a b o u t $24,50/meter. 0 & H c o s t s a r e l i k e l y t o ae q u i t e low.

The membrane w a l l c o n s i s t s o f a H y p a l o n membrane s u p p o r t e d on a + r a m w o r k o f

2 ' 9 2 " redwood p o s t s spaced 1 , 2 m e t e r s ( 4 f e e t ) an c e n t e r . The p o s t s a r e s e t
i n 15 c m ( 6 i n c h ) d i a m e t e r h o l e s f i t l a d w i t h c o n c r e t e # o r a n c h o r i n g and
stability. The t o p o f t h e membrane i s a n c h o r e d between two r a i l i n g s a g a i n
made o f 2x2 redwood. The b o t t o m o f t h e membrane is anchored i n a 30 cm ( 1 2
i n c h 1 deep t r e n c h b a c k f i l l e d w i t h e a r t h w h i c h a l s o p r e v e n t s seepage under t h e
wall. T h i s e s t i m a t e d c o s t o f t h i s method i s $18.07/meter ( $ S . S l / f t , see
Appendix 1 1 1 ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s makes i t one o+ t h e l o w e s t c o s t o p t i o n s , i t i s
a l s o t h e l e a s t d u r a b l e , so t h a t O & M c o s t s would p r o b a b l y o f f w i ? t i n i t i a l c o s t
s a v i n g s , However, e x p e r i m e n t a l ponds a r e o f t e n membrane-lined, so t h i s
method, o r some v a r i a t i o n , would be a p p r o p r i a t e , The experimental ponds a t
V a c a v i l l e , C A used g o l i d wood w a l l s and a membrane l i n e r .

The c o n c r e t e b l o c k w a l l c o n s i s t s o f a p o u r e d concrete f o o t i n g 15 c m x
30 c m ( 6 " n 1 2 " ) w i t h 2 c o u r s e s o f 4 n x B ' t n i b H b l o c k s g e t on t o p , The b l o c k
c e l l s would be f i l l e d w i t h pea g r a v e l c o n c r e t e and a s i n g l e t 4 r e i n f o r c i n g
b a r s e t i n t h e t o p b l o c k t o g i v e t h e wall a d e q u a t e l o n g i t u d i n a l 8 t r e n g t h .
The d o o t i n g would b e s e t below grade f o r s t a b i l i t y and t e p r e v e n t seepage
under t h e w a l l . Thm e s t i m a t e d c a r t o+ t h i s o p t i o n i s $23,35/m M7.12/6t).

The p o u r e d c o n c r e t e d i v i d e r w a l l i s s e t on a 15 c m x 30 cn f o o t i n g , i s
10 c s ( 4 ' ) t h i c k and 40 cm ( 1 6 " ) h i g h . Custom made s e u r u a b l e forms are
p r o p o s e d t h a t a r e f r e e - s t a n d i n g t o r e d u c e i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e l o c a t i o n l a b o r .
One 1 4 r e i n f o r c i n g b a r would be s e t a l o n g t h e upper p a r t o f t h e w a l l t o h o l d
t h e w a l l t o g e t h e r and m i n i m i z e c r a c k i n g , C r a c k i n g would be c o n t r a l l e d b y
j o i n t s e v e r y 6.1 m e t e r s ( 2 0 f t ) and s e a l e d w i t h silicon t o tniniaize seepage
through cracks i n t h e contra1 j o i n t s . The c o s t o f t h i s o p t i o n i s about
217,50/meter ( $ S , 3 4 / f t ) . G i v e n t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f w a l l s t o be c o n s t r u c t e d
f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e system, i t s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o employ s l i p - f a r m i n g
t e c h n i q u e s a t a b o u t the same c o s t , The k e y c o n c e r n w i t h eoncrlete w a l l s is
seepage. S h r i n k a g e c r a c k s w i l l d e f i n i t e l y o c c u r , b u t t h e r e was a l a c k of
agreement among c o n s u l t a n t s as t o t h e i r e f f e c t . One 9 e l t t h a t t h e c o n t r o l
j o i n t s p l u s t h e tendency f o r c r a e k s t o c l o g would m i t i g a t e t h e problem, w h i l e
a n o t h e r f e l t t h a t t h e need t o wake c o n t r o l j o i n t s w a t e r p r o o f would g r e a t l y
increase t h e cost of concrete con6truction. The a u t h o r ' s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h
e x p e r i m e n t a l (1000 m 2 ) h i g h r a t e ponds t e n d s t o s u p p o r t t h e f o r m e r , b u t t h e
p r o b l e m i s c e r t a i n t o be more pronounced i n l a r g e ponds. A l t h o u g h most
seepage w i l l be c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e pond system by v i r t u e of t h e
s i d e - b y - s i d e l a y o u t , e x c e s s i v e seepage would r e s u l t i n s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g
w i t h i n t h e pond. I f sempage i s n o t a s e r i o u s problem, t h e n t h e c o n c r e t e
w a l l s a r e t h e p r e f e r r e d method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , p o s s i b l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
corrugated w a l l s f o r t h e curved p o r t i o n s . Such a c o a b i n a t i o n was used i n t h e
c o s t e s t i m a t e . The d i f f e r e n c e i n c o s t between t h e two a l t e r n a t i v e s 0 2 4 . J O / a
f o r t h e c o r r u g a t e d vs $17.50/m f o r t h e c o n c r e t e ) i s n o t enough t o have a
major i m p a c t on t h e system c a p i t a l c o s t .

The c u r v e d f l o w d e f l e c t o r s a i d i n m i n i m i z i n g t h e e x t e n t ob eddy f o r m a t i o n and

t h e a s s o c i a t e d s t a g n a n t zone downstream o f t h e bend. Again, t h e s e can
n o r m a l l y be b u i l t i n t h e same manner as t h e s t r a i g h t w a l l s , a l t h o u g h some o f
t h e w a l l o p t i o n s o u t l i n e d above a r e more e a s i l y adapted t o c u r v e s ( e . g .
corrugated walls). The s i t u a t i o n i s improved i f t h e b r t f l e r and end w a l l s
a r e p l a c e d e c c e n t r i c a l l y , and t h e channel w i d t h decreased t h r o u g h t h e bend,
as shonn i n F i g u r e 7-5. The a c c e l e r a t i o n o f f l o w i s s u f f i c i e n t t o r e d u c e
eddy f o r m a t i o n and e l i m i n a t e most o f t h e s o l i d s d e p o s i t i o n . The channel
c o n s t r i c t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s a l s o used a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e pond, which
a l l o w s access t o t h e p a d d l e wheel t121. An a l t e r n a t i v e t o c u r v e d d e f l e c t o r s
a r e t u r n i n g vanes, a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 7-5. T u r n i n g vanes a r e w i d e l y used
i n analogous f l u i d systems, (e.g. a i r d u c t s ) , a l t h o u g h D a i n i p p o n I n k &
Chemical, I n c . a p p a r e n t l y h o l d s an a p p l i c a t i o n p a t e n t f o r t h e i r use i n a l g a e
p r o d u c t i o n ponds. I f c l o s e l y spaced, (i.e. a t i n t e r v a l s equal t o t h e pond
d e p t h ) , t h e vanes a r e q u i t e e f f i c i e n t , and v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e problems o f
eddy f o r m a t i o n and s o l i d s d e p o s i t i o n . They a l s o a l l o ~t h e ends o f t h e pond
t o be square, which s i r p l i f i e s c o n s t r u c t i o n . The q u a n t i t y o f r a t e r i a l
r e q u i r e d f o r b o t h c u r v e d d e f l e c t o r s and vanes i s about t h e same, b u t t h e
l a t t e r r e q u i r e more e l a b a r a t e s u p p o r t and would be more e x p e n s i v e t o
install. Curved d e f l e c t o r s were used i n t h e d e s i g n , p r i c e d a t $ 2 5 / r e t e r
($273/hectare). Vanes would c o s t about t w i c e t h i s amount.

Sump8 a r e neceseary i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a deepened a r e a f o r CO2 a d d i t i o n s

so t h a t h i g h a b o o r b t i o n i s acheived, and t o p r o v i d e a c o l l e c t i o n p o i n t f o r
d r a i n i n g t h e pond. The sump may a l s o p r o v i d e an a r e a o f retduced v e l o e i t y
where i n e r t s o l i d s and s e t t l e a b l e o r g a n i c m a t t e r can a c c u n u l a t e and be
removed. The a n a l y s i r o f C02 a b s o r p t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 0 concluded
t h a t f o r an f o r an 8 h e c t a r e pond, a sump d e p t h o f a b o u t 1 . 3 m e t e r s w i l l
r e s u l t in 95% a b s o r p t i o n o f C o g , i f t h e d i f f u s e r s p r o d u c e b u b b l e s a b o u t I
me i n d i a m e t e r , T h i s depth i s a l s o s u f + i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t v o r t e x l n g a n d a i r
entrainment i n t h e d r a i n pipe, The sump c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s shown i n F i g u r e
7-4. I n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e d r a i n a g e , i n s u r e u n i f o r m c a r b o n a t i o n , and
e x p e d i t e e x c a v a t i o n , a s i n g l e suap i s c o n s t r u c t e d a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e w i d t h o f
t h e channel. The t r a n s i t i o n i n t o t h e sump i s g r a d u a l t o i n i n i a i t e t u r b u l e n c e
and a v o i d t h e need f o r c o n c r e t e f o r m w o r k , The l e n g t h ( i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
f l o n ) i s r e l a t e d t o the i s s u e o f s o l i d s r e m o v a l , as d i s c u s s e d i n t h e
following section. In t h e b a s e l i n e d e s i g n , the l e n g t h is k e p t t a a m i n i m u m
( 1 meter). The d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p e f a r C02 i s l o c a t e d a t t h e downstream end
o f t h e sump, so as n o t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h any s o l i d s deposition t h a t nay
occur. Cog s b m o r p t i o n a c t u a l l y t a k e s p l r c r i n t h e d c n n s t r e a m t r a n s i t i o n
section. The h a r v e s t i n g / d r a i n p i p i n g o r i g i n a t e f r o m s m a l l "sub-sumps"
l o c a t e d i n t h e b o t t o i n o f t h e sump, s o t h a t a submergence o f 1 . 9 m e t e r s i s
maintained.

The a c c u m u l a t i o n o f b o t h i n e r t and o r g a n i c s o l i d s , w h i c h b y v i r t u e a f t h e i r
d e n s i t y o r t e n d a n c y t o a g g l o m e r a t e i n t o f l o c s and s e t t l e , is i n e v i t a b l e a f t e r
a p e r i o d o f pond o p e r a t i o n . T h i s m a t e r i a l t e n d s t o settle in "dead s p o t s H
W e . s t a g n a n t a r e a s ) w i t h i n t h e pond, and w i l l e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o
o p e r a t i o n a l problems. S i n c e a sump i s t o b e included f o r t h e r e a s o n s
o u t l i n e d above, the q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h e r i t c o u l d a l s o s e r v e as a
sedimentation b a s i n f o r removal o f s e t t l e a b l e s o l i d s . I f , f o r instance, the
sump were made 5 m e t e r s l o n g ( b o t t o m l e n g t h ) , t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e o f f l u i d
p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e suap w o u l d b e a b o u t 300 s e t a n d s . A geometric analysis
i n d i c r t r r t h a t o n l y v e r y r a p i d l y s e t t l i n g p a r t i c l e s (Vp/30 c r l m i n ) w i l l b e
removed c o m p l e t e l y , w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r b e i n g removed i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r
s e t t l i n g r a t e d i v i d e d by 30 c m / m i n . S i n c e most o f t h e s o l i d s s e t t l e a t r a t e s
w e l l b e l o w t h i s , t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e sump f o r solids r e m o v a l is l i k e l y t o
b e q u i t e low, A l t h o u g h t h e e f f i c i e n c y c o u l d b e i m p r o v e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
l e n g t h o f t h e sump ( V p v a r i e s as f/L), t h e m a r g i n a l i n c r e a s e i n p e r f o r m a n c e
w o u l d n o t j u s t i f y t h e expense, The p r o b l e m is t h a t b a t h l o w v e l o c i t i e s and
l o n g d e t e n t i o n times a r e necessary, Thus i t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n
s t a g n a n t zones, s i m i l a r t o t h o s e c r e a t e d b y an u n b o 9 f l e d t u r n , i n w h i c h
s o l i d s can a c c u m u l a t e and b e removed, b u t i n such a way so as n o t t o d i s r u p t
t h e m i x i n g r e g i m e over a l a r g e a r e a o f t h e pond. I t may b e p o s s i b l e t o do
t h i s i n a p o r t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n a t i o n sump, o r p e r h a p s i n a s m a l l e r sump r i q h t
a f t e r t h e bend b e f o r e t h e p a d d l e wheel. The w h o l e i s s u e of s o l i d s
a c c u m u l a t i o n needs t o b e assessed a t t h e pilot scale, s i n c e most of t h e
c u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n comes f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s o f w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p o n d s , w h i c h
a r e s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h o r g a n i c l o a d i n g s , and i n w h i c h a l a r g e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
s o l i d s would b e e x p e c t e d . 4 method f o r r e m o v i n g s o l i d s f r o m t h e main sump,
w h i c h user a s u c t i o n d e v i c e mounted on a t r a v e l l i n g b r i d g e , has been
developed 1121, and i s described i n Appendix I I I . F o r an 8 h e c t a r e pond,
t h i s method w o u l d c o s t a b o u t $ 1 3 0 0 / h e c t a r e , most o f w h i c h i s f o r t h e p i e r s
and r a i l s on w h i c h t h e b r i d q e t r a v e l s , R e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r t h e sump w i l l
a c c u m u l a t e s u f f i c i e n t s o l i d s t o j u s t i f y t h e expense o f t h e t r a v e l l i n g b r i d g e ,
t h e $ 1 3 0 0 / h e c t a r e h a s been i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e , s i n c e i t w i l l a l l o w
a c c e s s t o t h e sump f o r s e r v i c i n g t h e c a r b o n a t i o n s y s t e m and e f f l u e n t d r a i n
valves. A l s o d e s c r i b e d i n Appendix I 1 1 i s a m e c h a n i c a l method f o r d r e d g i n g
t h e pond c h a n n e l s , w h i c h i s e s t i m a t e d t o c o s t 8 3 1 0 / h r e t a r e . The f i n a l
d e c i s i o n on t h e b e s t a p p r o a c h t o s o l i d s r e m o v a l must a w a i t p i l o t s c a l e
s t u d i e s w h i c h w i l l d e f i n e t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of t h e v a r i u o s a l t e r n a t i v e s .

The a n a l y s i s i n S e c t i o n 3 c o n c l u d e d t h a t a s i n g l e c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n p e r
pond would b e s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n an a d e q u a t e l e v e l o f d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n i n
the culture. The c a r b o n a t i o n s y s t e m i s d e s i g n e d t o s u p p l y t h e peak demand o f
7.2 gm ~ 0 ~ / m ~ l hw hr i,c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a b o u t 4800 l i t e r s / m i n ( 1 7 0 c f m i a t
t h e assumed d e l i v e r y t e m p e r a t u r e o f 27OC ( 8 0 ° F ) . 4 100 mm ( 4 " ) -
d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p e spans t h e c h a n n e l on t h e downstream s i d e o f t h e sump, w i t h
s p a r g e r s spaced a l o n g i t s l e n g t h , The e f f e c t o f sump d e p t h and b u b b l e s i n e
on C02 t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y was a l s o d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3. The a n a l y s i s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t v e r y f i n e b u b b l e s ( 1 m m ) were n e c e s s a r y + o r l a t e r a l f l o w
c a r b o n a t i o n i n s h a l l o w sumps, and t h a t t h e sump d e p t h i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y f o r
l a r g e r bubbles. W h i l e i t i s a f a i r l y s i m p l e m a t t e r t o g e n e r a t e b u b b l e s of
2-3 mm d i a m e t e r w i t h p o r o u s d i f f u s e r s , t o p r o d u c e 1 ms b u b b l e s t h e f l o w r a t e
p e r d i f f u s e r must be q u i t e l o w ( b u b b l e s i n e i s more s e n s i t i v e t o f l o w r a t e
than t o pore s i z e ) . The a a n u f a c t u r e r s c o n t a c t e d c o u l d p r o v i d e o n l y c a u t i o u s
e s t i m a t e s o f f l o w r a t e s f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , so t h a t t h e a c t u a l t y p e and
number o f d i f f u s e r s w i l l have t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y p i l o t s c a l e t e s t a . For
p u r p o s e s o f c o s t e s t i m a t i o n , a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o a c h was t a k e n ,
based on i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y Cardox Co., a m a n u f a c t u r e r o f p o r o u s t u b e
diffusers. The t o t a l c o s t o f $10,800 ( $ 2 3 5 0 / h e e t a r e ) i n c l u d e s t h e pH
c o n t r o l l e r , c o n t r o l v a l v e , C02 f l o w m e t e r , and a s s o c i a t e d p i p i n g . Since
e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t t h e r a t e s o f C02 a b s o r p t i o n a r e o f t e n b e t t e r t h a n
t h o s e p r e d i c t e d b y t h e methods o f S e c t i o n 3, s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t r e d u c t i o n s a r e
p o s s i b l e i n t h i s category.

F o r an 8 h e c t a r e pond m i x e d a t 20 c w l a e c , t h e M a n n i n g ' s f o r m u l a p r e d i c t s a
head l o s s o f 2 1 cm (8.3'1, f o r an assumed r o u g h n e s s f a c t o r o f n=0.018. The
c o r r e s p o n d i n g h y d r a u l i c power i s 3480 w a t t s (4.67 h p ) . P a d d l e w h e e l s a r e
chosen f o r m i x i n g , f o r r e a s o n s o u t l i n e d i n s e c t i o n 4-2. The c o n s t r i c t i o n i n
c h a n n e l w i d t h ( s e e S e c t i o n 7-3-51 a l l o w s t h e p a d d l e wheel t o be 25% s m a l l e r
t h a n t h e c h a n n e l w i d t h , and a l l o w s a c c e s s t o t h e d r i v e . Even so, t h e w i d t h
i s 32.3 m e t e r s ( 1 0 6 f t ) , s o t h e p a d d l e wheel i s b r o k e n i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s ,
s e p a r a t e d b y f l e x i b l e c o u p l i n g s t h a t a l l o w some v e r t i c a l and a n g u l a r
aisallignment. D e s i g n o f t h e p a d d l e w h e e l s i s based on a s t r e s s and
d e f l e c t i o n a n a l y s i s o f t h e p a d d l e s , t h e d r i v e t u b e , and o f e a c h p a d d l e wheel
section. A l t h o u g h t h e l o w r o t a t i a n a l speed means t h a t t o r q u e s a r e v e r y h i g h ,
i t is t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p a d d l e wheel u n d e r i t s own w e i g h t ( a n d t h a t o f
a t t a c h e d growth, which can be s i g n i f i c a n t ) t h a t g o v e r n s d e s i g n o f t h e
tube. The d e s i g n is similar t o t h e s m a l l p a d d l e w h e e l s used i n t h e
V a c a v i l l e , C A e x p e r i m e n t a l p o n d s shown i n F i g u r e 7-6, w i t h some n o t a b l e
changes. Many o f t h e s e c h a n g e s are based o n i m p r o v e m e n t s made b y Dodd i n t h e
c o u r s e o f d e s i g n i n g s e v e r a l " g e n e r a t i o n s " o f p a d d l e wheels. The number o f
b l a d e s is i n c r e a s e d f r o m six t o e i g h t , and a d j a c e n t s e c t i o n s a r e o f f s e t b y
2 2 A 0 , b o t h o f which r e d u c e p u l s a t i o n s on t h e d r i v e t r a i n and i n t h e f l o w
of t h e water, R s o l i d b a f f l e b e t w e e n s e c t i o n s a l s o b l a c k s f l o w across t h e
channel. A small c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a d d l e t i p and t h e s h a l l o w (5cm)
c u r v e d d e p r e s s i o n b e l o w i t makes t h e p a d d l e wheel i n e f f e c t a l a r g e p o s i t i v e
d i s p l a c e m e n t pump, w i t h a minimum o f b a c k f l o w , The d r i v e s h a f t i s a s t e e l
p i p e w i t h solid s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s t u b s h a f t s a t the b e a r i n g s . The drive
c o n s i s t s o f a 15 hp e l e c t r i c m o t o r , a v a r i a b l e speed u n i t , an i n - l i n e speed
r e d u c e r , and a t w o - s t a g e c h a i n and s p r o c k e t r e d u c t i o n . The + i n a l d r i v e n
s p r o c k e t is inboard o+ the b e a r i n g , so t h a t t h e s t u b s h a f t m e r e l y s u p p o r t s
t h e p a d d l e wheel w e i g h t , and d o e s n o t t r a n s m i t t h e d r i v e t o r q u e . The v a r i a u s
components ( a n d t h e i r c o s t ) a r e f i s t e d i n a p p e n d i x 111. The d r i v e t u b e and
h u b s a r e e p o x y c o a t e d s t e e l , w h i l e t h e s p o k e s and p a d d l e s a r e f i b e r g l a s s , + o r
corrosion resistance. I n o r d e r t o have the necessary r i g i d i t y i n bending,
t h e p a d d l e s must e i t h e r b e s u p p o r t e d w i t h a s t r u c t u r a l member li+f l a t ) , o r
b e f o r m e d into r s t r u c t u r a l shape t h e m s e l v e s . The l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f p a d d l e s
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e s y s t e m a l l o w s t h e u s e o f c u s t a m d e s i g n e d shapes,
a t very l i t t l e c o s t over t h a t o f f l a t sheets. Thus a c u r v e d shape p a d d l e was
d e s i g n e d t h a t h a s s u f f i c i e n t r i g i d i t y t o span t h e 2.43 m e t e r s ( 8 f t ) b e t w e e n
hubs without s t r u c t u r a l backing, The paddle i s 0.64 c m t h i c k , 57 cm h i g h ,
and h a s a 6 1 cm r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e . (The p a d d l e h e i g h t must accomodate t h e
n o m i n a l d e p t h , l i f t , d e p r e s s i o n , and wave a c t i o n g e n e r a t e d b y t h e p a d d l e
wheel i t s e l f ) . The c u r v e d shape a l s o s h e d s w a t e r e f f i c i e n t l y a s i t l e a v e s
t h e water, W i t h e a c h p a i r o f p o n d s l a i d o u t as a m i r r o r image, t h e t w o
d r i v e s are close t o g e t h e r , m i n i m i z i n g w i r i n g c a s t s .

The p a d d l e w h e e l s a r e a m a j o r c o s t component o f t h e g r o w t h pond s y s t e a , each

one c o s t i n g a b o u t $37,500, i n c l u d i n g s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t s , c o n c r e t e
d e p r e s s i o n , and i n s t a l l a t i o n , T h i s i s a l m o s t 20% o f t h e g r o w t h pond c o s t .

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t o measure t e m p e r a t u r e and d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n will b e p r o v i d e d

f o r each pond, and t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h pH, CO2 f l o w r a t e , and
make-up w a t e r f l o w r a t e w i l l b e transflitted t o a m i c r o c o m p u t e r - b a s e d d a t a
a c q u i s i t i o n u n i t which r e c o r d s t h e d a t a and p r e p a r e s summary r e p o r t s . Given
t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o w p r i c e o f such s y s t e m s , one w i l l b e i n s t a l l e d a t each
h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n , ( i . e . f o r each e i g h t g r o w t h p o n d s ) , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e l o n g
d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s t h a t would b e n e c e s s a r y i n a t o t a l l y c e n t r a l i z e d
system. A l l o w i n g $ 2 0 0 0 / p o n d f o r t h e m e a s u r i n g and t r a n s m , i t t i n q e q u i p m e n t ,
and $16,000 p e r h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n f o r t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n syetem ( i n s t a l l e d
c o s t s ) , t h e o v e r a l l c o s t is $96,000, o r SSOWhectare. i4 s y s t e m o f t h i s t y p e
c o u l d L a t e r b e expanded t o a u t o m a t e h a r v e s t i n g a p e r a t i a n s , an o p t i o n n o t
provided f o r i n t h e cost estimates.

A summary o f c o s t s f o r t h e 2 4 e i g h t h e c t a r e ponds i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 7 - 3 , The

t a b l e was d e v e l o p e d on a s p r e a d s h e e t , so t h a t t h e sensitivity t o changes i n
d e s i g n o r c o s t s could be examined w i t h r e l a t i v e ease. The q u a n t i t y o f
material i n each c a t e g o r y is an e q u a t i o n based on t h e Pond Design
C a l c u l a t i o n s , samples o f w h i c h were l i s t e d i n T a b l e s 7-1 & 7-2. I n mo5t
c a s e s t h e u n i t c o a t s were f i x e d , a l t h o u g h i n some c a s e s (e.g. c a r b o n a t i o n ,
m i ~ i n g ) , t h e y were r e p r e s e n t e d b y an e q u a t i o n , o r r e f e r e n c e t o a l o o k - u p
table. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e r a n g e o f t h e p r o g r a m i s liaited t o ponds o f
a b o u t 2-10 h e c t a r e s , a l t h o u q h t h e q u a n t i t i e s c o l u a n is a c c u r a t e o v e r a much
w i d e r r a n g e , The m i x i n g system c o s t s were generated a s e p a r a t e program,
-
 SECTION 8 . 0

HARVESTING SYSTEM DESIGN

This section presents t h r e e alternative designs for harvesting, inluding ( 1 )

Microstraining; ( 2 ) Belt Filtration; ( 3 ) Settling. ( A i r / D O floatation,
mentioned in Sections S.and 12, i s not analyzed in t h i s section). In each of
t h e three cases, further concentration is acheived through centrifugation, in
order t o bring t h e solids content of t h e slurry up t o 10% VS. However, t h e
c o s t s of centrifugation vary widely according t o t h e level of concentration
achieved in t h e primary harvesting step. The harvesting operations are based
on t h e analysis of Section 6 , which concluded that an induction phase would be
necessary t o achievm high lipid levels in t h e cells, This in turn implies
batch, a s opposed t o continuous, harvesting. The harvest flowrates a r e based
on a four day (system average) detention time,although t h e growth/induction
cycle will most likely be longer, especially in t h e winter months.

8.1 NICROSTRAININQ

Hicrostrainers are an attractive harvesting method because of their mechanical

simplicity and availability in large unit sizes. T h e recent availability of
very fine resh polyester s c r e e n s has revived interest in their use f o r
microalgae harvesting. F a b r i c s a s f i n e a s o n e micron (nominal) have been
successfully employed for algae removal from lagoon effluents. However,
attempts t o harvest saall unicellular algae with t h e one micron fabric have
yeilded disappointing results, in spite of t h e fact that t h e c e l l s were larger
than o n e micron in s i z e 1131. ( T h e lack of success in straining small algae
with t h e o n e micron weave can be attributed t o t h e fact that t h e actual
openings in t h i s fabric are rectangular, nith dimensions of approximately o n e
by six microns). Subsequent studies concluded that it would be necessary t o
flocculate t h e c e l l s prior t o microstraining. Current research is aimed at
determining t h e t y p e s and amounts of flocculant necessary for various
species. T h e use of flocculants in harvesting c a n have a significant impact
on operating costs, depending on t h e dose required. Under certain conditions,
it may be possible t o use microstrainers without adding flocculants, a s in t h e
case of large unicellular (e.g. Platymonas) or colonial algae, or with
culturing techniques that induce uautoflocculation,n

The design assumptions for t h e microstrainer based harvesting system are

listed in Table 8-1, and a r e discussed below. T h e critical deeign parameters
a r e hydraulic loading (flonrate/net effective submerged area), solide removal
efficiency ((influent TSS-effluent TSS)/influent TSS), and concentration r a t i o
(concentrate TSS/influent TSS). Although accurate prediction of t h e s e
parameters requires pilot s c a l e t e s t s nith t h e particular species, s o m e
reasonable estimates can be made from existing information. The hydraulic
loading determines t h e size and number of microstrainers required, and s o h a s
 TABLE 8-1. Microstrainer-Based Harvesting Svstem

Design Parameters

S i n g l e g r o w t h pond volume

System p o n d volume

Detention ~ind 4 days

System h a r v e s t f l o w
(alternate units)

Microstrainer i n f l u e n t density

Microstrainer hydraulic loading

3.7 m dia X 4.9 m long

Net e f f e c t i v e submerged a r e a h n i t 2 2 . 6 n2

Flow per u n i t 7345 l i t e r s h i n

Number o f u n i t s required

Concentration Ratio 10: 1

Centrifuge i n f l u e n t density 7500 m g / l

Flowrate t o c e n t r i f u g e 6700 l i t e r s h i n

Centrifuge design loading 15000-3800 l i t e r s / m i n

# of units r e q u i r e d 2

Concentration r a t i a 13: 1

Centrifuge e f f l u e n t density 100 g / l ( 1 0 %Total s o l i d s )

h e text

224 h r / d s y b a s i s .

3 ~ n v i r e x Model
a s t r o n g i m p a c t on c a p i t a l c o s t s . I t s v a l u e depends p r i m a r i l y upon t h e
i n f l u e n t s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e s i z e o f t h e s c r e e n i n g media, and t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i z e o f t h e algae. The "one m i c r o n " s c r e e n i m p o s e s t o o s e v e r e
a p e n a l t y on h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g t o b e a p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e . Since t h i s
a n a l y s i s p r e s u p p o s e s l a r g e , c o l o n i a l , o r d l o c c u l a t e d a l g a e , t h e r e q u i r e d mesh
s i z e w i l l f a l l i n t h e range o f s i x t o twenty microns. The h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
i s assumed t o b e 329 l p r / m 2 ( 8 g p m / f t 2 ) , a r e a s o n a b l e v a l u e f o r t h e mesh
range s p e c i f i e d . The i m p o r t a n c e o f s o l i d s r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y depends on t h e
mode o f o p e r a t i o n , r a n g i n g f r o m c r i t i c a l f o r " o n c e - t h r o u g h " s y s t e m s (e.g.
s e a w a t e r ) , t o m o d e r a t e f o r r e c y c l e systems, w h e r e i n u n h a r v e s t e d c e l l s a r e
r e t u r n e d t o t h e ponds i n t h e h a r v e s t r e t u r n s t r e a m . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
m i c r o s t r a i n e r must p r o d u c e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n s o l i d s d e n s i t y t o
j u s t i f y i t s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h cost. For lagoon e f f l u e n t p o l i s h i n g , a
concentration r a t i o of 6:l i s typical. However, t h e s e s y s t e m s a r e o p e r a t e d
t o produce t h e lowest p o s s i b l e e f f l u e n t d e n s i t y , n o t t o c o n c e n t r a t e algae.
When o p t i m i z e d f o r t h e l a t t e r , a t e n f o l d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o u l d be a t t a i n a b l e .
T h i s corresponds t o a t e n f o l d r e d u c t i o n i n f l o w t o t h e secondary h a r v e s t e r .
S i n c e c e n t r i f u g e c a p a c i t y i s l a r g l y f l o w r a t e dependent, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
r a t i o is o f major importance.

I n order t o reduce l a r g e diameter p i p i n g runs, t h e primary h a r v e s t i n q i s

d e c e n t r a l i z e d i n t o t h r e e h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n s , each c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e
m i c r o s t r a i n e r s , and each s e r v i n g e i g h t g r o w t h ponds. An a l t e r n a t i v e w o u l d be
t o u s e s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r m i c r o s t r a i n e r s ( i n c r e a s i n g t h e number t o t w e l v e ) and
b u i l d i n q s i x s t a t i o n s , each s e r v i n g f o u r ponds. T h i s w o u l d f u r t h e r r e d u c e
p i p i n g r u n s , b u t t h e s a v i n g s w o u l d b e o f f s e t b y h i g h e r m i c r o s t r a i n e r and
f a c i l i t i e s costs. This trade-off i s not considered i n t h e cost analysis. A
s c h e m a t i c o f t h e h a r v e s t i n g s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e 8-1. 4n e n t i r e pond
volume i s h a r v e s t e d on t h e f i f t h day o f t h e g r o w t h / i n d u c t i o n e y c l e , s o thsl
s y s t e m a v e r a g e d e t e n t i o n t i m e i s a c t u a l l y f i v e r a t h e r t h a n f o u r days, and
h a r v e s t i n g c o u l d be s p r e a d a v e r 1.2 d a y s p e r pond. However, a one day p e r
pond t i m e t a b l e i s more p r a c t i c a l and a l l o w s some f l e x i b i l i t y i n OIH.

An u n f o r t u n a t e consequence o f b a t c h h a r v e s t i n g i s t h e need t o s t o r e t h e
c l a r i f i e d e f f l u e n t u n t i l h a r v e s t i n g 6s c o m p l e t e d . I n a continuous process,
i t i s r e t u r n e d i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e pond, b u t i n a b a t c h p r o c e s s t h i s w o u l d
d i l u t e t h e c u l t u r e a l o n g an e x p o n e n t i a l c u r v e . Since t h e microstrainers a r e
l i k e l y t o be l i m i t e d by s o l i d s , r a t h e r t h a n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s , i t may be
possible t o r e t u r n t h e e f f l u e n t , while gradually increasing t h e harvest
f l o w r a t e t o compensate, Obviously t h e r e a r e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t s t o t h i s , as
f l o w r a t e s w o u l d have t o i n c r e a s e i n d e f i n i t e l y i n o r d e r t o h a r v e s t a l l o f t h e
c e l l s , so i n f a c t some a l g a e w o u l d a l w a y s go u n h a r v e s t e d . With c a r e f u l
c o n t r o l s , t h e c o r r e c t a a o u n t o f seed a l g a e c o u l d b e l e f t i n t h e pond f o r t h e
n e x t batch. However, g i v e n t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n v o l v e d , i t i s p r u d e n t t o
i n c l u d e s t o r a g e ponds i n t h e d e s i g n , w h i c h h o l d t h e c l a r i f i e d e f f l u e n t u n t i l
h a r v e s t i n g i s complete. I f l o c a t e d e n t i r e l y above g r a d e , t h o e f f l u e n t s can
be r e t u r n e d t o t h e g r o w t h pond b y g r a v i t y . I f harvesting begins a f t e r dark
on t h e f o u r t h day and i s f i n i s h e d 24 h r s l a t e r , t h e e n t i r e n i g h t i s a v a i l a b l e
t o d r a i n t h e e f f l u e n t s f r o m t h e s t o r a g e pond back i n t o th,e g r o w t h pond.
The c o n c e n t r a t e d h a r v e s t s t r e a m f r o w a l l m i c r o s t r a i n e r s i s pumped t o a
c e n t r a l i z e d secondary h a r v e s t i n g f a c i l i t y . The t o t a l f l o w r a t e t o t h i s
f a c i l i t y , assuming 24 h r / d a y o p e r a t i o n , i s 6670 l / n i n (1760 gpa). Three
l a r g e h o r i z o n t a l s o l i d bowl d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s , c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h corrosion
r e s i s t a n t materials, are required. These a r e r a t e d a t 1510-3960 l p r
(400-1000 gpm) each, depending on f e e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f l o c c u l a n t dosage,
and degree o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d . A l t h o u g h t h e use o f d i s k n o z z l e
c e n t r i f u g e s m i g h t r e d u c e c a p i t a l c o s t s , t h e s a v i n g s would most l i k e l y be
o f f s e t by h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s E121. The c e n t r i f u g e s c o n c e n t r a t e t h e
s o l i d s by a f a c t o r o f 10-13, p r o d u c i n g t h e r e q u i r e d 10% s l u r r y . The s o l i d s
a r e d i s c h a r g e d c o n t i n u o u s l y by neans o f an i n t e r n a l screw conveyor. The
c l a r i f i e d e f f l u e n t f r o m t h e c e n t r i f u g e s i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e ponds v i a t h e
makeup water n e t w o r k , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e need f o r s e p a r a t e r e t u r n p i p i n g .

C a p i t a l c o s t s f o r t h e m i c r o s t r a i n e r - c e n t r i f u g e h a r v e s t i n g o p t i o n a r e shown i n
T a b l e 8-2, The t o t a l h a r v e s t i n g c o s t i s t 2 1 , 8 0 0 / h e c t a r e . I f the centrifuges
c o u l d be o p e r a t e d a t 3700 lpm ( v e r y c l o s e t o t h e i r maximum r a t e d c a p a c i t y ) ,
t h e n o n l y two u n i t s a r e r e q u i r e d , and t h e t o t a l h a r v e s t i n g c o s t s a r e reduced
t o $18,70O/hectare. E s t i m a t e d annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e shown i n T a b l e 8-6,
f o r an assumed f l o c c u l a n t c o s t o f $ . O l / k g d r y algae. The s e n s i t i v i t y o f
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s t o f l o c c u l a n t dose i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 11. A l t h o u g h one
would i n t u i t i v e l y e x p e c t a t r a d e - o f f between t h e q u a n t i t y ob f l o c c u l a n t used
and t h e m i c r o s t r a i n e r d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( w h i c h would e f f e c t c a p i t a l c o s t s ) ,
there i s not s u f f i c i e n t data a t t h i s time t o evaluate t h i s trade-off, other
t h a n t o say t h a t c e r t a i n s p e c i e s s i m p l y cannot be h a r v e s t e d w i t h o u t
flocculants.

8.2 BELT FILTRATION

A vaccuun b e l t f i l t e r f o r a l g a e h a r v e s t i n g , developed by Dodd i n 1972, used a

f i n e mesh s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s c r e e n w i t h a paper p r e c o a t . The concept was l a t e r
r e f i n e d , w i t h t h e s r e e n and p r e c o a t b e i n g r e p l a c e d by a p o l y e s t e r f a b r i c
s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used i n m i c r o s t r a i n e r s . A p i l o t s c a l e u n i t operated i n
Singapore was v e r y s u c c e s s f u l i n h a r v e s t i n g H i c r a c t i n i u m and o t h e r l a r g e
s p e c i e s , somewhat l e s s so w i t h s m a l l a l g a e such as C h l o r e l l a . I n general,
t h e f l o c c u a n t dose s h o u l d be l e s s t h a n i n t h e case o f r i c r o s t r a i n e r s , s i n c e
t h e algae eat a i d s i n f i l t r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e b e l t f i l t e r has a r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h c a p i t a l c o s t , i t can c o n c e n t r a t e s o l i d s much more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n a
m i c r o s t r a i n e r , by a f a c t o r o f about 70a1 as opposed t o 10:l. Since t h e
p r o d u c t i s more c o n c e n t r a t e d , f l o w t o t h e secondary h a r v e s t e r i s reduced
s u b s t a n t i a l l y , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r secondary h a r v e s t i n g c o s t and reduced
energy consumption. F o r t h e e n t i r e 192 h e c t a r e system, t h e secondary
h a r v e s t e r f l o w i s about 950 l p a (250 gpm). The l a y o u t o f a b e l t f i l t e r
s y s t e a would be v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e a i c r o s t r a i n e r system shown i n F i g u r e
8-1. The c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e b e l t f i l t e r o p t i o n i s shown i n T a b l e 8-3, based
on e s t i m a t e s s u p p l i e d by Dodd. (The b e l t f i l t e r was assured t o c o s t SOX mora
t h a n ' a a i c r o s t r a i n e r o f equal c a p a c i t y ) . S t o r a g e ponds a r e a g a i n necessary.
 TABLE 8-2. MICROSTRAINER BASED HARVESTING OPTION

CAPITAL COSTS

PRIMARY HARVESTING

9 M i c r o s t r a i n e r s ( 3 . 7 m d i a x 4.9 rn)
s t a i n l e s s steel c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n c l u d e s
motor & c o n t r a l s @ $160,000 ea. $1,440,000
3 Housings, with concrete p i t & sumps
@ $50,000 150,000
3 Pumps s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a l l valves & P i p i n g 300,000
6 Storage ponds 300,000

TOTAL
TOTAL /hec tare

SECONDARY HARVESTING

2 Sharples PM95000 c e n t r i f u g e s , complete with

motor 6 c o n t r o l @ $650,000
1 Housing & c o n c r e t e pad (4000 ft)
1 Pumps & p i p i n g
TOTAL
~~~A~/hectare

TOTAL WVESTfNG
TOTAL/HECTARE
 TABLE 8-3. BELT FILTER BASED HARVESTING OPTION
CAPITAL COSTS

PRIMARY HARVESTING

Belt Filters (1.5 x Microstrainer Costs)

3 Housing, with concrete pad & sumps
6 Effluent Storage Ponds
3 Pump Stations, including a-1 harvest/return
piping, valves, etc.

Total

SECONDARY HARVESTING

2 Sharples PM60000 Centrifuges @ $275,000

1 Housing + concrete pad (2000 ft2)
1 ~ump/pipingsystem

Total
Totallhectare

TOTAL HARVESTING
TOTAL/HECTARE
The c e n t r i f u g e c o s t i s based on two u n i t s , each s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e used w i t h
t h e m i c r a s t r a i n e r s , The c h o i c e o f t w o s m a l l e r , r a t h e r t h a n a s i n g l e l a r g e r
u n i t r e f l e c t s t h e O&H r e a l i t i e s o f t h e need f o r more t h a n a s i n g l e
centrifuge. S i n c e t h e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e i s so
much h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e case o f t h e e i c r o s t r a i n e r s , a B o r e c o n m e r v a t i v o
d e s i g n f l o w r a t e was used. The o v e r a l l c o o t i s $17,8OO/hectare. Harvesting
c o s t i s n o t n e a r l y as s e n s i t i v e t o c e n t r i f u g e f l o w r a t e s as i n t h e c a s e s o f
microstrainers, Operating cost estimates f o r the b e l t f i l t e r option a r e
shown i n T a b l e 8 - 6 . Note t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n energy c o s t a s s o c i a t e d
with t h i s option.

A c o m p a r i s o n o# T a b l e s 8-2 and 8-3 shows t h a t t h e t w o o p t i o n 8 p r e s e n t e d t h u s

f a r have c a p i t a l c o s t s v e r y n e a r l y t h e same, i f t h e f a v o r a b l e a s s u m p t i o n
r e g a r d i n g c e n t r i f u g e f l o w r a t e i s made f o r t h e ~ i c r o s t r a i n e ro p t i o n .
Operating costs f o r t h e b e l t f i l t e r option are g i g n i f i c a n t l y less. However,
any c o m p a r i s o n s h o u l d be made w i t h some c a u t i o n , s i n c e l a r g e m i c r o s t r a i n e r s
a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e and t h e i r c o s t s a r e known, whereas t h e b e l t f i l t e r
r e p r e s e n t s a new t e c h n o l o g y , f o r w h i c h c a s t s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y more u n c e r t a i n ,

8.3 SETTLING

The use o f s e t t l i n g f o r n i c r o a l g a e h a r v e s t i n g i s baaed en t h e observation

t h a t n i t r o g e n - s t a r v e d c u l t u r e s w i l l s e t t l e a t r a t e s o f 30 cm/hr o r g r e a t e r
w i t h o u t adding f l o c c u l a n t s . (The a d d i t i o n o f s m a l l amounts a9 p o l y m e r can
i n c r e a s e t h i s r a t e and p r o d u c e a more compact c o n c e n t r a t e ) . The same
phenomenon h a s been o b s e r v e d i n n o n - n i t r o g e n e t a r v e d c u l t u r e s , b u t i n a l e s s
c o n s i s t a n t , and more s p e c i e s and media dependent f a s h i o n .

A s e t t l i n g r a t e o f 30 cm/hr is s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y l o w , and r e q u i r e s l o n g
d e t e n t i o n t i m e s i n t h e s e t t l i n g d e v i c e , whether i t be b a t c h o r c o n t i n u o u s ,
The l a t t e r would n o t a p p l y i n t h i s case, g i v e n t h a t t h e g r o n t h / i n d u e t i o n
process i s i n h e r e n t l y batch. The m a j o r e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m i n a l a r g e s c a l e
b a t c h s e t t l i n g p r o c e s s i a t o d e v i s e on e f f e c t i v e , i n e x p e n s i v e s o l i d s r e m o v a l
scheme. The m a j o r drawback o f b a t c h s e t t l i n g is t h e l a r g e p i p i n g systems
t h a t a r e needed t o t r a n s f e r t h e f l u i d s i n r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r ~ o d goC t i m e ,
so t h a t more t i m e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r q u e s c i e n t s e t t l i n g . This i s p a r t i a l l y
overcome b y t h e use o f s h a r e d s e t t l i n g pond^ and pump s t a t i o n s , w h i s h s e r v i c e
a number 04 ponds i n s u c e s a i o n . Other q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
l a r g e s c a l e s e t t l i n g ponds i n c l u d e t h e e i f c c t o f w i n d n i x i n g on s e t t l i n g
r a t e s and t h e p o s s i b l e d e g r e d a t i o n o f t h e l i p i d f r a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e p r ~ c e s s ,
The w i n d m i x l n g p r o b l e m can b e m i t i g a t e d t h r o u g h t h e use o f berms.
D e g r e d a t i o n is not l i k e l y t o b e a p r o b l e m i n t h e t i m e p e r i o d ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y
24 h o u r s ) i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o p o s e d d e s i g n .

The l a y o u t o f t h e s e t t l i n g pond s y s t e m is shown i n F i g u r e 8.2. A two stage

p r o c e s s is p r o p o s e d , c o n s i s t i n g o+ a l a r g e ( 0 , 5 h e c t a r e ) s e t t l i n g pond, w h i c h
c o n c e n t r a t e s t h e a l g a e b y a f a c t o r o f 20, f o l l u ~ e db y a second g r a v i t y
t h i c - k r n i n g stage, w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e 5 b y an a d d i t i o n a l t a c t o r o f 2.5, f o r an
o v e r a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r o f 50. The c h o i c e 0 4 a two s t a g e p r o c e s s i s
based on e x p e r i e n c e i n o p e r a t i n g t h e 40,000 l i t e r b a t c h s e t t l i n g pond i n
V a c a v i l l e , CA. T h i s a p p r o a c h g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t h e need f o r p r e c i s e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d b o t t o a f r a c t i o n and t h e less
c o n c e n t r a t e d l a y e r t h a t f a r m above i t , a l b i e t a t a g r e a t e r c o s t . The
l a r g e s e t t l i n g pond is s i r e d t o h o l d one pond volume (16,000 m e t e r 3 ) i n
a 3 meter d e p t h , The w o r k i n g volume i s a l l b e l o w grade, so t h e ponds can
be d r a i n e d by g r a v i t y . I t is a conventional eloped-sidewall basin, w i t h
211 sideslopea. The d i m e n s i o n s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 8.3, a l o n g w i t h o t h e r
relevent details. The pond is l i n e d u i t h ~ ~ ~ a l oor nC lP E ~ , The pond
b o t t o i n slopes t o w a r d s a c e n t r a l a l l e y on a 2% grade. B o t h s u p e r n a t a n t and
c o n c e n t r a t e p i p i n g go t o an e x t e r n a l pumping s t a t i o n t h a t i s s h a r e d b y t w o
s e t t l i n g ponds. The f o l l o w i n g s u m s a r i z e s t h e h a r v e s t sequence1 ( 1 ) The
c o n t e n t s o f t h e g r o w t h pond a r e d r a i n e d t o t h e s e t t l i n g pond. The d r a i n
l i n e s a r e s i z e d t o complete t h i s i n four hours, ( 2 ) The c o n t e n t s s e t t l e
f o r a p e r i o d o f e i g h t hours. ( 3 ) The s u p e r n a t a n t is d e c a n t e d o f f o v e r a
p e r i o d o f t e n h o u r s , and is r e t u r n e d t o t h e g r o w t h pond ( s e e F i g u r e 0-3
f a r d r a w - o f f d e t a i l s ) . S i n c e l i q u i d is removed f r o m t h e t o p o f t h e pond,
s e t t l i n g continuos i n t h e l o n e r l a y e r s , When t h o l i q u i d level reaches the
break i n t h e s l o p e , d e c a n t i n g i s complete, A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5% o f t h e
c o n t e n t s r e m a i n i n t h e a e t t l i n g pond, ( 4 ) The r e m a i n i n g c o n c e n t r a t e i s
pumped t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t h i c k e n e r . A t various intervals, the concentrate
s t r e a m t o r s t o r e d s e c o n d a r y s u p e r n a t a n t ) is d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e f l u s h i n g
system, washing dawn s o l i d s t h a t have h a v e s e t t l e d on t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
pond i n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n a l l e y , w h i c h I e a d a t o t h e concentrate sump. The
c o n c e n t r a t e removal process t a k e s about two hours. The s e t t l i n g pond is
now a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e n e x t g r o w t h pond. ( 5 ) The c o n c e n t r a t e r e a a i n s i n
t h e thickener f o r abaut e i g h t hours. The s e c o n d a r y s u p e r n a t a n t i s
r e t u r n e d t o t h e g r o ~ t hponds, w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a r y c o n c e n t r a t e is pumped t o
a c e n t r a l i z e d f a c i l i t y f o r c e n t r i f u g a t i o n t o 10Z s o l i d s , as i n t h e o t h e r
h a r v e s t i n g schemes.

The sequence as described above i s based on a f o u r day c y c l e time, w h i c h

i s t h e s h o r t e s t c o n c e i v a b l e p e r i o d + o r g r o w t h and i n d u c t i o n . Actual cycle
t i m e s w i l l p r o b a b l y b e f i v e d a y s o r l o n g e r , d e p e n d i n g on t h e t i m e o f t h e
y e a r , so t h a t s e t t l i n g and decanting times way a c t u a l l y b e l o n g e r t h a n
d e s c r i b e d above, The f l o w r a t e s o f t h e v a r i o u s f r a c t i o n s a r e l i s t e d i n
T a b l e 0-4, f o r t h e f o u r day c y c l e . Additianal harvesting d e t a i l s are
g i v e n below,

The pump s t a t i o n i s a wet p i t d e s i g n , and i s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s e c t i o n s f o r

s u p e r n a t a n t and c o n c e n t r a t e , Three v e r t i c a l mixed f l o w pumps, each s i z e d
a t 50% o f t h e r e q u i r e d f l o w r a t e , a r e p r o v i d e d . The pump s t a t i o n o p e r a t e 8

A s y n t h e t i c r u b b e r l i n e r m a n u f a c t u r e d b y DuPont
Chhrinatcd polyethylene l i n e r
a l m o s t c o n t i n u ~ u s l ywhen t h e c y c l e t i m e is f o u r days. Two screw pumps a r e
used t o pump t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e n t r a t e i n t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t h i c k e n e r . ( L O W
shear s o l i d s h a n d l i n g pumps are r e q u i r e d f o r h a n d l i n g a l l c o n c e n t r a t e
fractions). The f l u s h s y s t e m is v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used i n d a i r i e s f o r
manure c o l l e c t i o n , and i s d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e f l u s h i n g v e l o c i t i e s o+ a b o u t
1 m e t e r s / s e c ( 3 f t / s e c ) , w h i c h s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t t o r e s u s p e n d and
t r a n s p o r t s o l i d s a c c u m u i a t e d on t h e b o t t o m o f t h e pond. The c h a n n e l s a r e
d i v i d e d by 0.10 meter ( 4 i n c h ) c o n c r e t e c u r b s which a r e e i t h e r poured
d i r e c t l y on t h e l i n e r o r p r e c a s t and s e t i n p l a c e . In t h e f i g u r e , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e i t s e l + is d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e f l u s h n e t w o r k , c o n s i s t i n g o f a
d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p e w h i c h s e q u e n t i a l l y f e e d s t h e f l u s h water i n t o 16
c h a n n e l s , 0 on e i t h e r s i d e Q + a c o n c r e t e c o l l e c t i o n a l l e y ( s e e d e t a i l s i n
Figure 8-4). I t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o d i v e r t some a + t h e i n i t i a l
c o n c e n t r a t e ( w h i c h w i l l have t h e l e a s t amount o f solids) i n t o a s m a l l
s t o r a g e pond, and use t h i s l i q u i d f o r f l u s h i n g , a r b u i l d two s m a l l e r
s e c o n d a r y t h i c k e n e r s and f l u s h w i t h r e c y l e d secondary s u p e r n a t a n t . Since
good d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f l u s h w a t e r o v e r t h e w i d t h o f t h e c h a n n e l is
e s s e n t i a l , o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e g e o m e t r y may a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y , t i n e . a
l a r g e r number o f c h a n n e l s , o r a change i n pond g e o m e t r y t o l o n g e r , n a r r o w
c h a n n e l s ) . None o f t h e s e o p t i o n s w o u l d h a v e a m a j o r i m p a c t on c o s t 5 ,
These and o t h e r i s s u e s , such a s t h e optimal d u r a t i o n and f r e q u e n c y o f
f l u s h i n g , must be r e s o l v e d i n p i l o t studles,

A f t e r s e t t l i n g i n t h e s e c o n d a r y t h i c k e n e r f o r about 8 hour%, t h e secondary

s u p e r n a t a n t i s d e c a n t e d i n t h e same f a s h i o n as b e h r e , and pumped i n t o t h e
r e t u r n f l o n network. Secondary c ~ n c e n t r a t ei s pumped t o the central
f a c i l i t y for centrifugatian. The a v e r a g e f l a w r a t e i s 402 g r e a t e r t h a n i n

T a b l e 0-4 S e t t l i n g Pond System F l o w r a t e s

SINBLE POND:
Volume Time Flouratr
Fraction m3 gat l o n s hrs. 1P ~ R gPfi
- - - L - - L I I - - L I - - L I I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Pond Volume 16,000 4.23110bf 4 66700 17612

lo Supernatant 15,200 4.02(106) 10 25300 6690
t o Concentrate 800 2.11 ( l o 5 ) 1.2* 11400 3000
2 O Supernatant 400 1.27110~) 2 4000 1057
2O C o n c e n t r a t e 320 8.45(104) 2 2670 905

SYSTEM ( c e n t r i f u g e f l o w r a t e ) ;

2O Concentrate 320 a 3 / 4 days x 2 4 ponds 1330 352

* T o t a l r e m o v a l t i m e i s l o n g e r because o f r e c y l e t o f l u s h system.
the c a s e o f the b e l t f i l t e r , b u t a f a c t o r a f f i v e l e s s t h a n i n t h e c a s e o f
microstrainers. C a p i t a l costs f o r t h e s e t t l i n g o p t i o n are shown in Table
0-5. A t 5 1 1 , 2 6 O / h e c t a r e , c o s t o f t h i s o p t i o n is s u b s t a n t i a l l y 1 9 9 4 t h a n f o r
e i t h e r m i c r o s t r a i n e r s ar b e l t f i l t e r s . E s t i m a t e d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e shown
in T a b l e 8 - 6 "

T a b l e 8.5 S e t t l i n g Pond H a r v e s t i n g O p t i o n

Capital C o s t s

PRIHARY HRRVESTINO ( 2 stage)

E a c h h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f 2 s e t t l i n g panda ( b e l o w g r a d e ) , one
pump s t a t i o n , and 1 s e c o n d a r y t h i c k e n e r . E a c h s t a t i o n s e r v e r 8 g r o w t h ponds.

Station System
------.. ------
E x c a v a t i o n & shaping: u 2
25,000 y d 3 @ $ 2 . 5 0 / ~ d ~ 5125,000 1375,000

Liners: 71650 i t Z $0.60/ft2 x 2 =

P i p i n g , v a l v e s , sumps, pumps ( s e e T a b l e A I V - 1 )

Secondary t h i c k e n i n g (see T a b l e A I V - 2 )

Primary Harvesting Subtotal

Primary Harvesting Subtotal/hectare

SECONDARY HRRVESTING:

2 S h a r p l e s Pfl75000 c e n t r i f u g e s @ $ 3 3 0 , 0 0 0

Housing & c o n c r e t e pad

Pumps & p i p i n g

Secondary H a r v e s t i n g S u b t o t a l
Secondary Harvesting Subtotal/hectare

TOTAL H A R V E S T I N G
 T a b l e 8-6 Estimated Operating Costs of Harvest Options

MICROSTRAINER BELT FILTER SETTLING PONDS

------------- ----------- --------------
ELECTRICAL
Primary, kwh/yr 174,000 348,000 343,000
Secondary, k w h / y r 2,578,000 967,000 1,096,000
--------- ------- ---------
T o t a l , kwh/yr 2,732,000 1,315,000 1,439,000

Total, $/yr $178,900 $85,500 $93,500

FLOCCULANTS $216,000 $216,000 $216,000

MBINTANENCE

TOTAL

Notes:
C o s t s a r e f o r 192 h e c t a r e system
E l e c t r i c a l c o s t based on b,5c/kwh
F l o c c u l a n t c o s t based on l . O c / k g d r y a l g a e
Maintanence c o s t B 3% o f c a p i t a l c o s t i n c l u d e s m a t e r i a l s and o u t s i d e
labor only, not operating labor.
 Section 9

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
System-wide c o s t s i n c l u d e t h e w a t e r , c a r b o n , n u t r i e n t , power, and blowdown
systems, as w e l l as r o a d s and b u i l d i n g s . In t h e case o f c a r b o n and power, t h e
e ~ p h a e i si s on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n r a t h e r than on t h e s o u r c e , s i n c e S E R I has has
examined t h e r e s o u r c e i s s u e s i n f a r g r e a t e r . d e p t h t h a n would b e p o s g i b l e i n
t h i s report. hn e x c e p t i o n is t h e issue o f n u t r i e n t r e c y c l e w i t h i n t h e system,
w h i c h is examined i n S e c t i o n 6 , T a b l e 9-1 lists t h e s y s t e m w i d e c o s t s , and
a l s o summarizes t h e t o t a l c o s t f o r t h e 192 h e c t a r e system. T a b l e 9-2 Iists
the e l e c t r i c a l and m a i n t a n e n c e c o s t s f o r t h e system, B o t h t a b l e s a r e based en
t h e use o f s e t t l i n g ponds + o r h a r v e s t i n g , Total operating casts a r c presented
i n S e c t i o n 10.

9 WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRlBUTION

The c a p a c i t y o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l y system is based on a maximum e v a p o r a t i v e r a t e
o f 1.5 cm/day and blowdown r a t e o f 0.2 cm/day. Ha~inuw, r a t h e r than t h e
a v e r a g e r a t e s must b e used because such r a t e s a r e l i k e l y t o p e r s i s t f o r a
p e r i o d o f months d u r i n g t h e summer, Additional nater i s required f o r i n i t i a l
f i l l i n g o f ponds, b u t t h i s i s assumed t o t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e nun-suamer
months, when excess c a p a c i t y i s a v a i l a b l e , The r e q u i r e d volumes and f 1 o w r a t e s
were l i s t e d i n T a b l e 7-2, On a c o n t i n u o u s b a s i s , t h e c o n b i n e d f l o w r a t e i s
22,700 l p a ( 6 0 0 0 g p n ) . B o t h t h e s u p p l y and d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m w i l l be s i t e d
an t h i s b a s i g , a l t h o u g h p u a p i n g c o s t s a r e based on yearly a v e r a g e s o f 15,200
Ipm 14000 gpm), w h i c h r e f l e c t s b o t h r e d u c e d e v a p a r a t i o n and some c o n t r i b u t i o n
from r a i n f a l l , The a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e S E R I e e t i r a t e s f o r w a t e r
c o n s u m p t i o n were t o o l o w , w h i l e e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e c o s t / u n i t d e l i v e r e d werB
high. T h i s a n a l y s i s assumes a s e p a r a t e w e l l f i e l d f o r each 192 h e c t a r e
module, w h i c h d i f f e r s from t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n i n the S E R I r e s o u r c e s t u d i e s ,

The w e l l f i e l d i s assumed t o b e o f f - s i t e , t o a v o i d 0&H i n t e r f e r e n c e and

p o s s i b l e s u b s i d e n c e p r o b l e m s , E i g h t 30 e m ( 1 2 " ) wells, each r a t e d a t 2840 l p m
(750 g p a ) , a r e s e t i n a g r i d p a t t e r n w i t h a s p a c i n g o f 1600 a e t e r s ( 0 . 5
r i l e ) . The w e l l s a r e assumed t o b e 122 m e t e r s 1400 f t ) deep, w i t h a s t a t i c
l i f t o f 46 m e t e r s (150 f t ) . A w a t e r s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r (16,000 m3) i s
i n c l u d e d as p a r t o f t h e s u p p l y systea. i f necessary, water c o n d i t i o n i n g
f a c i l i t i e s would be l o c a t e d a t t h e r e s e r v o i r ( s e e S e c t i o n 2 ) .

A c o s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l y s y s t e m is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-3, The
c o a t o f w e l l s i s based on i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y w e l l d r i l l e r s i n t h e S a l t o n
Sea area, The c o s t o f t h e p i p i n g n e t w o r k i s based on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t
i n e x p e n s i v e '1100 f t headn PVC i s used. W h i l e h e a v i e r , more e n p e n s i v e p i p e i s
a l w a y s used i n m u n i c i p a l n a t e r systems, t h e 100 f t head p i p e i s w i d e l y used i n
law p r e s s u r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y when large d i a m e t e r s a r e
required. A l l l a r g e diameter pipes s p e c i f i e d throughout t h i s r e p o r t are of
this'type, The u n i t c o s t s i n a l l cases i n c l u d e 9 i n s t a l l a t i o n , w h i c h r u n s
 Table 9-1 192 H e c t a r e Svstem C a p i t a l C o s t Summary

Base Case: 112 m t a l g a e l h a l y r

TOTAL $ $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks* $1,945,960 S 10,135
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 1,594,290 8,304
M i x inq Svstem 944,537 4,919
Carbonation Syster 351,360 1.830
Instrumentation not included elsewhere 96,000 509

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary** 1,436,000 7,479
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u q a t i o n ) 760,000 3,958

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
#
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System f
B l o n d o n n D i s p o s a l System*
B u i l d r n q s (harv. blds. n o t included)
Roads & d r a i n a g e *
E l e c t r i c a l D r s t r i b u t r o n (3% o f above)
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING ( 1 0 % o f a b o v e ) * . 899,656 4,686

CONTINGENCY ( 1 5 % o f above), 1,484,433 7,731

LAND COSTS 0 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) +

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $6,415,601 $33,415

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $5,445,049 $28,360

Notes:

* non-depreciable item
*+ p a t r i a l l y non-depr, ($375,000)
112 u t t / h a / y r = 3 0 g/m2/day
.Land a r e a 2 x q r o w t h pond a r e a
Table 9-2 E l e c t r i c a l & f l a i n t a n e n c e O p e r a t i n q Cost Summary - 192 H e c t a r e S v s t e m

Electrical* H a l n t anence*
kwh/yr S/yr XcfCap S/yr
GROWTH PONDS -ww--- -1111- 1-111--- --m"

Earthworks
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l
nixing System
C a r b o n a t i o n System

HARVESTING - Settlina Pond O p t l o n

Pr i rnary 543000 22,295
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n i 1096000 71,240

S Y S T E M - W I D E COSTS
Water S u p p l y 1555000 101,075
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n 121000 7,865
C02 D i s t r t b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y Syatem 104000 6 760
01 owdown D i s p o e a l System
B u i l d i n g s (harv. b l d s , n o t 200000 13,000
Roads & d r a i n a g e
Electrical Distributton
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machrnery

TOTAL

HECTARE

* Rssumes e l e c t r i c i t y c o s t s S o . 0 6 5 / kw-hr
*# Maintanence m a t e r i a l s o n l y
 about $10-26lmeter ($3-8/ft), depending on s i z e ,

The water d i s t r i b u t i o n system i n c l u d e s e v e y t h i n g beyond t h e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r

and water c o n d i t i o n i n g system. Three v e r t i c a l p r o p e l l e r pumps f e e d i n t o a
p i p i n g n e t w o r k t h a t s u p p l i e s makeup water t o t h e g r o w t h ponds. The system
schematic i s shown i n F i g u r e 9-1, a l o n g w i t h p i p e s i z e s , f l a w r a t e s , and
pressure losses. The f l o w s a r e f o r e v a p o r a t i v e makeup o n l y , t h e blowdown
make-up i s added when t h e pond i s r e f i l l e d a f t e r h a r v e s t i n g . I n a system
u s i n g s e t t l i n g ponds, t h e c e n t r a l c o r r i d o r i s f a i r l y wide, ( a b o u t 110 m e t e r s ) ,
so i t i s more p r a c t i c a l two use t n o d i s t r i b u t i o n mains which r u n down e i t h e r
s i d e of t h e c e n t r a l c o r r i d o r . A puap s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d a t t h e s t o r a g e
reservoir. P r e s s u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a s s u r e d t o equal t h e dynamic ( m a i n l y
p i p e f r i c t i o n ) l o s s e s , s i n c e some s t a t i c head i s a v a i l a b l e a t t h e r e s e r v o i r .
The water d i s t r i b u t i o n system c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y o p e r a t e by g r a v i t y f l o w , b u t
t h i s assumption was n o t made.

T a b l e 9-3 Water Supply System Cost

Pipe Total Installed Total

Size D i stance Cost Cost
inches meters f e e t $ / ft t
.....................................................................
10' dia. 4024 13200 $6.00 $73,200
15" dia. 005 2640 9.00 23,760
20" dia. 805 2640 15.00 36,600
24H dia. 500 1640 2 1.00 34,440
------
TOTAL PIPING $177,000

VALVES & FITTINGS 30 000

DRILLING t CASINGS 8 x 400 f t B %50/ft 160,000

PUMPS, Submersible S.S. 8 x $10,000

E l e c t r i c a l equipment
I n s t a ll a t i o n

HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES & TESTING

* STORAGE RESERVOIR
9.2 C02 SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION

The s o u r c e o f C02 f o r m i c r o a l g a e p r o d u c t i o n has been examined i n some

d e t a i l C93. I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t C02 c o u l d be a c q u i r e d f r o m e x i s t i n g o r
proposed power p l a n t s and t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o n enhance o i l r e c o v e r (EOR)
would n o t pose a s e r i o u s problem. The c o s t o f CD2 d e r i v e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n
depended on a number o f assumptions r e g a r d i n g s c a l e , l o c a t i o n , ownership of
t h e power p l a n t , e t c . , and ranged from $0.07 - $0.21/m3. T h i s r e p o r t does
n o t a t t e m p t t o r e f i n e t h e SERf e s t i m a t e s . I n s t e a d , t h e C02 c o s t i s t r e a t e d
as a v a r i a b l e , and s u b j e c t e d t o a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s i n S e c t i o n 11.

The d e s i g n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system depends upon t h e p r e s s u r e a t which

C02 i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e s i t e , assuming t h a t about 2.5 p s i i s r e q u i r e d a t
t h e pond t o s a t i s f y t h e s t a t i c head and s p a r g e r l o s s e s (1.5, 1 p s i
respectively). I f t h i s pressure i s h i g h 0 5 0 p s i ) , then t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
network can c o n s i s t o f v e r y s m a l l ( 6 " and l e s s ) p i p e s i z e s . For medium
p r e s s u r e s (e.g. 10 p s i ) , p i p e s i z e s would r a n g e f r o n 8 " t o 3 " . F o r v e r y low
p r e s s u r e s (3.5 p s i , o r a 1 p s i drop t h r o u g h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ) , s i z e s
would range f r o m 12" t o 4 " . The l a t t e r m i g h t a p p l y t o a system which
r e c o v e r e d u n p u r i f i e d f l u e gas a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . I n such a case, a
t r a d e - o f f e x i s t 6 between compressing t o medium p r e s s u r e ( l o w e r c a p i t a l c o s t ,
h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s ) v e r s u s low p r e s s u r e ( h i g h e r c a p i t a l c o s t , l o w e r
o p e r a t i n g c o s t ) . A h i g h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n system i s n o t p r a c t i c a l , s i n c e
t h e compressors r e q u i r e d a r e v e r y e x p e n s i v e compared t o t h e h i g h v o l u a e
t u r b o b l o w e r s t h a t would be used f o r low o r medium p r e s s u r e s . The l o w ve.
r e d i u m p r e s s u r e t r a d e - o f f war n o t e v a l u a t e d , because t h e impact on o v e r a l l
costs i s very small. The medium p r e s s u r e case was used t o s i z e t h e C02
d i s t r i b u t i o n network. The c o s t o f C02 i s assured t o i n c l u d e d e l i v e r y a t 10
p % i , e x c e p t i n t h e n u t r i e n t r e c y c l e s c e n a r i o , where c o a p r e s a i o n c o s t s f o r t h e
a n a e r o b i c l a g o o n f l u e gas a r e i n c l u d e d (see S e c t i o n s B t 9 1 ) .

S i n c e t h e s u p p l y c o s t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e d e l i v e r e d u n i t CD2 c o s t , and t h e
f l o w m e t e r i n g and c o n t r o l systems were i n c l u d e d under g r o w t h pond c a r b o n a t i o n
( S e c t i o n 7.3.61, t h e c o s t s shown i n T a b l e 9-1 c o n s i s t s o l e l y o f t h o p i p i n g
network, which i s i t e m i z e d i n T a b l e 9-4. Except f o r t h e p i p e s i n e s , t h e
network i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e makeup water d i s t r i b u t i o n system, and
t h e r e f o r e i s n o t shown.

9.3 NUTRIENTS

The t y p e s o f n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e d and t h e i r s o u r c e i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 10.

L i q u i d ammonia i s used f o r n i t r o g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s . A11 o t h e r n u t r i e n t s a r e
purchased as s a l t s . S i n c e a l l o f t h e n u t r i e n t s a t e added a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
t h e b a t c h , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f soae a d d i t i o n a l ammonia d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t two days, t h e f a c i l i t i e s can be l o c a t e d a t t h e h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n s ,
w i t h n u t r i e n t s b e i n g added i n t o t h e r e t u r n f l o w network. I f necessary, an
ammonia t a n k can be l o c a t e d a t each s e t o f ponds f o r supplemental n i t r o g e n .
I n general, a b a t c h growth c y c l e g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e process o f n u t r i e n t
additions.

S i n c e t h e c o s t o f adding n u t r i e n t s ( o t h e r t h a n C O Z ) i s minor, r d e t a i l e d
d e s i g n was n o t performed. An e s t i m a t e of $40,000 per h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n p l u s
$2500 per s e t o f ponds, f o r a t o t a l o f $150,000 na5 i n c l u d e d i n Table 9-1.

TLBLE 9-4 C02 D I S T R I B U T I O N NETWORK CAPITAL COSTS

Pipe Tot a1 I n e t a1 l e d total

Size Distance Cost Cost
inches meters feet $1 f t $
-,1-------11-----1---------------CL-I.*.r)--w--------w-------"--"-"---------9-

8 134E1 4420 5,OO $22,i00

b 603 2240 4.00 8 960
4 372 1220 3m50 4,270
3 k h 40) 366 1200 3.50 4,200
--C*--

PIPE TOTAL 39,500

VALVES, FITTINOS, nlsc.

TOTAL

9.4 BLOWDOWN DISPOSAL SYSTEM

The i s s u e o f blowdonn was d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2. A blowdown r a t e e q u i v a l e n t

t o 14% of the e v a p o r a t i v e r a t e is s p e c i f i e d . For an a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n of 1
c d d a y , t h e blowdown f l o a r a t r i s 2700m3/day (95,000 f t 3 / d a y ) . The
blondown i s t a k e n from t h e centrifuge e f f l u e n t stream, a n d pumped t o
e v a p o r a t i o n ponds, where i t i s c o n c e n t r a t e d b a c k t o s o l i d form. U l t i m a t e
d i s p o s a l i s b y t r u c k i n g t h e a a l t t o a s u i t a b l e l a n d f i l l . The e v a p o r a t i o n
p o n d s cover 27 h e c t a r e s (14% o f the growth pond a r e a ) , a n d c o n s i g t o f
s h a l l o w , u n l i n e d o e r t h e n ponds. These ponds c a s t about $110,000 t o
c o n s t r u c t , w i t h a n o t h e r $50,000 budgeted f o r puaps, p i p i n g a n d m i s c . , f o r a
t o t a l of 5160,000. A c o s t o f I c l k g algae ( 0 . 6 7 c l k g s a l t ) i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e
operating cost for ultimate s a l t disposal,

B u i l d i n g s i n c l u d e an o f f i c e , l a b , shop, and s t o r a g e sheds f o r n u t r i e n t s and

machinery. T h e c o a t o f b u i l d i n g s f o r h a r v e s t i n g machinery was i n c l u d e d i n
the h a r v e s t i n g c o s t e s t i m a t e s . The o f f i c e s , l a b , a n d c u l t u r e rooms can be
l a r g e permanent t r a i l e r s . The shop h a s a c o n c r e t e f l o o r and u t i l i t i e s . Tho
s h e d s have c o n c r e t e f 1 o o r s , a r e open on one a i d e , and have a minimum of
utilities. A rough e s t i m a t e of t h e b u i l d i n g c o s t s i s given i n Table 9 - 5 .

Table 9-5 Building C o s t s

O f f i c e s ( t r a i l e r s ) : 1000 f t 2 C $ 3 0 / f t 2 130,000

Lab, c u l t u r e r o o a s ( t r a i l e r s ) : 1 0 0 0 f t 2 ~ $ 3 0 / f t 2 $30,000

Shop: 2200 f t 2 Q f 1 s / f t 2 33,000

Sheds; 2000 f t 2 Q $ 8 . 5 / f t 2

TOThL

9.6 ROADS AND DRAINAGE

Roads and d r a i n a g e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e i n t h e absence of a s p e c i f i c

s i t e . If t h e perimeter w a l l s of t h e pond s y s t e r a r e e a r t h berms, then t h e
c o s t of upgrading them t o r o a d s (unpaved) i s minor, s i n c e l a r g e amounts of
crushed rock i s a l r e a d y being imported f o r p ~ n dl i n i n g , D r a i n a g ~would
i n v o l v e c o n s t r u c t i o n of d i v e r s i o n c h a n n e l s ( i f n e c e s s a r y ) , p l a c i n g of
c u l v e r t s , e t c , and would be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o gron pond @arthworks. A f i g u r e
of $100,000 i s assigned t o r o a d s and d r a i n a g e .

9.7 ELECTRICAL SUPPLY A N D DISTRIBUTION

E l e c t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e c o s t of a l l o n - s i t e power d i s t r i b u t i o n
and w i r i n g , e x c l u s i v e of t h e u t i l i t y s e r v i c e , s u b s t a t i o n , and motor s t a r t e r s
and controller-s Ith, l a t t e r were included i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o s t e s t i m a t e s ) .
Power d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r e normally e s t i m a t e d i n terms of t o t a l f a c i l i t y
c o s t , t a k i n g both complexity and s c a l e i n t o account. Given t h e size and
r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y of t h o s y s t e r , a f a c t o r of 3% i s used. Considering t h a t
so much of t h e f a c i l i t i e s c o s t i a f o r earthworks and pond w a l l s , which have
no e l e c t r i c a l power requirements, t h i s e s t i m a t e i s q u i t e reasonable.

In o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t a f i g u r e f o r e l e c t r i c a l supply, i t was a r b i t r a r i l y
assumed t h a t S m i l e s of t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s would be r e q u i r e d . fl r e c e n t
e s t i a a t e f o r from t h e Imperial I r r i g a t i o n D i s t r i c t af $ 3 / f t ( e s s e n t i a l l y
independent o f l o a d ) was used +or transrission line cooto (980,000) a fin
a d d i t i o n a l 143,000 ( a g a i n IID e s t i m a t e ) was a l l o c a t e d f o r t h e s u b s t a t i o n c o s t
(1000 k V A ) , f o r a t o t a l of $113,000 f o r e l e c t r i c a l supply,
9 . 0 H4CH I NERY

A b u d g e t o f 980,000 i s i n c l u d e d f o r v e h i c l e s and m a c h i n e r y . Typical

requirements w o u l d be t w o p i c k - u p t r u c k s , one f l a t b e d t r u c k , a
bachhoe-loader, and misc. shop m a c h i n e r y ,

9 . 9 OTHER COSTS SHOWN I N T4BLE 9-1

The r e m a i n i n g c o s t s shown i n T a b l e 9-1 (engineering, c o n t i n g e n c y , l a n d ) , a r e

t a k e n f r o m t h e SERl e c o n o a i c r o d e l . The l a n d c o g t is based on a t o t a l l a n d
r e q u i r e m e n t o f t w o times t h e g r o w t h pond a r e a . Actual land requirements a r e
q u i t e s e n s i t i v h t o t h e well s p a c i n g , w h i c h is d i f f i c u l t t o estimate,
However, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d c o s t t o t o t a l c o s t i s m i n o r , so t h a t an
e r r o r w i l l have v e r y l i t t l e e f h c t , especially on an annualized b a s i s .
 SECTION 10.0

LARGE SCALE SYSTEM OPERATIONS AND OPERATING COSTS

10.1 OPERATIONS OVERVIEW

The o p e r a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d b e l o w f o r m t h e Base Case t h a t s e r v e s a s t h e

r e f e r e n c e f o r c o s t s e n s i t i t y a n a l y s e s i n S e c t i o n 11.0. Deviations from t h i s
case a r e so l a b e l e d .

The b a s i c o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l l a r g e s c a l e s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of b a t c h
g r o w t h f o l l o w e d b y b a t c h a c c u m u l a t i o n o f l i p i d s ( t o 50% o f t h e ash f r e e d r y
weight) induced by n i t r o g e n l i m i t a t i o n . Both processes are i n v i s i o n e d t o
t a k e p l a c e i n t h e same pond. Recent r e s u l t s o f Laws 131 i n d i c a t e t h a t h i g h
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f n i t r o g e n s u f f i c i e n t biomass i s a t t a i n a b l e i n b a t c h c u l t u r e .
The b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t y a f t e r n i t r o g e n depletion f r o m t h e medium, i n b a t c h
o p e r a t i o n , ha6 been shown t1,103 t o be n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h a t o f n i t r o g e n
s u f f i c i e n t b a t c h g r o w t h when c a r b o h y d r a t e i s a c c u m u l a t e d . For l i p i d
a c c u m u l a t i o n , a h i g h e r h e a t i n g v a l u e must b e a s c r i b e d t o t h e b i o m a s s so t h a t ,
on a d r y w e i g h t b a s i s some d e c r e a s e i n b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t y must b e
expected. T h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no e v i d e n c e t h a t a l g a e have a h i g h enough l i p i d
c o n t e n t d u r i n g a c t i v e growth. S i n c e n i t r o g e n s u f f i c i e n t b a t c h growth appears
t o b e p r o d u c t i v e , and l i p i d a c c u m u l a t i o n a u s t b e done i n b a t c h , t h e r e i s no
r e a l r e a s o n t o o p e r a t e any o f t h e s y s t e m c o n t i n u o u s l y . C e l l s would
accumulate s t o r a g e p r o d u c t s under n i t r o g e n d e p l e t e d c o n t i n u o u s d i l u t i o n , b u t
much o f t h e b i o m a s s h a r v e s t e d w o u l d n o t b e i n d u c e d , o r o n l y p a r t i a l l y so.

The a v e r a g e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s y s t e m i s p o s t u l a t e d t o b e 30 gm/m2/day
a v e r a g e d o v e r a 360 day y e a r . This i s equal t a a photosynthetic e f f i c i e n c y
o f 7.5% o f v i s i b l e l i g h t . P r o d u c t i v i t y i s e x p e c t e d t o be l o w e r d u r i n g t h e
l a t e f a l l , w i n t e r , and e a r l y s p r i n g and h i g h e r a t o t h e r t i m e s . The d e n s i t y
o f c u l t u r e s r e f l e c t s t h i s , b e i n g l o w e r d u r i n g c o o l e r , l e s s sunny t i m e s o f t h e
year. S i n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y i s n o t a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e and
i n s o l a t i o n , b a t c h d e n s i t y w o u l d b e l o w e r when p r o d u c t i v i t y i s l o w e r , even
though d e t e n t i o n t i m e s a r e longer. A t times o f high productivity, nitrogen
s u f f i c i e n t b a t c h g r o w t h w o u l d l a s t f r o m 1.5 t o 2 days f o l l o w e d b y a 2-3 day
induction period. A t t i m e s o f l a w t o moderate p r o d u c t i v i t y , t h e s e p e r l o d s
w o u l d be, on a v e r a g e , 2-3 d a y s and 3-4 days. The d e n s i t y a c h i e v e d when
n i t r o g e n f i r s t becomes d e p l e t e d f r o m t h e medium a r e , f o r t h e t w o eases
r e s p e c t i v e l y , 400-500 ppm and 250-300 ppm. T h i s w o u l d i n c r e a s e u n d e r
i n d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s by a f a c t o r o f a b o u t t w o t o 800-1000 ppm and 500-600 ppm
f o r t h e t w o a v e r a g e cases, Thus, a t t h e t i m e o f h a r v e s t t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e
c u l t u r e s would r a n g e between 500 and 1000 ppm w i t h a l i p i d c u n t e n t o f a b o u t
SOX and a n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f a b o u t 4 X , w i t h 20-25 X p r o t e i n 15-207.
c a r b o h y d r a t e and a b a l a n c e o f i O X o t h e r c h e m i c a l s .

The i n d u c e d b i o m a s a i s t o b e h a r v e s t e d e i t h e r b y a t w o - s t a g e s e t t l i n g p r o c e s s
o r b y f l o t a t i o n f o l l o w e d b y foam c o l l e c t i o n . E i t h e r p r o c e s s would be
f o l l o w e d b y c e n t r i f u g i n g m a t e r i a l c o n c e n t r a t e d b y a f a c t o r o f 50. The
p r i m a r y h a r v e s t i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e n o t e x p e c t e d t o b e 100% e f f i c i e n t . T h i s is
n o t a p r o b l e m s i n c e an i n o c u l u m must b e l e f t f o r s t a r t o f t h e s u c c e e d i n g
batch. A h a r v e s t i n g efficiency o f 90% is p o s t u l a t e d f o r t h e Base Case. The
c e n t r i f u g a t i o n o f t h e 205% s l u r r y i n c r e a s e s t h e d e n s i t y t o 10-20X ash f r e e
solids,

Since s u b s t a n t i a l performance i s b e i n g expected o f the p r i m a r y h a r v e s t i n g

p r o c e s s , i t may become n e c e s s a r y t o u s e c h e m i c a l f l o c c u l a n t s t o a i d
c l a r i f i c a t i o n r a t e and e f f i c i e n c y . The dose o f c h e m i c a l i s p o s t u l a t e d t o be
low (<t.OZ/kg biomass). I n t h e Base Case, t h e c o s t o f p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n is
s e t a t $ . O l / k g h a r v e s t e d biomass,

The o r g a n i s m r e q u i r e d t~ f u n c t i o n i n t h i s s y s t e m must possess s e v e r a l

important characteristics. I t r u s t be c o m p e t i t i v e , p r ~ d u c t i v e , i n d u c e l i p i d
p r o l i f i c a l l y , n o t b e s u b j e c t t o i n h i b i t i o n by l i g h t , oxygen o r f l u c t u a t i o n s
i n t e m p e r a t u r e , and i t must be a b l e t o r e c o v e r f r o m d e p i g m e n t a t i o n q u i e k l y
and become h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e soon a f t e r n i t r o g e n is r e p l e n i s h e d i n t h e
medium, Each o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s been o b s e r v e d i n a t l e a ~ ts o r e
o r g a n i s m , b u t n o t a l l i n any one o r g a n i s m , However, a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o
f i n d such an o r g a n i s m has j u s t r e c e n t l y begun a t SERI. P r o b a b l y t h e most
s e v e r e c r i t e r i o n o f t h o s e l i s t e d i s t h e a b i l i t y t o s t o r e l a r g e amounts o f
l i p i d quickly. A r e c e n t l y i s o l a t e d c h r y s o p h y t e , c a l l e d ChryggmEI, i s
t e n t a t i v e l y chosen as a t e s t o r g a n i s m , I t aecululates l i p i d s p r o l i f i c a l l y
( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 0. B a r c l a y o f S E R I ) , has a b r o a d s a l i n i t y t o l e r a n c e ,
b u t must b e t e s t e d f a r i t s t o l e r a n c e t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . The P1giyin"gn2,g2-
grown i n H a w a i i , a l t h o u g h n o t a l i p i d p r o d u c e r , w i l l b e used as a
p r o d u c t i v i t y s t a n d a r d , s i n c e i t i s , as o f now, t h e nost p r o d u c t i v e o r g a n i u m
grown i n i n t e n s i v e , o u t d o o r c u l t u r e .
Carbon i s t o be s u p p l i e d as p u r i f i e d C O Z Y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e ponds v i a
sumps 1.5 m deep. The s o u r c e o f carbon, a t a 400 h e c t a r e s c a l e must e i t h e r
be commercial o r , i n t h e b e s t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s a C02 w e l l near t h e s i t e .
Power p l a n t carbon c o n t a i n i n g gases a r e n o t a f e a s i b l e s o u r c e a t t h i s
r e l a t i v e l y small scale. The a l g a l biomass, a f t e r e x t r a c t i o n o f t h e l i p i d
component, w i l l be a n a e r o b i c a l l y decomposed i n a covered l a g o o n from which
t h e l i b e r a t e d gases a r e r e c o v e r e d . The methane energy i s t o be c o n v e r t e d t o
h e a t and e l e c t r i c t y w i t h t h o C02 r e m a i n i n g r e c y c l e d f o r t h e g r o w t h o f more
a l g a l biomass. 34% o f t h e carbon needed f o r new g r o w t h can be p r o v i d e d i n
t h i s manner, r e d u c i n g t h e demand o f new carbon t o a l g a e r a t i o f r o m 1:1.7 t o
1:2.4. The r e c y c l e of n u t r i e n t s from t h e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r i s n o t i n c l u d e d
i n t h e Base Case.

The water r e s o u r c e s p e c i f i e d f o r use i m t M s system i s s i m i l a r t o t h e Type I 1

n a t e r d e s c r i b e d by SERI. T h i s water has a TDS o f 4 p p t , an a l k a l i n t y o f
13-15 r e q / l and a Ca c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 mH. The water needs t o be
c o n d i t i o n e d by e q u i l i b r a t i o n , i n h o l d i n g ponds, w i t h t h e atmosphere t o i n d u c e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f t h e c a l c i u m as c a l c i u m carbonate. The p r e c i p i t a t e w i l l be
removed b y alum o r l r m e f l o c c u l a t i o n , i f n e c e s s a r y , and s e d i m e n t a t i o n . The
r e s u l t i n g water i s l o w i n c a l c i u m ( 1 rH i s t h e p r a c t i c a l l o w e r l i m i t ) and
s t i l l c o n t a i n s about 4 r e q / l a l k a l i n i t y . fin e i q h t - f o l d average c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f s o l u t e s i s a c h i e v e d when an average amount o f water i s blonndown which
e q u a l s 1 / 7 o f t h e average e v a p o r a t i o n . S i n c e t h e system i s t o be o p e r a t e d i n
b a t c h , t h e s a l i n i t y w i l l f l u c t u a t e soaewhat, b u t t h i s i s a secondary e f f e c t .
Thus t h e pond m e d i u ~w i l l avaraqe 32 p p t TDS.

The a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.5 m t o f s a l t s produced p e r m t o f a l g a l biomass w i l l be

t r a n s p o r t e d t o a l a r g e body of s a l t water, o r o t h e r d i s p o s a l s i t e , a t a e o s t
o f .67 c e n t s p e r kg. The s l u d g e f r o m t h e l a g o o n w i l l be d r i e d i n s l u d g e
d r y i n g beds and plowed i n on s i t e .
10.2 OPERIITIONAL COSTS OF A 1000 4CRE SYSTEH

The parameters o f t h e Base Case d e s l q n uf t h e l r r ~ es c a l e s y s t e m a r e

s u m m a r ~ t e d i n T a b l e 10-1. T h i s d e s i g n i s uaed i n S e c t i o n 11.0 a s t h e
r e t e r e n c e case t o r c o s t sensitivitv a n a l y s i s ,

T a b l e 10-1. Base Case Oesiqn Parameters

Parameter Spec1 f i c a t i o n
- - - - - - - - o - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - o - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Pond s l z e , h e c t a r e s
P o n d s / modul e
Module s i z e , h e c t a r e s
Number 04 modules
l a n d required/lU00 a c r e s
growth ponds, acres
Evaporation r a t e ,
n/ d / y r
Blow 'down r a t i o
Water r e q u i r e m e n t ,
m3/ y r
A v c r a q e well d e p t h , m
Pond d e p t h , m
Pond volume, n3
System v o l u m e . a3
TDS o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e ,
P P ~
O p e r a t i n g TDS, p p t
S a l t disposal mt/yr
E r o w i n q season, d a y s
Daily p r a d u c t ~ v i t y ,
qm/m2/d
Total production, mt/yr
Lipid content, X
Pond channel velocity,
cnrls 20
Carbon s o u r c e P u r i f i e d C02
N i t r o g e n source fimrnon I a
Phosphorus s o u r c e Superphosphate
The o p e r a t i n q c o s t s o f t h e Base Case d e s i q n a r e 5 u ~ m a r i Z e di n T a b l e 10-2. fill
c o s t s a r e g i v e n on a p e r h e c t a r e p e r v e a r b a s i s , a p e r module ( 1 9 2 h a ) p e r
Year b a s i s , and on a t o t a l c o s t p e r 1000 a c r e p e r y e a r . For t h e chemical
i n p u t s , t h e u n i t r e q u i r e m e n t and t h e u n i t c o s t a r e q i v e n as w e l l . Power u n i t
c o s t i s t a k e n a t 6.5 c e n t s p e r k i l w a t t h o u r . Disposal of s a l t s contained i n
t h e blowdown ( e v a p o r a t e d and t r a n s p o r t e d t o a d i s p o s a l s i t e ) i s t a k e n as . 6 7
C e n t s p e r kg s a l t p r o d u c e d . The breakdown o f t h e m a i n t a n a n c e and l a b o r c o s t s
a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 9-2 and 10-3 r e s p e c t i v e l v .

The c a r b o n s o u r c e i s p u r i f i e d C02, a t a l o w c o s t o f $35/mt. This value i s

varied i n t h e s e n s i t i v i t y analysis presented l a t e r . 2.2 k q C02 i s r e q u i r e d
t o p r o d u c e a k q o f a l q a l b i o m a s s a t 50% l i p i d . L o s s e s a r e assumed t o be l e s s
t h a n 5%. N i t r o q e n , a t $250/mt i s d e r i v e d f r o m ammonia, and u s e d w i t h a 75%
e f f i c i e n c y t o cover losses. The p h o s p h o r u s , a t t 9 0 0 l m t as d e r i v e d f r o m
superphosphate. I r o n i s added a s f e r r o u s s u l f a t e and c o s t s t 5 0 0 / m t Fe. 411
o t h e r n u t r i e n t s a r e assumed t o be p r e s e n t i n t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e , o r as a t r a c e
c o n t a m i n a n t o f t h e above n u t r i e n t s . Even w i t h t h e l o w p r i c e o f C02 assumed,
t h i s one i n p u t a l o n e d o m i n a t e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r i c e o f t h e a l q a l biomass.

A h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t polymer i s i n c l u d e d t o f l o c c u l a t e t h e a l q a l biomass
p r i o r t o p r i m a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a s e t t l i n g pond. I t i s assumed t h a t I ppm
o f p o l v m e r i s r e q u i r e d f o r each 500 ppm biomass. The c o s t o f t h e p o l v m e r i s
$5.00/ kg.

The o n l y o p e r a t i n g c o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e i s t h e c o s t o f
pumping f r o m a 50 m deep w e l l and t r a n s p o r t t o t h e h o l d i n o ponds. Water
c o n d i t i o n i n g i s presumed t o o c c u r d u r i n q t h e e i q h t day h o l d i n q t i m e , and i s
due t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e b y t h e a l k a l l n i t y i n t h e w a t e r
upon e q u i l i b r a t i o n w i t h t h e atmosphere. Power c o s t s a r e i n c l u d e d f o r m i x i n g ,
h a r v e s t i n g ( d o m i n a t e d b y c e n t r i f u g e p o w e r ) , n u t r i e n t s u p p l y pumping, and
building utilities.

The m a i n t e n a n c e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e f o r m a t e r i a l s o n l y , a s d e t a i l e d i n T a b l e
9-2 o f S e c t i o n 9.0. The l a b o r f o r m a i n t e n a n c e i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e p e r s o n n e l
breakdown l i s t e d i n T a b l e 10-3 E s t i m a t e s a r e based on f i v e s h i f t s p e r week,
360 d a y s p e r o p e r a t i o n , and r o u g h judqement o f p e o p l e needed en hand.

F o r t h i s b a s e case, t h e t o t a l , n o n - a n n u a l i z e d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e $ 6 . 2 m i l l i o n
f o r t h e 45,450 m t o f a l g a l b i o m a s s p r o d u c e d . f i t 50% l i p i d and a c o n v e r s i o n o f
7.14 b b l l i p i d p e r m t l i p i d , t h e " l i p i d o i l " p r o d u c e d e q u a l s 140,000 b b l / y r ,
The c a p i t a l c o s t summary was g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 9.0. Together w i t h t h e
o p e r a t i n q c o s t summary T a b l e 10-2, t h e t o t a l a n n u a l i z e d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t w i l l
b e c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n u s i n g t h e SERL economic model.
 T a b l e 10-2 T o t a l Operating Costs - Base Case

QUPIN UNIT I.L- YEARLY C O S T , Thousands ---

RED ' D COST 192 h a t O O O ac

kg/ kq $/mt S/ha/yr

NUTRIENTS t 1 ) ----- ---- -------
C02 2.2 35 $8.65
N , a s NH3 0.053 250 1.47
P , a s Superphosphate 0.005 900 0.51
F e , a s FeS04 0.005 500 0.28
------
Total $10.91

FLOCCULANT

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water S u p p l y
Nutrient S u p p l y
Bui ldings

Total

SALT D I S P O S A L

MAINTANENCE (matl's)

LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg k g required / k g a l g a e produced

(21 See T a b l e 9-2
( 3 ) See T a b l e 10-3
* 192 ha b a s i s
 [ a b l e 10-3. Labor R e q u i r e d f o r 1000 A c r e Svstem

...............................................................................
litle No. Hrs/Yr $/Hr $/Yr
...............................................................................
P l a n t Hanaqer 1 2080 25 52000

S h i f t Supervisors 4 2080 17 141,440

Pond O p e r a t o r s 10 2080 10 166,400

Centrifuoe Operators 5 2080 12 124.800

L a b o r a t o r v Hanaqer 1 2080 17 35 ,'360

Laboratory rechnicians 2 2080 10 41.600

TOTAL 561,600
 SECTION 11.0

E C O N O M I C ANALYSIS OF A 1000 ACRE ALGAL PRODUCTION SYSTEH

11.1 BkSE CASE

f h e capital c o s t o f t h e Base Case d e s i q n was p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-1, t h e

o p e r a t i n q c o s t s i n T a b l e 10-2. h p p e n d i x V i c o n t a l n s t h e s e t a b l e s a q a z n as
w e l l as t h e c a p l t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s f o r a l l o f t h e s e n s i t i v l t v a n a l y s e s ,
I n t h e Base Case t h e b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t y i s 45.5 x l u 3 a t / v r a t a lipid
c o n t e n t a+ S O X . T h i s 1 s w e l l i n e x c e s s o f any c u r r e n t l y achievable l i p i d
p r o d u c t ~ v i t y . The b i o m a s s production v a l u e has been achieved, on a y e a r r o u n d
b a s i s C33, b u t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s a f n u t r i e n t s u + f i c i e n c v and a t IS-20% l i p i d
content. The p r i c e o f C U 2 used i n t h e Base Case i s S 3 5 / m t whlch i s a b o u t as
much a 5 a v e r v l a r g e s c a l e u s e r would b e c h a r g e d f o r c o m m e r c i a l LO2 i f
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d ~ s t a n c ewere less t h a n 200 m i l e s . The i n s t a l l e d s y s t e m c o s t
i s $76,600 p e r h e c t a r e u s i n g a l o w c o s t system d e s i g n and f a v o r a b l e
a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f l a n d and o t h e r r e s o u r c e s needed + o r
system c o n s t r u c t i o n . The t o t a l c a p i t a l c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n i s $25 m i l l i o n
dollars, Thus t h e Base Case must b e c o n s i d e r e d v e r v o p t i m i s t i c i n t e r m s o f
l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t v , n u t r i e n t c o s t s , and a t t a i n m e n t o # c a p i t a l c o r t g o a l s . In
t h i s s e c t i o n . t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t o f a l g a l bromass and
l i p i d a i l ( u n e x t r a c t e d ) , t o t h e s e assumptions w i l l be analyzed t o d e t e r m i n e
where t h e f u t u r e work must b e c o n c e n t r a t e d .

T a b l e 11-1 shows t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t d a t a o f t h e Base Case u s i n g t h e S E R I

economic model. The p a r a m e t e r s o f t h i s model a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 11-2, II
q u i c k g l a n c e a t t h e economic f i g u r e r r e v e a l s t h a t e v e n a t f 3 5 / m t . G O 2 c o s t s
d o m i n a t e t h e Base Case econamics. H a l f o f t h e a n n u a l l z e d p r o d u c t ~ o nc a s t s
come f r o m t h i s . U n l e s s t h e p r l c e , o r q u a n t i t y o f C02 i s reduced, t h e
economics a + p r o d u c i n q Low v a l u e p r o d u c t s f r o m a l g a e c a n n o t i m p r o v e
siqnificantly, In a d d i t i o n , I n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y h a v e r e l a t i v e l y t i t t l e
e f f e c t on f i n a l c o s t s when CU2 i s so d o m i n a n t a f a c t o r . Thus o n l y some
i n i t i a l s e n s i t i v i t y is p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e Base Case as t h e r e + e r e n c e l e v e l .
The c o s t o f t h e c a r b o n i n p u t rs s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f an
anaerobic laqoon, i n which e x t r a c t i o n r e s l d u e s c o n t a i n i n q about h a l f o f t h e
a l g a l c a r b o n , a r e d e g r a d e d t o v o l a t i l e c a r b o n gases w h i c h a r e r e c y c l e d t o t h e
qrowth ponds. The d e s i g n o f an e f f i c i e n t , l a w c o s t r e c v c l i n g system, i s an
i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o+ t h e l a r g e s c a l e d e s i g n and e x p e r z r n e n t a l s y s t e m t e s t s .

11.2 SENSITIVITY OF BhSE CASE TO P R O D U C T I V I T Y CHANGES

T a b l e 11-3 shows t h e e f f e c t o f v a r y i n g t h e s y s t e m b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t y on t h e
annualized production costs. Capital costs o f sore items, l i k e centrifuges,
were i n c r e a s e d u s i n g a s c a l e f a c t o r o f ,7. However, n o i n c r e a s e s i n c a p i t a l
c o s t s were assumed n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e t w o and t h r e e . f o l d i n c r e a s e s i n
p r o d u c t i v i t y analyzed. The m a j o r increases came i n o p e r a t i n g c o s t s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p r o p o r t i o n a l i n c r e a s e s i n t h e CO2 r e q u i r e d . Ooublinq the
 Table 1 1 - 1 Base Case Economic Analysis

INPUTS BASE CASE

.............................................
Depreciable capital investment $13,940,000
Non-Deprec capital investment 11,060,000
Annual operating costs 6,180,000
Annual maintenance costs 510,000
System algal yield m t / v r 45450
System Lipid yield bbls/yr 150000
Carbohydrate yield m t / y r 910Q
Protein yield m t / y r 9100

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Cost of capital 0.0475
Cap Recov Factor (book life) 0.0692
Cap Recov Factor (depr life) 0.0943
Fixed Charge Rate 0.0951

P V of Capital Investment $17,349,560

PV of NonDsprsc Invaatmrnt 13,765,150
PV of Operating costs 123,965,000
PV of Maintenance costs 10,930,980

TOTAL PV OF FACILITY $166,010,700

Annualized Cost Algae Plant $11,934,510

LIPID only price $ / b b l 79.56
ALGAE prico $ / m t 262.59

L i p i d price b y weight $ / m t 304.6r8

Lipid price b y value S/mt 284.56
Protein price b y weight $ / m t 304.68
Protein price by value $ / m t 327.07
Carbohyd price b y weight $/mt 304.68
Carbohyd price b y value $/mt 327.87

Annual i zed Capi tal Cost DCI $1,650,002

Annualized Capital Cost NCDI 952,285
Annualized Operating cost OPP 8,976 007
Annualized Mainten. Cost HNT 756,215
Annualized Cost Total A AP 11,934,508

Annualized Capital Cost DCI 13.8%

Annualized Capital Cost NCDI 9,0%
Annualized Operating cost OPP 71.9%
Annualized Mainten. Cost NNT 6.3%
Annualized Cost Total AAP 100. 0%
 T a b l e 11-2 Economic Model I n p u t P a r a m e t e r s

FINRNCIAL PARAllETERS
Base y e a r f o r c o n s t a n t d o l l a r s
Year f o r i n v e s t m e n t o u t l a y
Year f o r c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n
Year f i r s t c o m m e r c i a l o p e r
System o p e r l i f e (baok l i f e )
fax l i f e f o r depreciation
annual other taxes f n o f C I
Annual i n s premium f n o f G I
E f f e c t i v e income t a x r a t e
Investment tax c r e d i t
Debt:tctal capitalization
Common S t k : t o t c a p i t a l i z a t i o n
Prefer Stk:tot capitalization
Ann r a t e r e t u r n on d e b t
hnn r a t e r e t u r n common stk
Ann r a t e r e t u r n p r e f e r stk
R a t e o f general i n f l a t i o n
Escalation capital costs
Escalation operating costs
E s c a l a t i o n maintenance c o s t s
Cost c a p i t a l [ o p t i o n a l )
Cap Recovery F a c t o r ( o p t i o n a l )
F i x e d Charge R a t e ( o p t i o n a l )
L i p i d c r e d i t $/st
Protein credit $/nt
Carbohydrate credit t / m t
p r o d u c t i v i t y o n l y d e c r e a s e s u n i t p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s b y 207.. '[ripling
p r o d u c t i v i t y o n l y l e a d s t o a f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e o f l e s s t h a n 5 % . o r 23%
r e d u c t i o n f r o m t h e Base Case. Thus p r o d u c t i v i t y enhancement w i l l o n l y be
meaningful i f t h e amount o r c o s t o f C02 i s d e c r e a s e d . The c o s t was a l r e a d y
assumed t o be q u i t e low. The r e c v c l i n g o f c a r b o n w i l l b e seen t o d r a m a t i c a i l v
a f f e c t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f production costs t o p r o d u c t i v i t y increases.

T a b l e 11-3. Base Case: Sensitivity t o Productivity

...............................................................................
Cost BASE 2XPROD. 3XPROD.
...............................................................................
L I P I D o n l v price.S.bb1
ALGAE p r i c e b / m t

L i p i d p r i c e by weight t / m t 304.68 244.28 235.60

L i p i d p r l c e by value f / m t 284.56 228.15 220.04
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / a t 304.68 244.28 235.60
P r o t e i n p r i c e by v a l u e $ / a t 327.87 262.88 253.53
CHO p r i c e b y w e i g h t $ / m t 304.68 244.28 235.60
CHO p r i c e b y v a l u e % / s t 327.87 262.08 253.53

DCI, X total
NDCI, X total
OPP, % total
HNT, Xtotal
AAP, %

11.3 SENSITIVITY OF THE BASE CASE TO CARBON RECYCLE

The l o w c o s t a n a e r o b i c d i q e s t e r i s a m a j o r p r o p o s e d i n n o v a t i o n i n t h a t
r e c o v e r y o f t h e i n p u t n u t r i e n t s f o r r e t u r n t o t h e a l g a l g r o w t h ponds h a s n o t
been a t t e m p t e d on l a r g e s c a l e . The e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e r e c o v e r y and r e u s e o f
n u t r i e n t s f r o m biomass degraded i n a low c o s t , covered lagoon i s a f a c t o r t h a t
must be e m p i r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l system. The
l a g o o n n o t o n l y a l l o w r r e c y c l e o f c a r b o n ( 3 3 % ) b u t a l s o up t o 75% o f t h e
n i t r o g e n and SOX o f t h e phosphorus. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e methane p r o d u c e d i s
combusted t o p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c a l power, a t a b o u t 25-302 e f f i c i e n c y . T h i s
e l e c t r i c i t y c a n be u s e d on s i t e , f o r m i x i n g power, e t c . I n some o f t h e c a s e s
a n a l y z e d , t h e e l e c t r i c a l o u t p u t o f t h e d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m e x c e e d s t h e needs o f
t h e system. I n t h e s e cases, t h e s u r p l u s v a l u e o f t h e power p r o d u c e d ,
c a l c u l a t e d a t 6 . 5 c e n t s / K w . h r , i s added a s a n e g a t i v e number t o o p e r a t i n g
costs.

The r e c y c l e o f c a r b o n r e d u c e s t h e demand o f new i n p u t c a r b o n , p e r kg a l g a l

biomass, f r o m 2.2kq t o 1 . 6 kg. T a b l e 11-4 shows t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s a v i n g s i n
C02 q u a n t i t i e s on t h e a n n u a l i z e d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s o f b i o m a s s and l i p i d . The
c a p l t a l c o s t s o f t h e Base Case were m o d i f i e d t o i n c l u d e t h e c o s t s o f t h e
c o v e r e d l a g o o n and e n g i n e g e n e r a t o r . tlaintanance c o s t s increased, b u t
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s d e c r e a s e d due t o t h e l o w e r q u a n t i t y o f C02 u s e d and t h e
power g e n e r a t e d . S i n c e a l l o f t h e u n e x t r a c t e d b i o m a s s goes i n t o t h e l a g o o n
 T a b l e 11-4 E c o n o m i c Analysis: Base Case + Recycle

INPUTS BASE CASE RECYCLE

-------------------IIIIII---L-""---L*-..)"~"~---I------""-"-

Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $13,940,000 $17,620,000

Non-Deprec capital i n v e s t m e n t 11,060,OQO f1,430,000
hnnual operating c o s t 6 6,100,000 3,640,000
Annual m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s 510,000 800,000
System algal yield m t / v r 45450 45430
S y e t e m L i p i d yield bbls/yr 150000 150000
Carbohydrate y r e l d m t / y r 9100
Protein yield m t / y r 9100

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0475 0.0475
Cap hecov Factor (book life) 0.0692 O.Ob92
Cap Recov Factor (depr life) Q.0947 0.0947
F i x e d Charge Rate 0.0951 8.0951

PV of Capital Investment $17,349,560 $21,?29,b50

PV o f NonDeprac Investment 13,763,150 14,225,640
PV o f Operating costs 123,965,000 73,014,990
PV o f Maintenance costs 10,930,980 17,14hf630

TOTAL PV OF F A C I L I T Y $166,0iQ,700 $125,316,900

Annualized Cost A l g a e Plant $11,934,510 $9,307,186

LIPID only p r i c e W b b l 79.56 62.05
ALGAE price $ / m t 262.59 204.70

L i p i d price b y w e i g h t S/mt 304.68 443.82

L i p i d price b y value S / m t 284.56 221.91
P r o t e i n p r i c e b y weight $ / m t 304.60 443.82
Protein price b y v a l u e %/mt 327 87 .
Carbohyd price b y weight $ / m t 304.68 443.82
Carbohvd price b y value $ / m t 327.87

A n n u a l ized Capital Cost DCI $1,650,002 $2,085,584

Annualized C a p i t a l Cast NCDI 952,285 984,142
Annualized Operating cost OPP 8,5769007 5,051,241
Annualized M a i n t a n . Cost HNT 756,215 1,186,219
Annualized Cost T o t a l ARP 11,934,508 9,307,186

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI 13.0% 22.4%

Annualized Capital Coet NCDI 8.0X 10.6%
Annualized Operating cost OPP 71,9Y, . 54.3%
Annualized Mainten. Cost HNT 6.3% l2.7X
Annualized Cost Total AAP 100, O X 100,OX
f o r d i g e s t i o n , t h e r e a r e no c a r b o h y d r a t e o r p r o t e i n by p r o d u c t s . hlthouqh net
i n c l u d e d i n t h e model, t h e l a g o o n s l u d o e i s a p o t e n t i a l f e r t i i ~ z e r p r o d u c t .
The p r o d u c t i o n c o s t o f b i o m a s s d r o p s 22% compared t o t h e base case, f r o m
0263/mt t o 6 2 0 5 / m t . The l i p i d o n l v p r i c e d r o p s f r o m $ 7 9 . b / b b l t o S b 2 l b b l .
T h i s i s as much a d e c r e a s e , r e l a t i v e t o t h e Base Case, as t r i p l i n q t h e
p r o d u c t i v i t v provided. More i m p o r t a n t l v , i t w i l l b e shown b e l o w t h a t now
p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s have much more i m p a c t on f i n a l c o s t t h a n t h e v d ~ d
w i t h o u t carbon r e c y c l e . T h i s i s due t o t h e d e c r e a s e , i n t e r m s o f p e r c e n t of
t o t a l annualized cost, of operating r e l a t i v e t o c a p i t a l outlavs. I n t h e Base
Case o p e r a t i n g c o s t s c o n t r i b u t e d o v e r 70% o f t h e t o t a l , c a p i t a l o n l v 22%.
W i t h n u t r i e n t r e c y c l e and power g e n e r a t i o n , o p e r a t i n g d r o p s t o 54% o f t h e
t o t a l and c a p i t a l r i s e s t o one t h i r d .

11.4 RECYCLE CASE: PRODUCTIVITY SENSITIVITY

The r e s u l t s o f v a r i a t i o n s i n assumed b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i v i t v , w i t h 50% l i p i d , on

t h e a n n u a l i z e d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 11-5. The 1.0 x
p r o d u c t i v i t v c a s e r e + e r s t o t h e n u t r i e n t r e c v c l e c a s e d i s c u s s e d above.
D o u b l i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y now r e d u c e s p r o d u c t i o n c a s t 3 0 % , whereas w i t h o u t r e c y c l e
t h e r e d u c t i o n was 20%. Biomass p r o d u c t i o n c o s t i s S144/mt, l i p i d p r l c e i s
544/bbl. I f p r o d u c t i v i t y i s o n l y i n c r e a s e d by 5 0 % , a 20% s a v i n g s i s s t i l l
achieved i n production costs. When p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e b i o m a s s 1s i n c l u d e d ,
i . e , , e x t r a c t i o n and c o n v e r s i o n t o u s e a b l e f u e l , t h e i m p a c t 09 p r o d u c t l v i t v
i n c r e a s e s i s l i k e l v t o be r e d u c e d . The p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o
r e d u c t i o n s i n p r o d u c t i v i t v , w i t h a 30% r e d u c t i o n l e a d i n g t o a l m o s t a 30%
increase i n cost. Thus, a p r o d u c t i v i t y o f 30 gm/m2/dav on a v e r a g e w l t h a
50% l i p i d c o n t e n t , a p p e a r s t o b e a h i g h b u t e c o n o m i c a l l y r e a s o n a b l e g o a l .
D e c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y have s u b s t a n t i a l i m p a c t , b u t i n c r e a s e s above 1.5
f o l d b e g i n t o have d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s as w e l l a s b e i n g u n r e a l i s t i c . This i s
shown i n F i q u r e 11-1 as a d e c r e a s e i n t h e s l o p e o f t h e g r a p h o f l i p i d p r l e e
versus p r o d u c t i v i t y .

11.5 RECYCLE CASE: SENSITIVITY T O C02 PRICE

A l t h o u q h t h e p r i c e o f C02 used i n a l l o f t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l v s e s i s n o t
i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c o m m e r c i a l C02 c o s t u n d e r f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e
q u a n t i t i e s needed f o r v e r v l a r g e s c a l e svstems, and t h e r e m o t e s i t i n g 04 t h e s e
svstems, may p r e c l u d e t h e u s e o f c o m m e r c i a l C02. I n t h i s case, t h e b35/mt
p r i c e i s a l o w one, as p u r i f i c a t i o n o f C02 f r o m power p l a n t s t a c k qases i s
more e x p e n s i v e t h a n f r o m r e f i n e r y o f f gases. TO demonstrate t h e s @ n s i t l v i t y
o f t h e d e s i g n t o v a r i a t i o n o f t h e assumed p r i c e o f C02, t w o c a s e s were
analyzed: f r e e C02 and $70/mt COZ. The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n T a h l e 11-6.
D o u b i i n g t h e c o s t o f c a r b o n i n c r e a s e s a n n u a l i z e d p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a b o u t 40X.
#hen C02 i s f r e e ( a n e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e o n l v a p p l i c a b l e t o s m a l l s v s t e m s
l o c a t e d n e a r an e x i s t i n g w e l l ) t h e c o s t s a r e r e d u c @ d 40%. Thus a g a i n , t h e
Base Case a s s u m p t i o n on c a r b o n p r i c e a p p e a r s t o b e an e c o n o m ~ c a l l vr e a s o n a b l e
one t h a t must b e a c h i e v e d . The a d d i t i o n o f n u t r i e n t r e c v c l e t o t h i s c o s t i s
one o f t h e most n e c e s s a r v f e a t u r e s t o s u c c e s s f u l l y d e v e l d p . Carbon i s t o o
c o s t l y , i n g e n e r a l , t o a l l o w h a l f o f i t t o escape f r o m t h e s y s t e m w i t h o u t
beinq incorporated i n t o product.
 Table 11-5 Recycle Case: P r o d u c t i v i t y S e n s i t i v i t y

INPUTS R , 0.5xP R, 0.67xP R, 1 . 0 ~ ~

......................................................................
Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $14,370,000 $15,290,000 217,620,000
Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t i0.820,000 11,030,000 11,430,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 2,650,000 2,990,000 3,640,000
Annual m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s bC10,OOO 690,000 000,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 22725 303 15 45450
Svatam L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 73000 100000 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d m t / y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES

Cost af c a p i t a l
Cap R e c o v F a c t o r ( b o o k l i f e )
Cap Reccv F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e )
F i x e d Charge R a t e

PV of C a p i t a l investment.
PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t
PV of Operating cost3
PV of Maintenance c a s t s

TOTAL PV OF FACILITY

Annualized Cost Algae P l a n t

LIPID only price W b b l
ALGAE p r i c e $ / m t

L i p i d p r i c e by weight $ / m t
L i p i d p r i c e by v a l u e $ / a t
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t S / m t
P r o t e i n p r i c e b y v a l u e S/mt
C a r b o h y d p r i c e b y w e i g h t S/mt
C a r b ~ h y dp r i c e b y v a l u e S / m t

Annual i z e d Capital C o s t DCI 51,724,572 $1,809,794 $2,085,584

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI 931,621 949,702 984,142
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t QPP 3,477,414 4,149,233 5,051,241
Annualized Mainten. Cost HNT 978,631 1,023,114 1,106,219
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP 7,312,237 7,931,843 9,307,186

Annual i t e d C a p i t a l Cost DCI 23.6% 22.81): 22.4%

4nnualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI 12.7X 12.0% 10.6%
hnnualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP 50.3% 52,3'/. 54.3X
Annualized Mainten, Cost MNT 13.4X 12.7% 12.7X
Annualized Cost T o t a l RPlP 10O.OY. 100.03: 100.0%
 T a b l e 11-5 R e c y c l e Case: P r o d u c t i v i t v S e n s i t i v i t y ( c o n t i n u e d )

INPUTS R, 1.5xP R, 2xP

------------------,---------------------------------------------

Depreciable capita,l investment $19,640,000 $21,900,000

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 12,000,000 12,550,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 4,630,000 5,620,000
Annual maintenance1 c o s t s 1,000,000 1,120,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 68 175 90900
System L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 225000 300000
Carbohydrate y i e l d mt/yr
Protein y i e l d mtfyr

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Cost o f c a p i t a l
Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i f e )
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e )
F i x e d Charge R a t e

PV of C a p i t a l Inve!stment
PV of NonDeprec I n ~ v e s t m e n t
PV of Operating costs
PV of Maintenance c o o t s

TOTAL PV OF FACILITY

Annualized Cost Algae P l a n t

L I P I D o n l y p r i c e d:/bbl
ALGAE p r i c e % / a t

L i p i d p r i c e by weight $ / m t
L i p i d p r i c e by v a l u e $ / a t
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / m t
P r o t e i n p r i c e by v a l u e $ / m t
Carbohyd p r i c e b y w e i g h t $ / e t
Carbohyd p r i c e b y v a l u e $ / n t

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annualized O p e r a t ing c o s t OPP
Annualized Hainten. Cost HNT
Annual iz e d Cost T o t a l A AP

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

bnnual i z e d C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized Hainten. Cost MNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP
 T a b l e 11-6 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o C02 P r i c e

INPUTS R, F r e e R, $33/mt R, $70/mt

......................................................................
Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $17,300,000 $17,620,000 $17,300,000
Nan-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 11,420,000 11,430,000 11,420,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 1,100,000 3,640,000 6,180,000
Annual maintenance c o s t s 800,000 800,000 800,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 45450 45450 45450
System L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 150000 150000 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d m t / y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0473 0.0475 0.0475
Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i f e ) 0.0692 0.OQ92 0.0692
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0.0947 0.0947 0.0947
F i x e d Charge R a t e 0.0951 0,0931 0.0951

PV of C a p i t a l Investment $21,531,380 $21,929,650 $21,531,380

PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t 14,213,200 14,229,840 14,213,200
PV of Operating costs 22,064,970 73,014,990 123,965,000
PV of Maintenance c o s t s 17,146,630 17,146,830 f79146,630

TOTAL PV OF FACILITY $74,956,100 $126,316,900 $176,856,200

A n n u a l i z e d Cost A l g a e P l a n t $5,743,601 $9,307,186 912,793,210

LIPID only p r i c e $/bbl 30.29 62.05 05.29
ALGAE p r i c e $ / m t 126.37 204.78 281.48

L i p i d p r i c e by w e i g h t $/mt 273.89 443.02 610.06

L i p i d p r i c e by v a l u e S/mt 136.95 221.91 305.03
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / s t 273.09 443,82 610.06
P r o t e i n p r i c e by v a l u e $/mt
Carbohyd p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / a t 273.89 443.82 610.06
Carbohyd p r i c e by v a l u e $ / m t

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DC I
Annual ized C a p i t a l Cost NCD I
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost HNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DC I
Annualized C a p i t a l Cost HCD I
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized t l a i n t e n . Cost MNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l AAP
, 11.6 RECYCLE CASE: SENSITIVITY T O LIPID CONTENT

L i p i d c o n t e n t o f t h e b i o m a s s p r o d u c e d ( a t 30 gn/m2/d) was v a r i e d f r o m 2 O X t o
50% ( t h e Base Case v a l u e ) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o n l i p i d p r i c e . 4s shown i n
T a b l e 11-7, r e d u c e d l i p i d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e s l i p i d p r i c e , Thus t h e Base
Case a s s u m p t i o n o # 50% l i p i d c o n t e n t n e e d s t o be a c h i e v e d when l i p i d a i l is
the desired product. R e c y c l e o f c a r b o n was assumed i n t h i s a n a l y s i s and h a d
t h e e f f e c t o f c a u s i n g a d e c r e a s e i n b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n c o s t as l i p i d c o n t e n t
was d e c r e a s e d . T h i s a n a l y s i s c o u l d b e a d a p t e d t o t h e c a s e o f methane f u e l
p r o d u c t i o n i f t h e n o n - l i p i d f r a c t i o n i s assumed a c c e s s i b l e t o d e q r a d a t i o n and
i f t h e amount o f c a r b o n r e c y c l e i s c o r r e c t e d f o r r e m o v a l o f c a r b o n as t h e
methane p r o d u c t . No s u c h a n a l y s i s was done i n d e t a i l as l i p l d p r o d u c t i o n is
the primarv goal. The s v s t e m w o u l d h a v e t o p r o d u c e b i o m a e s a t 9 7 5 / m t t o
p r o v i d e methane a t $S/flBTU. The s v s t e m d e s i g n e d i s e f f e c t v e I n p r o d u c i n g
methane g a s i f t h e c o v e r e d l a g o o n d i g e s t e r p e r f o r m s a s w e l l as assumed, This
w i l l be s t u d i e d i n t h e proposed e x p e r i m e n t a l svstem.

1.7 RECYCLE CASE: S E N S I T l V I T Y T O DEPRECIABLE C A P I T A L INVESTMENT

The c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t t h e a n n u a l i z e d
production costs u n t i l i t qets large. Three v a r i a t i o n s i n D C I were a n a l y z e d
f o r t h e i r impact. The f i r s t , 1.5 t i m e s t h e D C I e+ t h e r e c v c l e c a s e w o u l d
a p p l y i f t h e p r i m a r v h a r v e s t i n g d e v i c e were much more e x p e n s i v e t h a n the
p r o p o s e d s e d i m e n t a t i o n system. kn example o f a d e v i c e t h a t w o u l d + a l l i n t o
t h i s r a n g e o f DCI i n c r e a s e i s an e n q i n e e r e d d i s s o l v e d g a s f l o t a t i o n r e a c t o r ,
c o s t i n g a b o u t $ 1 2 m i l l i o n p e r 1000 a c r e system. The s e c o n d c h a n g e i n DCX, t a
t w i c e t h e b a s e l i n e l e v e l , c o r r e s p o n d s t o l i n i n g t h e ponds w i t h a h i q h q u a l i t y
s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l c o s t i n g @ S S . OO/mZ, o r a b o u t $22 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s p e r 1000
a c r e s o f q r o w t h p o n d area. T h i s t y p e o f l i n e r would be used i f ponds l i n e d
w i t h l e s s e x p e n s i v e e a r t h e n m a t e r i a l s p r o v e d t o lose t o o much w a t e r . The f i v e
f o l d i n c r e a s e i n D C I w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t a l i n i n q and c o v e r i n g a pond svstem.
T h i s i s v e r y c o s t l y and as y e t t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t , en a l a r g e $talc,
t h i s concept i s a t a l l workable, As shown i n T a b l e 11-0, t h e S O X i n c r e a s e i n
D C I l e a d s t o a 15%' i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t c o s t w h i c h implies t h a t i t i s
a f f o r d a b l e i f i t i s n e c e s s a r y f a r gaod p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e h a r v e s t i n g system.
The 100% i n c r e a s e i n D C I , f o r a l i n e r , i n c r e a s e s c o s t o f l i p i d p r o d u c t b y
SOX. T h i s i s a f f o r d a b l e o n l y i f t h e i n c r e a s e i s o f f s e t b v same o t h e r savings
o r by p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s . Thus use o f a f i n e r i s m a r g i n a l , The 400%
i n c r e a s e , f o r a c o v e r e d s y s t e m , r e s u l t s i n 2.25 f o l d i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i o n
c o s t s , w h i c h i s b v a l l means t o a much e v e n i f t h e c o v e r e d s y s t e m somehow mad@
a l l other performance goals achievable. I t must b e k e p t i n m i n d t h a t
s y n t h e t ~ c m a t e r i a l s u s e d f o r l i n i n q and c o v e r i n g w i l l l i k e l y i n f l a t e w i t h
c r u d e o i l p r i c e s , s o t h a t h o p i n g f o r d r a m a t i c o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s t o make s u c h
systems a f f o r d a b l e is n o t w a r r a n t e d .
 T a b l e 11-7 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o L i p i d Content

INPUTS R,20% L i p i d R,30% L i p i d R,4O% L i p i d

............................................. ,------rr_-------------------

Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $19,120,000 $18,370,000 $17,910,000

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t ' 11,850,000 11,710,000 11,570,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 1,910,000 2,440,000 3,040,000
Annual a a i n t e n a n c s c o s t s 1,000,000 940,000 880,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 45450 45450 45450
System L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 60000 90000 120000
Carbohydrate y i e l d m t l y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0499 0.0475 0.0473
Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i b e l 0.0692 0.0692 0.0692
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0.0947 0.0947 0.0949
F i x e d Charge R a t e or095 1 0.0951 Q.0931

PV of C a p i t a l Investment $23,796,330 $22,863,090 $22,290,580

PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t 14,748,370 14,574,130 14,399,996
PV of Operating c o s t s 38,312,810 48,944,110 60,979,550
PV of Maintenance c o s t s 21,433,290 20,147,290 18,861,300

TOTAL PV OF FACILITY $98,291,010 $106,528,600 $118,551,300

A n n u a l i z e d Cost Algae P l a n t $7,416,723 $7,962,412 $8,639,566

LIPID o n l y p r i c e $/bbl 123.61 88.47 72.00
ALBAE p r i c e $/mt 163.18 175.19 190.09

L i p i d p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / a t 884.18 632.82 514.98

L i p i d p r i c e by v a l u e S / m t 442.10 316.42 257.50
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / m t 884.18 632.82 514.38
P r o t e i n p r i c e by v a l u e $ / m t
Carbohyd p r i c e by n e i g h t $ / w t 884.18 632.82 514.98
Carbohyd p r i c e by v a l u e $ / a t

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI 12,263,131 tZ9174,3S8 $2,119,910

Annual i z e d C a p i t a l Cost NCDI 1,020,305. 1,008,251 996,197
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP 2,650,514 3,385,996 4,218,618
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost PINT 1,402,774 1,393,807 1,304,841
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP 7,416,723 7,962,412 8p639,566

Annual ized C a p i t a l Cost DCI 30.5X 27.3% 24.5%

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI L3.8X 12.7% 11.52
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP 35.7% 42.5% 48.8%
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost HNT 20. OX 67.5% 15.1%
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP 100. 0 1 fOO.0X 100. 0%
 T a b l e 11-0 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o DCI

INPUTS R, 1 .SxDCI: R,2xDCI R,5xDCI

- -

Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $26,430,000

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 11,430,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 3,640,000
Annual m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s 1,060,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 45450
Svstem L i p i d y i e l d b b l a / y r 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d m t l y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------n-----

Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0475
Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i f e ) 0.0692
Cap Recuv F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0,0947
F i x e d Charge R a t e 0.0951

PV of C a p i t a l Investment $32,894,470
PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t 14,225,640
PV of Operating costs 73,014,990
PV of Maintenance c o s t s 22,719,290

TOTAL P V OF FACILITY $142,854,400

A n n u a l i z e d Cost A l g a e P l a n t $10,735,500
LIPID only p r i c e W b b l 71.37
ALGAE p r i c e $ / m t 236.20

L i p i d p r i c e by w e i g h t S / m t 511,94
L i p i d p r i c e by value Wmt 255.97
P r o t e i n p r i c e by weight S / m t 511.94
P r o t e i n p r i c e by value Wmt
Carbohyd p r i c e b y weight $ / m t 511.94
Carbohyd price b y v a l u e $ / m t

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCD I
Annualized Operating cost OPP
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost MNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DC I
A n n u a l i z e d Cap.i t a l Cost NCDI
A n n u a l i z e d O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
f i n n u a t i z e d Mainten. C o s t MNT
Annualized C o s t T o t a l AAP
11.8 R E C Y C L E CASE: SENSITIVITY TO COST OF CAPITAL

All of t h e modellnq done s o + a r rs based on a s s u m p t i o n s which l e a d t o a c o s t

o t c a p i t a l of about 5Z. While this mav be r e a s o n a b l e mn some c l r c u m s t a n c e s ,
manv o r l v a t e i n v e s t o r s w l l l want t o s e e a g r e a t e r r e t u r n f o r r l s k l n q c a p l t a l
or t o r i n v e s t i n a I n a c a p i t a l intensive b u s i n e s s . Uslno t h e r e c v c l e c a s e .
t h r e e c o s t o t c a ~ l t a lf a c t o r s were used t o t e s t s e n s i t i v i t v t o t n l s p a r a m e t e r ,
each w i t h t h e o r i q i n a l DCI and w i t h t h e 100% I n c r e a s e d D C I . The r e s u l t s a r e
q!ven In T a b l e s 11-9 and 11-10.
A5 e x p e c t e d , t h e c o s t of c a p i t a l h a s q r e a t impact on f i n a l p r o d u c t c o s t s and
t h l s impact I n c r e a s e s a s c a p i t a l c o s t s i n c r e a s e . The contribution of
a n n u a l i z e d c a p i t a l c o s t t o t o t a l a n n u a l l z e d c o s t i n c r e a s e s from 33% a t t h e
lowest r a t e and lowest l e v e l of c a p i t a l r e q u i r e m e n t t o 60% a t t h e h i g h e s t of
each. T h i s means t h a t , e x c e p t a t t h e most f a v o r a b l e borrowinq r a t e , t h e
c a p l t a l i n t e n s l t v 0 4 a svstem 1s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . Verv e x p e n s i v e svstems
must be j u s t i f i e d i n t e r m s of verv g r e a t i n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t v , However
p r o d u c t i v i t v h a s an upper l i m i t which i s l e s s two than t i m e s t h e b a s e Case
v a l u e , i . e . , i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t a l i p i d accumulating a l g a c o u l d e v e r be
expected t o be 15% e f f i c i e n t i n c o n v e r t i n g s o l a r energv. For t h e s e r e a s o n s ,
t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a used i n t h i s r e p o r t , lowest c o s t w i t h h i g h e s t e f f e c t ,
a p p e a r s t o be j u s t i f i e d .

11.9 RECYCLE CASE: SENSlTIVITY TO POLYMER DOSE

H a r v e s t i n g i s one of t h e s t e p s i n t h e o v e r a l l p r o c e s s t h a t must be h i q h l v
r e l i a b l e . In t h e b a s i c d e s i g n of t h e s y s t e m , i t was assumed t h a t a high
molecular weight polymer would have t o be added t o t h e a l g a l s u s p e n s i o n t o a i d
i n f l o c c u l a t i n g t h e biomass p r i o r t o primary c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The dose of
polymer u s e d , 1 ppm per 500 ppm of biomass, i s a low one. The r e s u l t s of t h e
s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l v s i s shown i n Table 11-11 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s dose could be
doubled w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t c o s t more than 7 X , and even a f i v e f o l d
h i g h e r polymer dose would o n l y l e a d t o a 20% i n c r e a s e . A low d o s e , 1-3 ppm/
ppm, i s becoming s t a t e of t h e a r t due t o t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t a i l o r i n q polvmers
t o specific applications.

11.10 CONCLUSIONS
The s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s e s performed confirm t h a t t h e o p t i m i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s
used i n s e t t i n g t h e l a r q e s c a l e system performance s t a n d a r d s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o
produce f u e l p r o d u c t s from a l g a e economically. The a n a l y s e s a l s o i n d i c a t e
t h a t a low c o s t , carbon e f f i c i e n t system h a s t h e b e s t o p p o r t u n i t y of a c k i e v l n g
t h e s e s t a n d a r d s . P r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s , which appear n e c e s s a r y d e s p i t e t h e
h i g h l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t y assumed h e r e , w i l l have t h e most impact on f i n a l
p r o d u c t c o s t when a c h i e v e d w i t h i n the framework of the system s p e c i f i e d h e r e ,
The q u e s t i o n s of r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y were n o t , a+ c o u r s e , s o l v e d by t h e s e
a n a l y s e s . However, t h e system d e s i g n e d i s very e f f i c i e n t , i n i t s u t i l i z a t i o n
o+ r e s o u r c e s .
 f a b l e 11-9 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o Cost o f C a p i t a l ( k )

INPUTS R, kz.047 R , k=.07 R, k=.iO

--- ----------1-1-1-------I----........II-I-I------------~-------~----------~

Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $17,620,000 $17,629,000 517,620,900

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 11,430,000 11,430,000 11,430,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 3, b40,000 3,640,000 3,640,000
Annual maintenance c o s t s 800,000 800,000 800,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 45450 45450 45450
System L - i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 150000 150000 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d m t l y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
---------....------
Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0475 0.0700 0. 1000
Cap Recov F a r t o r . _ lbook 1 i f el 0,0692 0.0858 0,1102
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0,0947 0,1098 0.1315
F i x e d Charge R a t e 0.0951 0,1202 0.1581

PV of C a p i t a l Investnent $21,929,650 $23,373,740 $25,395,390

PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t 14,22!5,440 13,162,420 16,473,860
PV of Operating c c z t s 73,014,990 57,974,420 44,343,790
PV of Maintenance c a s t s 17,146,630 13,572,460 10,342,760

T O T A L PV OF FACILITY $1261316q900 t11010839000 $96q5569090

h n n u a l i z e d Coat A l g a e P l a n t $9,307,186 $10,250,610 $11,853,790

LIPID only p r i c e $/bbl 62.05 68.34 79.03
ALGAE p r i c e C / m t 204.70 225.54 260.81

L i p i d p r i c e by weight S/mt 443.82 488.81 5b5.26

L i p i d price by v a l u e $ / m t 221.91 244.41 282.63
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / s t 443.82 488.81 565.26
Protein p r i c e by value $ / m t
Carbohyd p r i c e b y weight t / m t 443.82 488,81 563,26
Carbohyd p r i c e b y v a l u e $ / w t

Annual i zed C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annual ired Operating cost OPP
Annual i z e d Mainten. C o s t MNT
CInnualized C ~ s tT o t a l CI AP

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annual i zed C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annual i zed Operating cost OPP
h n n u a l i z sd Hainten, Cost MNT
Annual i zed Cost T o t a l AAP
 Table 11-10 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o Cost o f C a p i t a l a t 2x DCI

2x D C I 2x D C I 2x D C I
INPUTS R, k1.047 R, kz.07 R, k=. 10

Depreciable c a p i t a l investment $35,240,000 $35,240,000 $35,240,000

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 11,430,000 11,430,000 11,430,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 3,640,000 3,640,000 3,640,000
Annual maintenance c o s t s 1,320,000 1,320,000 1,320,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t / y r 45450 45450 45450
System L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 150000 150000 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d a t / y r
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
-----------------
Coet o f c a p i t a l 0.0475 0.0700 0.1000
Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i f e ) 0 ,0692 0.0858 0.1102
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0.0947 0.1098 0.1315
F i x e d Charge R a t e 0.0951 0.1202 O.lS81

PV of C a p i t a l Investment $43,859,290 $46,747,480 $50,790,780

PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t . 14,223,640 15,162,420 16,473,860
PV of Operating costs 73,014,990 57,974,420 44,343,990
PV of Maintenance c o s t s 28,291,940 22,394,550 17,065,560

-TOTAL PV OF FACILITY $159,391,900 $142,278,900 $128,674,200

A n n u a l i z e d Cost Algae P l a n t $12,163,810 $13,817,670 $16,608,590

LIPID o n l y p r i c e $/bbl , 81.09 92.12 110.72
ALGAE p r i c e S/mt 267.63 304.02 365.43

L i p i d p r i c e by w e i g h t $ / a t 580.05 658.91 792.00

L i p i d p r i c e by v a l u e $ / m t 290.03 329.46 396.00
P r o t e i n p r i c e by w e i g h t t / m t 580.05 658.91 792.00
P r o t e i n p r i c e by v a l u e $/mt
Carbohyd p r i c e b y w e i g h t $ / a t 580.05 658.91 792.00
Carbohyd p r i c e b y v a l u e S/mt

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DC L
Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCD I
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost MNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l AAP

hnnualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized H a i n t e n . Cost HNT
Annualized Cost T o t a l A AP
 T a b l e 11-11 R e c y c l e Case: S e n s i t i v i t y t o Polymer Dose

INPUTS R , IX
Polyn R , 2xPoly. R, 5 x P 0 1 ~ .
--------------------------------------

Oepreciable c a p i t a l investment $17,620,000 $17,620,000 $17,620,000

Non-Deprec c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t 11,430,000 11,4301000 11,430,000
Annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s 3,640,000 4,094,000 5,456,000
Annual m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s 800,000 820 000 820,000
System a l g a l y i e l d m t l y r 45450 45450 45450
Svstem L i p i d y i e l d b b l s / y r 150000 150000 150000
Carbohydrate y i e l d mt/yr
Protein y i e l d mt/yr

CALCULATED VALUES
- - - - - - - - - - - I - - - - -

Cost o f c a p i t a l 0.0475 0.0475 0.0475

Cap Recov F a c t o r (book l i f e ) 0,04172 0.0692 0,0692
Cap Recov F a c t o r ( d e p r l i f e ) 0.0947 0.0947 0.0949
F i x e d Charge R a t e 0,0931 8,0951 0.0931

PV of C a p i t a l Investment $21,929,690 $21,929,650 $21,929,650

PV of NonDeprec I n v e s t m e n t 14,225,640 14,225,640 14,223,640
PV of Operating costs 73,014,990 82,121,800 109,442,200
PV of Maintenance costs 17,146,630 17,575,300 17,575,300

T O T A L PV OF FflCILITY $126,316,900 $135,852,400 9163,172,800

Annualized Cost Algae P l a n t $9,307,186 $9,764,858 $11,856,910

LIPID only p r i c e S/bbl 62.05 66.45 99.65
ALBAE p r i c e t / m t 204.78 219.29 2 B B . 88

L i p i d p r i c e b y m i g h t $/mt 443.82 4 7 5 . 28 565,41

L i p i d price b y v a l u e $ / m t 221.91 237.64 282,71
P r o t e i n p r i c e by weight $ / a t 443.82 475.20 565.41
P r o t e i n p r i c e by value S/mt
Carbohyd p r i c e b y w e i g h t $ / m t 443.82 475,20 565.41
Carbohyd p r i c e b y v a l u e $ / m t

Annual ized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cast NCDI
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Q n n u a li z e d H a i n t e n . Cost HNT
Annual ized Cost T o t a l AAP

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost DCI

Annualized C a p i t a l Cost NCDI
Annualized O p e r a t i n g c o s t OPP
Annualized M a i n t e n . Cost MNT
Annual i z e d Cost T o t a l UAP
 SECTION 12.0

EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION COSTS

12.1 SITE DESCRIPTION

The s i t e chosen f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s v s t e m i s i n B r a w l e v . C a l i f o r n i a i n t h e
I m p e r i a l V a l l e y on a t w o t h o u s a n d a c r e a s p a r a g u s f a r m . Over one t h o u s a n d
acres of land are a t present n o t c u l t i v a t e d . The l o c a t i o n o f t h e pond svstem
i s on l a n d t h a t b o r d e r s t h e s o u t h w e s t s i d e o f t h e S a l t o n Sea, makino t h a t
w a t e r r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b l e bv p i p e l i n e o r s h a l l o w w e l l . The l a n d i s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y f l a t . w i t h sandy and c l a y s o i l s and s p a r s e v e g e t a t i o n . Fiqures
12-1 and 2 show t h e q e n e r a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e s i t e and t h e s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n o f
t h e pond c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a ,

The c l i m a t e i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o+ t h e warmer. d r i e r
areas o f t h e fimerican Southwest. I h e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l a v e r a o e s 7cm. t n e n e t
pan l4 e v a p o r a t i o n a v e r a q e s 240cm, and t h e mean i n s o l a t i o n i s 480 L a n a l e v s / d a v
total, T a b l e 12-1 summarizes t h e mean m o n t h l v and y e a r l y c l i m a t i c d a t a .

T a b l e 12-1. C l i m a t i c C o n d i t i o n s a t t h e Proposed E x p e r i m e n t a l S i t e
..............................................................................
Month R a i n . c i n t l 4 1 Evap. ,cmCl41Lanq/Cl51 Max T Min T Av T ,°C1151
...............................................................................
Januarv
February
March
Apr i1
May
June
Jul Y
Auqust
September
October
November
December

Total 7.3 244.4 Av 485 Av 22.5

A l t h o u q h t h e pond l o c a t i o n i s a d j a c e n t t o a d e v e l o p e d f a r m , i t i s e s s e n t i a l l v
undeveloped. The b e n e f i t s f r o m t h e f a r m w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m t h r o u g h a r e n t a l agreement. These s h a l l i n c l u d e : access
t o w a t e r f r o m t h e 1700 qpm w e l l . a c c e s s t o power l i n e s , l e a s e o f l a n d
r e q u i r e d , o p t i o n f o r e x p a n s i o n o f l a n d r e q u i r e m e n t , and u s e o f o f f i c e space.
The a g r e e d r e n t i s $2000 p e r month.
 [he characteristics of t h e w e l l w a t e r and o f S a l t o n Sea w a t e r are q i v e n i n
T a b l e 12-2. B o t h w a t e r s are known t o s u p p o r t t h e g r o w t h o f p h o t o s v n t h e t i c
orqanlsms. The h i q h c a l c i u m l e v e l i n t h e S a l t o n Sea w a t e r necessitates some
f o r m of w a t e r c o n d i t i o n i n q . A f t e r c o n d i t i o n i n q , t h i s w a t e r can be mixed w i t h
t h e w e l l w a t e r t o o b t a i n a r e s o u r c e w i t h a l m o s t any s a l i n i t y . The t w o
s t a r t i n g s a l i n i t i e s o f i n t e r e s t a r e 4 and 8 p p t , a l l o w i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l
blowdown r a t i o s o f , 1 2 5 and . 2 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o a t t a i n a aedium s a l i n i t y a f
32 ppt. The m i x t u r e r a t i o s r e q u i r e d t o y i e l d t h e two s a l i n i t i e s a r e , w e l l .
w a t e r t o S a l t o n Sea w a t e r , 19 t o 1 and 4 t o 1. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e S a l t i o n Sea
w a t e r can be used t o a p p r o x i m a t e ocean w a t e r ,

rable 12-2, Chemical C o m p o s i t i o n o f E ~ p e r i m e n t a l S i t e Water Resources

S a l t o n Seal163 Groundwater
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12.2 EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEH DESCRIPTION 4ND JUSTIFICATION

A s i d e f r o m l a b o r a t o r y and o t h e r s u p p o r t systems, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l svstem

c o n s i s t s o f six 1 . 5 n2 ponds, t h r e e 50 m2 ponds, t w o 4000 a2 ponds (one
a c r e e a c h ) and, i f b u d g e t a l l o w s , one 4 h e c t a r e p o n d ( 1 0 a c r e s ) , The q o a i o f
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system i s t o d e m o n s t r a t e , on a s c a l e t h a t can b e e x t r a p o l a t e d
w i t h a l a r g e d e g r e e o f c o n f i d e n c e t o a f u l l s c a l e system, t h e desiqns and
o p e r a t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s o f t h e f u l l s c a l e system. The 4 h e c t a r e pond i s
t h e minimum s i t e t h a t i s s t i l l c l o s e enouqh t o f u l l module s i z e t o ailow a
d i r e c t t r a n s f e r o f r e s u l t s t o a l a r g e r svstem. I n t h a t sense i t i s t h e o p t i m a l
choice f o r t h i s project. I t i s , however, c o s t l y , Thus t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
system, w i t h o u t t h e 4 h e c t a r e pand, has been d e s i g n e d t o t e s t a l l o f t h e f u l l
s c a l e system p a r a m e t e r s . fi g r e a t e r degree o f e x t r a p o l a t i o n is needed, o f
course, t o t r a n s f e r t h e r e s u l t s . E s p e c i a l l y i n t h e cases o f m i x i n g and
c a r b o n a t i o n , t h e l a r g e r pond i s d e s i r a b l e . However, t h e . 4 h e c t a r e ponds can
be o p e r a t e d t o s i m u l a t e , i n head l o s s and c a r b o n s t o r a g e t i m e , the l a r g e r
ponds. A11 o+ t h e f i n a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e s u l t s must b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e . 4 o r 4
h e c t a r e ponds.
I t i s n o t t h e q o a l o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t t o encompass t h e a e t i v i t i e s o f t h e o t h e r
work c a r r i e d on i n t h e ASP. Species s c r e e n i n g i n g e n e r a l , b n o l o q ~ c a l
a d a p t a t i o n s t u d i e s , and development o f r e s o u r c e a n a l y s e s a r e a l l f u n c t i o n s
t h a t a r e bevond t h e scope o f t h ~ se x p e r i m e n t . However, whenever an o u t d o o r
system i s o p e r a t e d t h e r e i s an abundance o f l a b o r a t o r v c u l t u r e work and s m a l l
s c a l e t e s t work t h a t must accompany t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s . Each s i t e
has i t s own e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s which must be s t u d i e d . Each
organism o b t a i n e d f r o m a s c r e e n i n g program r e s p o n d s d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h e s e
specific s i t e inputs. The 1.5 a2 and 50 m2 ponds s p e c i f l e d a r e f o r use i n
these support studies. A l a r g e number o f t h e f o r m e r a r e i n c l u d e d because t h e y
a r e easy t o o p e r a t e and m a n i p u l a t e , and a l s o inexpensive. B e i n q o u t d o o r s t h e y
a r e more r e a l i s t i c a t e s t svstem t h a t l a b c u l t u r e s . The 50 mL ponds b r i d g e
t h e qop botween t h e s m a l l ponds and t h e r e a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n ponds. Thev do t h i s
l i t e r a l l y by p r o v i d i n g an i n t e r m e d i a t e volume f o r i n o c u i u m b u i l d - u p . In
a d d i t i o n , l e s s e x p e n s i v e mock-ups 04 e n g i n e e r i n q d e s i g n s can be t e s t e d i n
t h e s e ponds, y i e l d i n g r e s u l t s which s e r v e i n t h e e v a l u a t i a n o f t h e o v e r a l l
f e a s i b i l i t y o f a d e s i q n and t h u s i n p u t i n t o t h e d e c i s i o n whether t o go ahead
and t e s t a t t h e l a r g e r s c a l e . Two o f t h e 50m2 ponds a r e + o r t e s t i n g b a s i c
d e s i q n parameters, two b e i n g t h e minimum number r e q u i r e d f a r c o n t r o l l e d ,
simultaneous experimentation. The t h i r d i s t~ be used t o v a r y s u b s v s t e a
d e s i g n s , e.q., a i r l i f t vs. paddlewheel m i x i n g . More detail 1 5 given i n
S e c t i o n 13 on t h e use o f each o f t h e pond systems.

12.3 ALTERNATIVE SITES

Two back up s i t e s have been i d e n t i f i e d f o r t h e proposed e x p e r i m e n t . N e i t h e r

i s as o p t i m a l , o v e r a l l , as t h e p r i m a r y s i t e i n B r a u l e y ! Ca., b u t each has
e p e c i f i c advantagas. One o f t h e s i t e s i s a l s o l o c a t e d i n t h e l a p e r l a 1 V a l l e y ,
a t Salton Citv. L t b o r d e r s t h e S a l t o n Sea as w e l l , T k r advantages of t h i s
s i t e a r e t h a t i t has more p r e s e n t l y c o n s t r u c t e d l a b o r a t o r y and shop space and,
most i m p o r t a n t l y , an i n e x p e n s i v e s o u r c e o f C02 f r o m a w e l l . The
d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h a t t h e s u p p l v o f l o w TDS, water i s s i g n i - f i c a n t l y more
e x p e n s i v e and t h a t t h e enpansion p o t e n t i a l i s l i m i t e d t o under 0 h e c t a r e s .
M i c r o b i a l P r o d u c t s , I n c , has an i n - f o r m a l o p t i o n t o use t h i s s i t e . The seeond
back up s i t e i s l o c a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f R o s w e l l , New Hexiso. No s p e c i f i c s i t e
has been s e l e c t e d , however c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h p e r s o n n e l a t t h e New H e x i c o
S o l a r Enerqy I n s t i t u t e i n d i c a t e t h a t many s i t e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . The I n s t i t u t e
and o t h e r s t a t e agencies, as w e l l as p r i v a t e eoncerns a r c p o t e n t i a l l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n c o - f u n d i n g an a l g a e based e x p e r i m e n t a l and/or d e m o n s t r a t i o n
svstea. T h i s i s one o f t h e p r i m a r y advantages o f t h i s s i t e . Water, o f
v a r y i n q s a l i n i t y i s p l e n t i f u l , l a b o r a t o r y and c u l t u r e f a c i l i t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e
f o r l e a s e , and C02 p i p e l i n e s a r e nearby. Thus t h i s s i t e would appear t o be
t h e l e a s t e x p e n s i v e a t which t o c o n s t r u c t a - f a c i l i t y . However, t h e c l i m a t e i s
n o t as warm, e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e f a l l and e a r l y s p r i n g , os t h e I m p e r i a l V ~ l l e y
o+ C a l i f o r n i a . T h i s c o u l d l i m i t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r o w i n g season. hlthouqh
t h i s may b e a r e a l i s t i c c o n d i t i o n f o r much o f t h e Southwest, an e x p e r i m e n t a l
f a c i l i t y produces d a t a more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e l v when t h e g r o w i n g season i s long.
Ln any case, t h e d e ~ i q nof t h e proposed svstem c o u l d be e a s i l y adapted t o
either of the a l t e r n a t i v e sites.
12.4 EXPERIflENTAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Since a p r i m a r y goal o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system i s t o v a l i d a t e t h e d e s i g n

c o n c e p t 8 o f t h e l a r g e s c a l e system, i t 5 design u i l l c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l t h a t o f
t h e ponds and h a r v e s t i n g systems p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n s 0 & 9. Obviously,
o n l y a l i m i t e d number o f t h e more p r o m i s i n g and i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n o p t i o n s
o u t l i n e d i n t h o s e c h a p t e r s w i l l be c o n s t r u c t e d , and t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m w i l l f o c u s on r e s o l v i n g t h e most i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i c a l
issues.
The p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t s was d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . A nore
d e t a i l e d v i e w o f t h e a c t u a l pond s i t e i s shown i n F i g u r e 12-3. The l a r g e
ponds ( 3 t 10 a c r e s ) shown a r e f o r r e f e r e n c e o n l y , and a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n
t h e baseline enperimental proposal. The p r o p o s e d two 0.4 h e c t a r e ponds would
be l o c a t e d i n t h e l o w e r m i d d l e p o r t i o n o f t h e s i t e , a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e
figure. A s e c t i o n v i e w o f t h e s i t e i s shown i n F i g u r e 12-4, w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e
e l e v a t i o n s above t h e S a l t o n Sea.

I n t h e s u b - s e c t i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w , each e l e m e n t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system i s
d e s c r i b e d , a l o n g n i t h its c o s t , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e t w o 0.4 h e c t a r e g r o w t h
ponds. I n most cases, t h e u n i t c o s t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than i n t h e
192 h e c t a r e system, r e f l e c t i n g t h e 2 4 0 - f o l d d i f f e r e n c e i n t o t a l system s i z e .
Design p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e s i n g l e pond and t h e t w o pond s y s t e m a r e l i s t e d i n
T a b l e s 12-3 L 12-4.

Rough g r a d i n g c o s t s were e s t i m a t e d c o n s e r v a t i v e l y p e n d i n g a more d e t a i l e d

g u r v e y o f t h e pond r i t e . A l o c a l earthworks c o n t r a c t o r quoted a p r i c e o f
$ . ~ 5 / ~f od r ~ c u t t i n g and f i l l i n g . An a l l o w a n c a was a l s o made f o r p o s s i b l e
d i v e r s i o n o f t h e s h a l l o w g u l l e y shown on t h e b o t t o m o f F i g u r e 12-3, as w e l l
as f o r i n i t i a l s i t e c l e a r i n g . fi t o t a l o f $5000 was b u d g e t e d f o r t h i s
category. T h i s s h o u l d a l s o c o v e r t h e a d d i t i o n a l area r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s i t e
b u i l d i n g 3 and t h e s e t t l i n g pond. L a z a r l e v e l l i n g w i l l c o s t a b o u t $3000
total. The 52000 f i n i s h g r a d i n g c o s t is a c t u a l l y l e s r t h a n i n t h e l a r g e
s c a l e d e s i g n because t h e l i n e r c o s t s (one membrane l i n e d , one c r u s h e d r o c k )
a r e 1 i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y . $900 i s b u d g e t e d f o r sump e x c a v a t i o n .

The c r a c k i n g / s a e p a g e i s s u e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 7.3.3. w i l l be examined by

b u i l d i n g t h e d i v i d e r w a l l and a p o r t i o n o f t h e o u t s i d e w a l l i n t h e u n l i n e d
pond o u t o f poured c o n c r e t e . The o u t s i d e w a l l , w h i c h has t h e f u l l 20 c m o f
head a c r o s s , i t i s wore l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e a p r a b l e m , i f any e x i s t s . I f so,
r e a e i l i e s , a r e a v a i l a b l e (e.q. c o v e r i n g t h e i n g i d e o f t h e ! a l l n i t h a m e ~ l b r a n e )
 T a b l e 12-3 0.4 H e c t a r e Pond D e s i q n C a l c u l a t i o n s

DESCRIPTION NAME VALUE

------------ ---- -----
Pond Area AREA 0.4 hectares
# o f Channels #CHBN 2 -
L/W R a t i o L/W 20 -
Depth DEPTH 20 rm
Channel V e l o c i t y VEL 30 cm/sec
Mannings ' n ' MANNING 0.018 sec/mA0.33
Paddle E f f . PW. EFF 0.6 -
Drive Eff. DR. EFF 0.7 -
PW WidthIChan W i d t h PADICHAN 0.75 -
E v a p o r a t i v e R a t e (max) EV AP 1.50 cmlday
Blowdown R a t e (ma%) BLOWDDWN 0.21 cnrlday
D e t e n t i o n Time DET.TIME 4.00 days
Wall Ht. (above g r a d e ) MALL. HP. A 40 cm
W a l l Ht. ( b e l o w g r a d e ) WALL.HT.B 10 em
Sump Depth SUMP.DEPTH 1.5 meters

DESCRIPTION NAME S.I. UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

----------- ---- ---------- -------------
Channel W i d t h CHAN.WID 9.69 m e t e r s 31.78 feet
Paddle Width PAD. WID 7.26 m e t e r s 23.83 feet
Centerwall Length CW.LEN 193.71 m e t e r s 635.52 feet
S i n g l e Channel L e n g t h CHAN. LEN 208.92 w a t e r s 685.43 fret
T o t a l Channel L e n g t h Tt3T.CHAN.LEN 417.84 m e t e r s 1370.86 feet
T o t a l Wall Height T0T.WALL.HT 0.50 m e t e r s
Slope SLOPE 2.492 x l o h - 4 2.472 x l o A - 4
T o t a l Head L o s s HEAD. LOSS 11.33 cm 4.44 i n c h e s
Total Efficiency TOT, EFF 42% 42%
H y d r a u l i c Power HY D. PWR 594 w a t t s 0.796 hp
T o t a l Power TOT. PWR 1413 w a t t s 1.894 hp
T o t a l U n i t Power TOT.UNIT.PWR 0.35 w a t t s / s q m 0.35 w a t t s l s q m
V e l o c i t y a t Paddle VEL. PAD 40.0 c m l r e c 1.31 f t l s e c
Pond Volume VOLUME 809.4 c u m e t e r s 28584 c u f t
Evap. F l o w r a t e 13.EVAP 60.7 cu @/day 2144 c u f t l d a y
(alternate units) 42.2 l i t e t s / m i n 1 i . a gpm
Blowdown F l o w r a t e 8.5 c u @/day 300 c u f t l d a y
(alternate units) 5.9 l i t e r s l m i n 1.6 gpm
Harvest Flowrate 202.4 cu mlday 7146 cu f t l d a y
(alternate units) 14Q.5 l i t @ r s / m i n 37.1 gpm
 T a b l e 12-4 0 . 8 H e c t a r e Pond S y s t e m Desiqn C a l c u l a t i o n s

( u s e s i n p u t f r o m above, as well as t h e f o l l o w i n g )

DESCRIPTION NAME VALUE

.---
----------.- --.--
# o f A d j a c e n t Ponds #CIDJ.PONDS 2
S e t s o f A d j . Ponds #SETS 1

*OUTPUTS* A l l o u t p u t s r e f e r t o t h e e n t i r e pond s y s t e m

DESCRIPTION S.I. UNITS ENGLISH U N I T S

- - L I " I I " I " " ----ow---- ---.-------o-

T o t a l # o f Ponds #PONDS
T o t a l Pond System A r e a S. AREA hectares 2.000027 acres
(alternate units) sq m e t e r s 87121.38 sq f t
Center Wall tenqth S. CW. LEN meters 1271 feet
T ~ t . S t r a i g h t Wall L e n g t h S.STRmW.LEN meters 3178 feet
Curved W a l l L e n g t h S. CUR. W. LEN meters 399 feet
T o t a l Wall Length S,TOT.W,LEN meters 3577 feet
T o t a l Wall Area S. TOT. W.ARER sq m e t e r s 50ha sq f t
S y s t e m Pond Volume S. VOLUME cu meters 57167 cu f t
Evap. F l o w r a t e 8.0. EVBP cu m / d a y 4288 cu f t / d a y
(alternate units) liters/min 22.3 gpm
Blowdown F l o w r a t e S , Q, BLOWDOWN cu m/day 600 cu f t / d a y
(alternate units) liters/min 3.1 gpm
Harvest Flowrate 5 , Q, HARVEST cu m/day 14292 cu . f t / d a y
(alternate units) liters/min 74.2 gpm
t o keep t h e pond o p e r a t i o n a l . The i s s u e i s moot f o r t h e membrane l i n e d pond
s i n c e t h e meabrane w i l l e x t e n d up t o t h e t o p o f t h e w a l l . The c u r v e d w a l l s
w i l l be b u i l t u s i n g Dodd's c o r r u g a t e d p a n e l t e c h n i q u e , Tho i s s u e of e x i s t i n g
p a t e n t s on t h e f l o w d e f l e c t o r vanes w i l l be examined, and i f f a v o r a b l y
r e s o l v e d , vanes w i l l be i n s t a l l e d a t one end o i t h e ponds. The t o t a l c o s t of
w e l l s and f l o w d e f l e c t o r s i s $25,100.

The sumps a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e system i n

s e c t i o n 7.3.4. R a i l s and p i e r s w i l l be i n s t a l l e d i n s t a l l e d 1%3400), and
$5000 i s budgeted f o r s o l i d s removal equipment, which w i l l n o t be b u i l t u n t i l
t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e problem i s e v a l u a t e d .

Paddle wheels w i l l be b u i l t , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e f e a t u r e s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n
7.3.6. The p a d d l e wheel d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and c o s t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n
Appendix 111. S i n c e t h e s e a r e e x p e r i m e n t a l ponds, t h e d e s i g n i s based on a
maximum v e l o c i t y o f 30 cw/sec. The c o s t i s $24,400 f o r t h e two m i x i n g
systems.

C a r b o n a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s a key t e c h n i c a l i s s u e t o be s t u d i e d i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l system. The 0.4 h e c t a r e ponds, w i t h t h e i r f u l l - s c a l e s i z e d
sumps, w i l l p r o v i d e d a t a which can be e x t r a p o l a t e d t o l a r g e r ponds w i t h
confidence. The c o s t o f t h o two c a r b o n a t i o n systems i s $7000, which i n c l u d e s
t h e pH c o n t r o l l e r and aocociated,inatrumentation.

One o f t h e ponds w i l l be l i n e d w i t h a good q u a l i t y membrane l i n e r (Hypalon o r

CPE), w h i l e t h e o t h e r u i l l be l i n e d w i t h a 0.3 meter ( 1 f t ) c l a y base topped
w i t h a t h i n l a y e r o f crushed r o c k , r o l l e d t o a smooth f i n i s h . The c l a y is
n e c e s s a r y because o f t h e sandy s o i l a t t h e pond s i t e , and i s a v a i l a b l e
on-site f o r t h e cost of hauling. The c r u s h e d r o c k l i n e r i s an i m p o r t a n t c o s t
s a v i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e l a r g e s c a l e system which needs t o be e v a l u a t e d . The
r e l a t i v e l y l o n g c h a n n e l s w i l l a l l o w a c c u r a t e head l o s s n e a ~ u r e e e n t st o be
aade, from which roughness c o e f f i c i e n t s can be determined.

A summary o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s f o r t h e two 0.4 h e c t a r e e x p e r i m e n t a l

ponds i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 12-5.
 T a b l e 12-5 0.8 Hectare Experimental System Pond C o s t s

INSThLLED COST FOR 0.8 HECTARE SYSTEM

- * " ~ C 1 1 1 w I - - - " 1 - - - " 3 L L L ~ - - 1 - w - - - * - 1 - - w I - - - - I -

2 PONDS 0 . 4 HECTARES EACH

OESCRIPTION QUAN UNITS UNIT $ TOT $

--I---------
L---- ---I--
I---- ww---

GROWTH PONDS
Earthworks
Rough G r a d i n g * 2.0 a c r e $2,500 $5,000
L a z a r L e v e l 1l n a 2 . 0 acre 1,500 3,000
F i n i s h Grading 2.0 acre i ,000 2,000
Sump E x c a v a t i o n 362 c u yd 2.5 904

Walls & S t r u c t u r a l
S t r a i g h t Walls 5213 s q ft 4.0 20,851
Curved w a l l s b 5 5 sq +t 5.0 3,275
Flow D e f l e c t o r s 197 sq ft 5.0 903
Sump b o t t o m 3 h . 7 cu vd 150 5,500
Sump ends 8.6 cu yd 250 29159
Rails & Piers 254 f t 13.5 3,431
S o l i d s Remover 5,000

M i x ~ n qSystem
Paddle Wheels 2 # PW 10,700 21,400
P a # , Structural 2 # ponds 900 1,800
P.M. D e p r e s s i o n 6 cu y d 200 1,239

C a r b o n a t i o n System 2 # Ponds 3,500 7,000

L i n i n g (membrane)
Channel s 43730 sq f t 0,55 24,051
Ends 6865 sq f t 0.60 4,119

Lining
Clay 1874 cu yd 0,75 1,405
Cruehed Rock 319 c u y d 7.00 2 867
--I---

GROWTH PONDS TOTf4L

* Includes d r a i n a g e d i v e r s i o n % s i t e c l e a r i n g
Three 50 m2 experimental growth ponds will be constructed f o r biological
and small s c a l e engineering s t u d i e s . TWO of these will be mixed w i t h paddle
wheels, one w i t h an a i r l i f t . All t h r e e ponds w i l l be lined. The c o s t
breakdown f o r t h e s e pond6 i s shown in Table 12-6.

Table 12-6 SO e2 Pond Costs

S i t e Peparation ( l e v e l l i n g , e t c ) :

Walls: 430 f t @ S e l f t

Sumps: 3 x $500

H i x i n g Systems ( 2 P . M . , 1 air l i f t ) ;

Carbonation: 3 x $2000

Submersible Pumps: 2 x $300

Drains, p i p i n g : 3 x $800

Hisc.:

T O T A L , 3 Ponds

I n order t o v a l i d a t e the s e t t l i n g pond concept, a s e t t l i n g pond sized f o r the

volume of a 0 . 4 h e c t a r e qrowth pond will be constructed. Rather than
building a scaled down version of t h e l a r g e s e t t l i n g ponds of Section 8 , t h e
experimental s e t t l i n g pond will be an almost f u l l s c a l e version of one of t h e
channels i n the l a r g e r pond. The depth, w i d t h , and length will be
approximately 80X of f u l l s i z e , An i d e n t i c a l 2% bottom slope will be used.
T h i s pond will allow meaningful evaluation of s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
proposed concentrate c o l l e c t i o n system o f t h e l a r g e pond. The s i d e walls
will be made a s steep a s possible (possibly lined w i t h gunnite instead of a
membrane) i n order t u reduce "edge e f f e c t s . ' Two 20,000 l i t e r tanks, w i t h
sloped bottoms, will be used f o r secondary s e t t l i n g , f l u s h s t o r a g e , and Cor
primary s e t t l i n g t e s t s w i t h t h e 50 r 2 ponds. Figure 12-5 shows t h e
proposed s e t t l i n g pond system, while Table 12-7 l i s t s i t s c o s t .
 Table 12-7 Experimental System S e t t l i n g Pond Cost

Excavation & shaping: 1000 y d 3 @ $4.00/yd

Lininqr SO60 f t 2 4? $ 0 . 6 5 / f t

Pumps & a c c e s o r i e s :
S u p e r n a t a n t , c o n t r i f u g a l 500 gpr
C o n c e n t r a t e , s o l i d s handling 100 gpm

Supernatant d e c a n t e r ( f a b r i c a t e d )

Flush s t o r a g e / s e c o n d a r y s e t t l i n g t a n k s 2 x 20,000 l i t e r s

A11 piping & v a l v e s

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t misc.:

TOTAL

A t o t a l of $30,000 h a s been budgeted f o r t h e development of an a l t e r n a t i v e

h a r v e s t i n g method, which would be e i t h e r b e l t f i l t r a t i o n or air/DO
f l o a t a t i o n . The b e l t f i l t e r was d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 8. Although a p i l o t
s c a l e u n i t would probably c o s t more than $30,000, t h e r e a p o s s i b i l i t y of
purchasing t h e u n i t b u i l t b y Dodd i n Singapore. The o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o
develop a air/DO f l o a t a t i o n s e p a r a t o r , which o p e r a t e s i n much t h e same
f a s h i o n a s a d i s s o l v e d a i r f l o a t a t i o n , but u s e s f i n e bubble s p a r g e r s i n
conjunction w i t h t h e r e l e a s e of d i s s o l v e oxygen t o f l o a t t h e a l g a e t o t h e
s u r f a c e . LOW doses of polymer a r e used t o enhance c o a g u l a t i o n . A b u d j e t of
$30,000 should be s u f f i c i e n t t o develop a r e a s o n a b l e s i z e d experimental u n i t .

Cnnirif use
An a d d i t i o n a l $30,000 i s budgeted f o r t h e purchase of p i l o t s c a l e c e n t r i f u g e ,
s i n c e c e n t r i f u g a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o f o l l o w any primary h a r v e s t i n g process. A
small h o r i z o n t a l s o l i d bowl u n i t can be purchased f o r t h i s amount, from whrch
t h e necessary scale-up d a t a d a t a can be compiled. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a l a r g e r
u n i t , many of which a r e a v a i l a b l e on the used equipment market, could be
purchased.
12.4.4 System-wide C o s t s

An c o v e r e d a n a e r o b i c l a g o o n w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d t o t e s t t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f
n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g , and t o s t a b i l i z e a l g a l s o l i d s b e f o r e d i s p o s a l . The
l a g o o n w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e t h e q u a n t i t y o f s o l i d s t o b e d r i e d and
disposed of. a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no p l a n s f o r u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e methane
produced ( s i n c e s u i t a b l e engine-generators a t e q u i t e e x p e n s i v e ) , t h e l a g o o n ' s
performance w i l l be monitored. A r o u g h e s t i m a t e o f $20,000 was p r o v i d e d b y
t h e c o n s u l t a n t who d e s i g n e d t h e a n a e r o b i c l a g o o n system f o r t h e l a r g e s c a l e
system, + o r a l a g ~ o nsized t o h a n d l e the t h i c k e n e d e f + l u e n t f r o m t h e 0.4
hectare p~nds.

An e x i s t i n g w e l l a t t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e h a s ample c a p a c i t y t o p r o v i d e
g r o u n d w a t e r t o t h e pond system. The c o s t o f p i p i n g t h i s w a t e r f r o m t h e w e l l
t o t h e pond s i t e was e s t i m a t e d a t $ 2 3 , 5 0 8 , fin a d d i t i o n a l 510,000 i s b u d g e t e d
t o c o n s t r u c t a s h a l l o w well n e a r the S a l t o n Sea as a s o u r c e o+ h i g h l y s a l i n e
u a t e r . W i t h t h e r e t w o s o u r c e s , a wide r a n g e o f s a l i n i t j e s can b o f o r m u l a t e d ,

A l i n e d w a t e r s t o r a g e pond w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d as p a r t a # t h e w a t e r s u p p l y
sygtem. The pond w i l l a l s o s e r v e as a s e t t l i n g pond f o r w a t e r t r e a t m e n t ,
The d e s i g n and d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e w a t e r s t o r a g e pond is shown i n T a b l e 12-8.

f l o s t o f t h e p i p i n g f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a s m a l l
a r e a a t t h e head o f t h e g r o w t h ponds, $1500 i s b u d g e t e d f o r w a t e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l ponds and s e t t l i n g pond. The C02 w i l l
come f r o m a r e n t e d s t o r a g e t a n k . The c a r b o n a t i o n system i t s e l f is i n c l u d e d
i n t h e pond c o s t ( T a b l e 12-51, Most n u t r i e n t s a r e added i n s a l t f o r m
d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e p e n d s , or i n some cases, are d i s s o l v e d i n a s m a l l mix t a n k
and pumped. N i t r o g e n w i l l b e added as aqua-ammonia #rom a s t o r a g e t a n k
(these are normally rented). A t o t a l of 83500 is b u d g e t e d f o r m l x t a n k s ,
p i p i n g and v a l v e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h C02 d i s t r i b u t i o n and n u t r i e n t a d d i t i o n s .

The o f f i c e s , l a b , and culture rooms w i l l b e l o c a t e d i n r a n t e d t r a i l e r s , w i t h

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a small ' l a b annex", w h i c h c o n t a i n s b a l a n c e s and a t h e r
 T a b l e 12-8 E x p e r i m e n t a l System Water S t o r a g e Pond

STORAGE POND DESIGN - Volume o f T r u n c a t e d P r i s m

Slope= 2.0 (RunIRise)

Depth= 8 f t (Do n o t i n c l u d e f r e e b o a r d )
Vol ume
L1 L2 R A1 A2 Am f t ) (gallons)
-- -- -- -- --
(CU
- - ------- ---------
90 58 16 8100 3344 547b 4449 1 332790

STORAGE POND DIMENSIONS - Including freeboard

From t a b l e abover A d d i t i o n a l d e s i g n parameters:

-
Slope= 2 (run/rise) Desired freeboard 1 f t
Depth= 8 ft Addl. l i n e r beyond
L1 = 90 f t t o p o f berm I 2 f t

Computations; SINGLE LINER

------..-----
Length a t t o p o f berm I 94 f t
Length o f b o t t o m a 58 f t
Area o f b o t t o m (I 3364 sq f t
Area o f b o t t o m l i n e r a 3364 sq f t
Side panel h e i g h t , t o w a t e r l i n e = 16 f t
S i d e p a n e l h e i g h t , t o t o p o f berm = 18 f t
Side panel height, t o t a l a 20 f t
S i d e p a n e l a r e a (based on t o t a l ) m 1520 sq ft
Area o f a l l f o u r s i d e p a n e l s I 6080 sq f t
Total l i n e r area = 9444 sq f t

COST:

E x c a v a t i o n & berms: ~ ~=
862 c u yd B $ 3 1 yd

Liners . 9444 sq f t @$,bOlsq f t =

Hisc. a

TOTAL
i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t must be on more solid g r o u n d . Additional buildings include
a shop and c e n t r i f u g e l c h e m i c a l s t o r a g e shed a t t h e pond s i t e . The c o s t o f
b u i l d i n g s is shown i n T a b l e 12-9.

T a b l e 12-9 E x p e r i m e n t a l System B u i l d i n g s C o s t

Lab annex: concrete flaor, a i r c o n d i t i o n e d , 350 f t 2 @ 1 3 0 / f t 2 $10,500

shop: c o n c r e t e f l o o r , 1000ft2 e $15/it2 LS,OOO

C e n t r i f u g e shed, c o n c r e t e f l o o r , one s i d e open, 5 0 0 f t 2 @ $ 0 / f t 2 4,000

----.I-

TOTAL $29,500

A s m a l l amount ($25001 i s b u d g e t e d t o e x t e n d an e x i s t i n g d i r t road t o t h e

p r o p o s e d pond s i t e .

---------------
Instrumentation

This category covers t h e cast of instrumentation n o t already included i n

o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s , (e.g. s o l a r m o n i t o r , pond t e m p e r a t u r e and l e v e l s e n s o r s ,
power m e a s u r i n g e q u i p m e n t , e t c ) and f o r a m i c r o c o m p u t e r - b a s e d d a t a a q u i s i t i a n
system. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e system c o u l d b e u s e d t o automate v a r i o u s pond
o p e r a t i o n s , as most o f t h e p a c k a g e d a t a a q u i s i t i o n s y s t e m s h a v e d i g i t a l
o u t p u t l i n e s t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o open v a l v e s , t u r n an p u m p s , e t c , 4 t o t a l of
$15,000 i s b u d g e t e d f o r t h i s c a t e g o r y .

The c o s t o f e l e c t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and w i r i n g i s n o r m a l l y e s t i m a t e d a 5 a
percentage of t o t a l c a p i t a l costs. F u r a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p r o j e c t s u c h as
t h e p r o p o s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s y s t e m , 5% i s t y p i c a l .

A t o t a l o + $15,000 i s b u d g e t e d f o r m a c h i n e r y , t o c o v e r t h e c o s t o f a p i c k - u p
t r u c k , shop t o o l s and e q u i p m e n t .
The engineering budget, 5% of capital costs, or about $20,000 i s t o cover t h e
cost of any outside engineering (e.g, surveying, drafting, s o i l s analysis)
required for t h e construction of t h e ponds. Most of t h e engineering will be
done in-house, and i s included in t h e operating cost budget in t h e folloning
section.

A 10% contingency i s included t o cover unforseen costs and unusual

circumstances.

A summary of all construction costs for t h e proposed experimental faeility is

given in T a b l e 12-10 T h e t w o 0.4 hectare growth ponds account for about 25%
of t h e total, t h e small ponds about 7 2 , t h e harvesting systems about 202,
system-wide c o s t s about 33X, engineering 52, and contingency lo%,
T a b l e 12-10 Experimental F a c i l i t y Construction Cost Summary

TOTAL $
6ROWTH PONDS: 2 x 1 a c r e --I----

Earthworks* $10,904
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 41,199
M i x i n g System 24,439
C a r b o n a t i o n System 7,000
L i n i n g ( 1 membrane, 1 crushed r o c k ) 32,443
-.

GROWTH PONDS - 3 x 50 sq m e t e r
- 6 x 1 . 5 sq metar

HARVESTING
S e t t l i n g Pond System
Air/DO F l o a t a t i o n
Centrifuge

SY STEfl-W.IDE COSTS

f l n a e r o b i c Lagoon S y s t e m
Water S u p p l y ( g r o u n d w a t e r 1
Water S u p p l y ( S a l t o n Sea w a t e r )
H a t e r Storage Pond
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
C02 & N u t r i e n t S u p p l y
Buildings
Roads
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n n o t i n c l u d e d elsewhere
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n (5X o+ a b o v e )
Hachinery

ENGINEERING ( 5 % o f a b o v e )

COMTINGENCY (10% o f a b o v e )

TOTAL COST
 EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND COSTS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The work p l a n and work s c h e d u l e a r e p r e s e n t e d below f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system. The p l a n is broken down i n t o
i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s , each d e s c r i b i n g an e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o r
operation. The s c h e d u l e f o l l o w s , w i t h each t a s k a s s i g n e d a t i m e span f o r
completion. The c o s t of l a b o r , equipment, s u p p l i e s , and overhead i s t h e n
d e l i n e a t e d . The f i n a l budget, i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s ,
follows t h i s section

13.2 SYSTEM CONSTRUCTION

The d e s i g n , and any changes made d u r i n g t h e r e v i e w p r o c e s s , a u s t undergo a

f i n a l r e v i e w f o r i n s e r t i o n o f d e t a i l and f i n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e . c o n s t r u c t i o n
schedule. T h i s work would a c t u a l l y be done p r i m a r i l y b e f o r e a c o n t r a c t s t a r t
d a t e and c o n t i n u e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t month.

C o n c u r r e n t w i t h Task 1, d u r i n g t h e f i r s t month o f t h e p r o j e c t , c o n s t r u e t i o n
c o n t r a c t o r s w i l l b e sought and i n t e r v i e w e d . After the s o l i c i t a t i o n of bids
and n e g o t i a t i o n s , a f i n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c h e d u l g ill be drawn up and any
v a r i a t i o n f r o m t h e i n i t i a l budget reviewed.

C o n t i n q e n t on t h e weather, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e proposed system

would t a k e f o u r months. The a c q u i s i t i o n o f t r a i l o r s f a r o f f i c e space, t h e
c ~ n s t r u c t i o no f s t o r a g e and u t i l i t y b u i l d i n g s , and e a r t h w o r k s w i l l be done
d u r i n g t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e f o u r months. A f t e r l a y i n g water and power l i n e s ,
t h e system i t s e l f w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d .
During t h e e i g h t e e n month c o n t r a c t p e r i o d , t h e l a b o r a t o r y w i l l be s e t u p
p r i m a r i l y i n t r a i l o r s . A c q u i s i t i o n of t r a i l o r s and i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
l a b o r a t o r y equipment will b e g i n once t h e s i t e u t i l i t i e s a r a i n place and t h e
earthwork completed. Same o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y equipment will have t o be haused
i n a s m a l l p r e - f a b r i c a t e d b u i l d i n g on a c o n c r e t e s l a b f o r s t a b i l i t y , As soon
a s p o s s i b l e t h e r e a f t e r , a l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i c i a n w i l l be h i r e d t o i n i t i a t e t h e
algal c u l t u r e c o l l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r e f o r growth of inoculum. T h e 1.5 r 2
ponds w i l l be o p e r a t i o n a l a t t h i s t h e .

13.3 EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

The water r e s o u r c e i s an i m p o r t a n t parameter of t h e o v ~ r a l lsystem, S i n c e i t

i s yet o f r a t h e r u n d e f i n e d c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l system must b e
f l e x i b l e enough t o t e s t a n i d e v a r i e t y ob water resources. Thc t w o water
r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e a t t h e proposed s i t e p r o v i d e t h i % f l e x i b i l i t y #hen
combined n i t h water c o n d i t i e n i n g , The S a l t o n Sea provides t h e sodaurn
c h l o r i d e needed t o a c h i e v e a n y c o n c e i v a h l y u s e f u l TDSp I t can be d i l u t e d
w i t h t h e well water t o a c h i e v e any i n t e r m e d i a t e s a l i n i t y a l l o w i n g t h e s y s t m
t o b e o p e r a t e d a t almost any blow down r a t i o . The c a l c i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n is
very high i n t h e S a l t o n Sea, s o t h a t some water s o f t e n i n g i s r e q u i r e d , The
magnesium l e v e l i s a l e o h i g h , C o n d i t i o n i n g will be done w i t h soda ash f a r
c a l c i u m removal, and n i t h l i m e and soda ash f o r removal o f b o t h , I n p u t
s t r e a m s p l i t t i n g w i l l a l l o w a d j u s t m e n t o f b o t h t o d i f f e r e n t degrees. S t i l l ,
t h e w a t e r s composed i n t h i s manner r a y o n l y approximate s p e c i f i e d water
r e s o u r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t t h e s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e
o n l y a v e r a g e s s o t h a t p r e c i s e d u p l i c a t i o n i s not r e a l i s t i c , Hewever, t h e
small ponds,. 1.5 m 2 , and l a b o r a t o r y c u l t u r e s can be used t o f o r m u l a t e and
t e s t any g i v e n water c ~ s p a s i t i o n , hs of now, t h e water r e s o u r c e s o+ interest
are Type E I c o n c e n t r a t e d e i g h t f o l d and s e a w a t e r . The f o l l o w i n q e ~ p e r i a e n t s
will be performed r e g a r d i n g water c h e m i s t r y and a l g a l g r o n t h on t h e ~ e
waters.

A. Water C o n d i t i o n i n g
1. Cost o i c o n d i t i o n i n g v a aaount removed and e + f i c i e n s y
2. P r e c i p i t a t e removal b y settlng
3, P r e c i p i t a t e f o r m a t i o n , a f t e r i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , upon a d d i t i o n a l
concentration
B e Water C h e m i s t r y
1. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s p e c i e s p r e c i p i t a t i n g and r e m a i n i n g i o n
c o m p o s i t i o n , by o u t s i d e a n a l y t i c l a b o r a t o r y
2. Approximate d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n r e a c t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n s t a n t s by i n f l e c t i o n p o i n t s i n t i t r a t i o n s . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f carbon
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y as a f u n c t i o n o f pH change.

C. C o n t r o l l e d T e s t s o f A l q a l Growth on Waters Used

1. B o t t l e t e s t s i n l a b o r a t o r y , w i t h Type I 1 water as c o n t r o l f o r t h e
g r o w t h o f t h e l i p i d c o n t a i n i n s t r a i n s l i k e C h r y s o I F 1 and Cheatoceros
9
2. Growth t e s t s i n 1.5 m ponds w i t h Type I 1 water as c o n t r o l f o r
Chryso/F1 ( o r o t h e r p r o m i s i n g l i p i d p r o d u c e r ) and seawater as c o n t r o l f o r
g r o w t h o f Platymonas.

D, Media R e c y c l e
1. P r e l i m i n a r y media r e c y c l e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be conducted i n t h e 1.3
sad 50 m 2 ponds t o d e t e r m i n e t h e minimum blow down r a t i o t h a t i s f e a s i b l e .
These e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be done f o r one month a t a t i m e , which i s s h o r t i n
t e r m s o f what must be a c t u a l l y p r a c t i c e d i n a r e a l system, b u t l o n g enough
assess f e a s i b i l i t y .
2. A l l e x p e r i m e n t s i n p o n d s ' o f . 4 h e c t a r e s i t e w i l l be performed w i t h
media r e c y c l i n g . T h i s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r m i n i m i z i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t of
t h e r e e x p e r i m e n t s and c r u c i a l f o r assessment o f t h e u t i l i i z a t i o n o f s a l i n e
groundwaters i n any p r a c t i c a l system which i s t o be o p e r a t e d i n t h e a r i d
a r e a s o f t h e U.S. Southwest. P r o d u c t i v i t y and s p e c i e s dominance a s a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e d u r a t i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n on r e c y c l e d medium a r e t h e main
f a c t o r s t o be analyzed.

A l t h o u g h in-pond sumps were s p e c i f i e d f o r c a r b o n a t i o n i n t h e l a r g e s c a l e

d e s i g n , b o t h sumps and covered a r e a c a r b e n a t o r s w i l l be t e s t e d i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l system. Sumps, however, w i l l be p r o v i d e d i n t h e l a r g e r
e x p e r i m e n t a l ponds, b e i n g t h e p r i m a r y method. Covers w i l l be added l a t e r i f
t h e r e s u l t s f r o m 50 m2 ponds a r e p o s i t i v e , The c a r b o n a t i o n t e s t s w i l l be
e x t e n s i v e and w i l l be done p r i o r t o i n o c u l a t i o n i n b o t h f r e s h w a t e r and
media. The s p e c i f i c t e s t s f o l l o w .

A. Sump C a r b o n a t i o n
1, S t r i p p i n g r a t e per u n i t d e p t h o f sump
a. v e r s u s sump l i q u i d d e p t h
b. v e r s u s t h e r a t i o af gas f l o w r a t e t o l i q u i d f l o w r a t e
c. v e r s u s s p a r g e r t y p e ( i n i t i a l b u b b l e s i z e ) and gas f l o w r a t e
 2. O v e r a l l t r a n s f e r efficiency i n 1.5 m deep sunp
a. versus sparger t y p e
b. f o r c o - c u r r e n t , l a t e r a l , and c o u n t e r - c u r r a n t flow
3. Performance o f g a s r e c y c l e , i f necessary

8. Covered a r e a c a r b o n a t o r
1. Overall t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y f o r given a r e a of cover
2. E f f e c t of water v e l o c i t y under cover
3. E f f i c i e n c y of r i p p l e cover

C. E f f e c t o f a l g a e and s u p e r s a t u r a t e d o x y g e n on t r a n s f e r e+ficicncy
1 . Measure C02 t r a n s f e r a n d O2 o u t
2. D e t e r m i n e if a l g a e e x c r e t i o n p r o d u c t s enhance t r a n s f e r

Dissolved oxygen can be measured u s i n g an Orion D O p r a b e a n d cheeked w i t h the

Winkler method. Carbon u p t a k e c a n be measured b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c h a n g e i n
t o t a l i n o r g a n i c earbon from pH change and the carbon equilibrium equatisns,

Although many paddlewheel s y e t e a s a r c now used 58r mixing a l g a l c u l t u r e s ,

there i s l i t t l e d a t a on t h e a c t u a l e f f i c i e n c y o b t a i n e d i n l a r g e pond^. Less
d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n i n g a i r l i + t m i x i n g systems f o r law Raad, low
v e l o c i t y systems. Thus i t will b e important t o d e t e r m i n e j u t how # e l f t h e s e
d i f f e r e n t o p t i o n s p e r f o r m . Since t h e prinary system t o be i n s t a l l e d i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l ponds i s t h e p a d d l e w h e e l , a i r l i + t m i x i n g will be t e s t a d
i n i t i a l l y b y s p a r g i n g a i r i n t o t h e e a r b o n a t i u n sumps a d a p t e d f o r t h e purpose
by i n s t a l l a t i o n of a b a f f l e . Pteasurements w i l l i n c l u d e head l e s s and v a r i o u s
power n u ~ b e r gas a f u n c t i o n o f a a t a r v e l o c i t y . In a d d i t i o n , C02 o u t g a s s i n g
w i l l be measured as a. f u n c t i o n 0 9 i n i ~ i n g speed. I f the pareneters d e t ~ r m i n e d
f o r a i r l i f t m i x i n g a r e f a v o r a b l e a draft t u b e system f o r a i r l i f t will be
d e s i g n e d and i n s t a l l e d i n a 50 m 2 pond f o r testing, Scale-up t o , 4 ha will
d e p e n d on t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f r a s u l t s and b u d g e t c o n s t r a i n t s ,

The p a r a m e t e r s d e t a r m i n e d from t h e c a r b o n a t i o n t e s t s a n d t h e a i r l i f t m i x i n g
tests will be used t o e v a l u a t e and d e s i g n a combined g a s l i f t a n d c a r b o n a t i o n
system, The c a l c u i a t i ~ n sn i l 1 be performed +or- a 41ue g a s 5ystem t h i g h gas
f l o w r a t e s ) , a d i l u t e d CD2 gas phase ( 3 S X Cog, a t t h r e e times the f l a w
r a t e o f a p u r e C 0 2 ryste.1, and for pure t D 2 f l o w g a s f l a w c a s e ) .

Studies on t h e rowth a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the a l g a e w i l l b e p e r f ~ r m e d i n t h e

1.5 m2 and 50 n ponds. S Ths b e s t c o n d i t i o n s will be s c a l e d up t o the . 4
h a pands f o r v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e f u l l scale d e s i g n . Both i n d o o r b o t t l e
c u l t u r e s and t h e 1 . 5 a 2 c u l t u r e s p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t nesns t o t e s t q u i c k l y
a moderate number o f f a c t o r s and v a l u e s . I n i t i a l work i n d o o r s u s u a l l y
i n d i c a t e s whether a f a c t o r i s i m p o r t a n t o r n o t , encept f u r t h o s e t h a t d e p e n d
on h i g h l i g h t i n t e n s i t y . For t h e s e t h e outdoor small ponds work well. Thus
media o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d i e s can be performed indoors, while pH and DO work i s
best done outdoors. Since t h e m i x i n g regime i n a small pond does not
s i m u l a t e t h a t in a l a r g e r one, t h e i n i t i a l r e s u l t s obtained a t t h e small
s c a l e need t o be t e s t e d , i n t h e s h o r t and long term, a t t h e 50 m 2 and . 4
s i z e . F a c t o r s t o be t e s t e d f o r a f f e c t on p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c l u d e pH, D O ,
a l k a l i n i t y , temperature, batch d e t e n t i o n time, continuous v s batch o p e r a t i o n ,
and nitrogen depleted p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a g e product accumulation. Routine
measurements i n c l u d e pH, temperature, D O , i n s o l a t i o n , G O 2 input and biomass
d e n s i t y , Chemical composition i s measured a s required t o determine l i p i d
p r o d u c t i v i t y . Since c o r r e l a t i o n of p r o d u c t i v i t y with v a r i o u s parameters i s
o f t e n a useful e v a l u a t i v e t o o l , much d a t a needs t o be taken and s t o r e d i n an
organized manner. A computer automated d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n system will be
i n s t a l l e d f o r t h i s . In a d d i t i o n , w i t h t h i s i n p l a c e , t h e s t a t u s of
p r o d u c t i v i t y i n a pond can be determined approximately o n - l i n e , without
having t o wait f o r c e l l d e n s i t y measurements, b y monitoring t h e CO2 input
and t h e pH, When c o r r e c t e d f o r i n j e c t i o n and outgassing l o s e c e , C02 input
is proportional t o productivity.

Tno h a r v e s t i n g methods n i l l be t e s t e d i n t h e operation of t h e experimental

system: f l o t a t i o n followed b y foam c o l l e c t i o n and slow primary s e t t l i n g i n
l a r g e s e t t l i n g ponds followed b y secondary s e t t l i n g i n small tanks. Both
aethods will be followed b y c e n t r i f u g a t i o n t o provide a f i n a l product a%
10%-20% v o l a t i l e s o l i d s . The biomass t o be separated w i l l be nitrogen
s t a r v e d and f l o c c u l a t e d w i t h small doses of h i g h a o l e c u l a r weight polymers.
Polymer f l o c c u l a t i o n i s an i n p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of t h e h a r v e s t i n g process. On
s i t e polymer f l o c c u l a t i o n t e s t s will be conducted w i t h t h e a i d o+
c o n s u l t a n t s . The hypothesis being t e s t e d i s t h a t polymers can be t a i l o r e d t o
t h e s p e c i f i c needs, i . e . , chemical medium and a l g a l t y p e , while s t i l l
maintaining enough v e r s a t i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n a s a u n i v e r a l l y e f f e c t i v e
f l o c c u l a n t . T h e c o l l e c t i o n method, sedrmentation o r f l o t a t i o n , w i l l be
evaluated i n terms of f l o c c u l a n t type and dose required t o achieve e f f i c i e n t
and r e l i a b e separation and c o n c e n t r a t r a n . The dose of f l o c c u l a n t must not
exceed t h e equivalent of s . 0 2 per k g dry biomass, and p r e f e r a b l y half t h a t .
For gas f l o t a t i o n s t u d i e s , some t e s t i n g n i l l be done r i g h t i n t h e ponds. The
d e n s i t y of biomass leaving t h e f l o t a t i o n s t a t i o n w i l l be used t o c a l c u a l t e
t h e h a r v e s t i n g e f f i c i e n c y . T h i s will be measured a s a f u n c t i o n of pond D O ,
biomass d e n s i t y ( s i n c e s e v e r a l passes through t h e h a r v e s t e r w i l l be made,
each w i t h lower incoming biomass d e n s i t y ) , G O 2 ~ n p u t , d u r a t i o n of nrtrogen
depleted growth, and f l o c c u l a n t dose.

Unharvested biomass w i l l r e - e n t e r t h e nitrogen s u f f i c i e n t growth phase. T h u s

i t will be necessary t o t e s t s t r a i n s f o r t h e a b i l i t y t o quickly absorb newly
introduced nitrogen and e n t e r an a c t i v e growth s t a g e .
The sedimentation t e s t s will be performed i n two phases: c e l l s e t t l i n g and
sedimented s l u r r y removal. The s e t t l i n g r a t e s o f t h e biomass will be
measured a s d e t a i l e d previously I 1 1 in indoor t e s t s , with and without
+ l o c c u l a n t , When the velocity for most of the biomass exceeds 30 cm/hr, t h e
pond w i l l be f e d flocculant a n d pumped i n t o the s e t t l i n g b a s i n .
Sedimentation time will be determined on the b a s i s of equivalency t o s e t t l i n g
3 m i n 10-15 hrs. After decanting t h e supernatent, the s l u r r y recovery
system n i l l be t e s t e d for e f f i c i e n c y a n d r a t e a f s l u r r y removal. Then the
r a t e o f thickening in t a n k s will be determined.

Centrifugation t e s t s a r e important a t t h l s point t a determine t h e throughput

and hence the size a n d number of c e n t r i f u g e s needed a t t h e l a r g e s c a l e .
Centrifuge vendors a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t e s t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e biomass
s l u r r y and consult on c e n t r i f u g e s e l e c t i o n and operation.

Once t h e harvesting parameters h a v e been deterained w i t h bi~mass from 50 n2

p o n d s , the process w i l l need t o be validated u s i n g t h e l a r g e growth a n d
s e t t l i n g ponds. The l a t t e r have been designed t o emulate d i r e c t l y t h e s o l i d s
removal system s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e f u l l s c a l e design. The experimental
s e t t l i n g p o n d i s a " s l i c e " of the f u l l s c a l e s e t t l i n g p o n d , having t h e same
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension for s o l i d s flushing.

.
13 3 . 6
----------
Task 10
Qiqcatlqn-ef-B~~~~~I!-I~_~~-C!!Y~LE~,~C~~~!!-!!~-!!!~~~E~-RE~YEL~~~-I~!!~-

A 9111111,c o v e r e d lagoon will be constructed t~ d i g e s t , anaerobiaclly, t h e

biomass harvested from the l a r g e ponds. These t e s t s will be somewhat
a r t i f i c i a l i n t h a t t h e "pretreatment" d u e t o l i p i d e x t r a c t i o n will b e a b s e n t ,
The r e s u l t s will s t i l l be extremely valuable i n acertaining how the biomass
components, t h a t do degrade, p a r t i t i o n i n t h e lagoon. T h i s information i s
necessary t o v a l i d a t e t h e assumption upon which t h e extensive recycling o f
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus was based. The lagoon h a s been sized t o
accept t h e t o t a l biomass h a r v e s t of a one acre pend, The t e s t s will provide
the d a t a necessary f o r evaluating t h e system's c a p a b i l i t y o f producing a
methane f u e l product.

A s i g n i f i c a n t c a p i t a l cost savings incorporated i n t o t h e l a r g e s c a l e d e s i g n

i s the use of clay s e a l e r and crushed rock overburden f a r pond l i n i n g . One
o f t h e , 4 ha ponds, and t h e 4 ha pond i S constructed, will be l i n e d i n t h i s
manner. The l i n e r m u s t be evaluated, over the longterm, bur water l a s s and
buildup o f d e l e t e r i o u s organic s o l i d s . T h i s must be done i n a l a r g e p o n d i n
w h i c h t h e hydraulics a r e s i m i l a r t o a f u l l s c a l e pond. The other . 4 ha pond
n i l l be lined w i t h a h i g h q p a l i t y p l a s t i c l i n e r and s e r v e a c o n t r o l , a s well
a s a t e s t of the endurance of such a l i n e r under f i e l d conditions. 411 o#
the 5 0 n2 ponds will be s i m i l a r l y lined.
13.4 OPERATIONS SUMMARY AND EXPERIMENTAL PRIORITIES

The proposed system c o n s i s t s o f s i x 1.5 m2 ponds, t h r e e 502 ponds, and

two . 4 h e c t a r e ponds. A 4 h e c t a r e pond would y i e l d r e s u l t s d i r e c t l y
t r a n s f e r r a b l e t o l a r g e systems, b u t i t i s n o t c o s t e f f e c t i v e r e s e a r c h a t t h i s
time. The 1.5 a2 ponds a r e t o used f o r i n i t i a l s c r e e n i n g o f p r o m i s i n g
a l g a l s p e c i e s under o u t d o o r c o n d i t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and i r r a d i a n c e . Media
and g r o w t h p a r a m e t e r s w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e s e s m a l l ponds, The 50 m2
ponds w i l l be used t o t e s t t h e v a r i o u s subsystem d e s i g n s ( c a r b o n a t o r s , m i x i n q
systems, a i r f l o t a t i o n , s e d i m e n t a t i o n systems) a t a s c a l e which w i l l i n d i c a t e
f e a s i b l i l t y a t lowest experimental cost. These ponds w i l l a l s o be used f o r
g r o w t h s t u d i e s and t o p r o v i d e i n o c u l u m f o r t h e . 4 ha ponds. The l a t t e r w i l l
s e r v e as t h e p r i m a r y t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i y f o r v a l i d a t i ~ no f t h e l a r g e s c a l e
d e s i g n over l o n q t e r m o p e r a t i o n . As f a r as v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e l a r g e s c a l e
d a s i q n , t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y e x p e r i m e n t s a r e t h o s e which d e t e r m i n e t h e
u t i l i z a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f C02, i n c l u d i n g mass t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s and
l o ~ s e st h r o u g h o u t t h e system; t h o s e which t e s t c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of methods
f o r p r i m a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e a l g a l suspension, i n c l u d i n g polymer
f l o c c u l a t i o n t e s t s and e v a l u a t i o n o f c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e performance and c o s t
( s e t t l i n g ponds, f l o t a t i o n d e v i c e s ) ; use o f an i n e x p e n s i v e a n a e r o b i c lagoon
f o r r e c y c l i n g n u t r i e n t s ( e s p e c i a l l y c a r b o n ) t h a t would n o t be removed i n t h e
p r o d u c t stream, i n c l u d i n g t h e p a r t i t i o n i n g o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s i n r e c o v e r a b l e
f r a c t i o n s o f t h e lagoon; e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e pond l i n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s , most
i m p o r t a n t l y t h e water l o s s e s when p l a s t i c l i n e r s a r e n o t used and t h e
endurance o f each o f t h e l i n e r s ! and t h e e f f e c t o f l o n g t e r r media r e c y c l i n g
on system performance.

The biomass and l i p i d p r o d u c t i v i t y g o a l s w i l l be e v a u l a t e d , b u t a t t a i n m e n t o f

t h e s e g o a l s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y dependent upon p r o v i s i o n o f s t r a i n s pre-screened
f o r t h e a b i l i t y t o produce l i p i d . A preliminary choice of s t r a i n s include
t h e h i g h l i p i d p r o d u c i n g C h r y s o / F l , a p r o d u c t i v e and p o t e n t i a l l y h i g h l i p i d
p r o d u c i n g s t r a i n o f Chaetoceros, and t h e Hawaiian P l a t y a o n a s f o r use as a
biomass p r o d u c t i v i t y s t a n d a r d . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f removing
p h o t o s y n t h e t i c a l l y produced oxygen f r o m t h e pond medium w i l l be examined--no
d e t e r m i n a t i o n n i s p o s s i b l e p r i o r t o e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n - - a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f such
removal on p r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l be s t u d i e d .

Two i m p o r t a n t g r o w t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e organisms w i l l be s c r u t i n i z e d
d u r i n g t h i s experiment. F i r s t i s t h e a b i l i t y t o recover q u i c k l y from
n i t r o g e n s t a r v a t i o n a f t e r a d d i t i o n ~ f new n i t r o g e n i n t o t h e medium, T h i s
i n v o l v e s r e s i s t a n c e t o p h o t o - o x i d a t i o n and p h o t o - b l e a c h i n g i n a l r e a d y
depigaented c e l l s . Second i s t h e a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y i n a
medium t h a t h a s undergone e x t e n s i v e r e c y c l i n g . T h i s u s u a l l y means t h a t t h e
organism must n o t e x c r e t e o r g a n i c s i n t o t h e medium i n s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y .
13.5 EXPERIHENThL SCHEDULE

F i g u r e 13-1 l i s t s t h e e l e v e n t a s k s described above and shows t h e a n t i c i a p t e d

schedule of c o m p l e t i o n . Many o+ t h e t a s k s a r e oS an o n q o i n g n a t u r e , w i t h
periodic evaluation. Task 12, d a t a e v a i u a t l o n and r e p o r t i n q , i s i n d i c a t e d on
the +igure.

1 3 . b BUDGET DESCRIPTION

t'he c o m o l e t e b u d q e t I S q i v e n a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o t t h l s s e c t i o n , The e i e m e n t s
o f t h e b u d g e t a r e described i n T a b l e s 13-f,2,3, and 4. T a b l e 13-1 g i v e s t h e
c a s t c t pond e q u i p m e n t , Fhese i t e m s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e t o t a l p o n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 9.0. The c o s t s listed i n l a b l e 1 3 - 2 , a r e
t o r l a b o r a t o r y equipment. Iwa c a s t columns a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s t a b l e . fhe
t r r s t g i v e s t h e c o s t a t acquiring new e q u i p m e n t as s p e c i f l e d , Those rtems
whrch are owned b y H i c r o b i a l P r o d u c t s , I n c . o r a r e qavernment owned b u t , a t
p r e s e n t a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e b v M i c r o b i a l P r o d u c t s , Inc, w i l l b e made a v a i l a b i e
f o r u s e on t h i s p r o j e c t , Thus t h e s e c o n d ' c o l u n n lists t h e c o s t o f e q u i p m e n t
w h i c h must b e p u r c h a s e d f o r t h i s p r o j e c t . The supplies and materials ( o t h e r
t h a n t h o s e used i n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e pond s y s t e m ) are detailed i n T a b l e 1 3 - 3 ,
The c o s t s shown a r e based on v e n d o r q u o t e s o r on p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , fit t h e
e n p e r i m e n t a l s c a l e , nutrient c o s t g are h i g h because q u a n t i t i e s are r e l a t i v e i v
small, The breakdown o f d i r e c t l a b o r c o s t s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 13-4. The t l m e
a l o t m e n t s a r e i n e q u i v a l e n t f u l l months o f work, n o t b y s c h e d u l e d work t i m e .
The b u d g e t forfn t h a t f o l l o w s a t t h e end o f t h i s s e c t i o n g i v e s t h e t o t a l
p r o j e c t c o s t f o r t h e eighteen month e f f o r t , i n c l u d i n g o v e r h e a d and f e e .

T a b l e 13-1, Experimental S y s t e m - Pond Equipment

~ ~ 1 - - ~ ~ 1 1 ~ 1 o ~ ~ ~ 1 o ~ " ~ I . r ~ o L L L L L I C I C I C ~ ~

Item cost, r
I ~ ~ ~ " I " I I I ~ I I I ~ ~ " " ~ ~ ~ L ~ o o o I ) ~ ~

M o t o r s , speed r e d u c e r s + o r 1 a c r e ponds 4800

pH c o n t r o l l e r s , 2 2000
Flowmeters, 5 1450
M o t o r s , c a n t r o l l e r s , small ponds 1500
Pumps, 5 8 100
Ccntrltuqe, harvest 30000
&ir/DO, h a r v e s t ( p a r t i a l ) e s t . 5000
Computer, i n t e r f a c e s I5000

Total
--------------------------------.-----------------------------------------------
I'ask 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 d 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
--------------------------------.-----------------------------------------------
1. D e s i qn Hevi ew X

3.Svstem C o n s t r u c t . X X X X

4.Lab. Set up X X

5.Water Res. E x p ' t .

Water Cond. X X X
Water Chem. X X X X
Growth t e s t s X X X X X X
Media r e c v c l e X X X X X X X ; I X X X X X X

6.Carbonation T e s t s
Sump X X X X X
Covered a r e a X X
Media E f f e c t s X X X X X

7.Hixing l e s t s
50m2 ponds X X
1 a c r e ponds X X X X
--------------------------------,-----------------------------------------------

1 2 3 4 5 6 . 7 8 9 1011 1213 1415 1617 18

--------------------------------,-----------------------------------------------

8.Growth S t u d i e s X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

9. H a r v e s t i n g r e s t s
Jar t e s t s X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
50m2 X X X X X
1 acre X X X X X X X X X

16.Diqestion-Recycle X X X X X X X X X X

11.Liner Inspection 1 X X

12.Reporting
Design r e v i e w X
Budget r e v i e w X
Construct.progress X
Construct.fina1 X
Semi-annual r s p o r t X
F i n a l Report

F i g u r e 13-1. E x p e r i m e n t a l Schedule
 F a b l e 13-2. L a b o r a t o r y Equipment

Item l4vailabilitv ficqui 5 i t i o n C o a t , $ B u d g e t e d Cost ,$

-----------------L-----*---"I)eee-e-e-33.c--------------------~------------------

Air c o n d i t i o n i n q
C u l t u r e room
Bui l d i n o s
Culturinq equip,
L l q h t banks
Gas m l x e r s
Shaker
f n o c . hood
Air compressor
Tables
Laboratorv equip.
Fume hood
Centr~fuqe
l 4 u t o c i a v e , used
Steam q e n e r a t o r
pH m e t e r s , 2
Uven, d t v i n q
Furnace, mu+fle
Bai ance
Microscope
Uven, vacuum
Cell d i s r u p t e r
Spect~~photometer
Furniture

Total

Purchase r e q u i r e d
Owned b y N i c r o b ~ a lP r o d u c t s
Government equipment
 T a b l e 13-3. O p e r a t i n g M a t e r i a l s and S u p p l i e s

................................................................................
Item Basis, $ T o t a l Cost, t
--------------------------------u-----------------------------------------------

Culturing supplies 500 M o n t h l y , 16 mo.

Lab. a n a l y s i s 500 M o n t h l y , 16 moo
Water a n a l y s i s ,
outside lab. 200-500/sample, 10-20 samples
Polymer c o n s u l t a n t Quote
Pond C h e m i c a l s
co2 0 5 / t o n , 200 t o n s / y r , q u o t e
C02 v e s s e l r e n t 30 t o n c a p a c i t y , 750/mo.,auote
Ammoni a 5 0 0 / t o n , 20 t o n s / y r , l i s t p r .
Phosphate 2 0 0 0 / t o n , 20 t o n s / y r l i s t p r .
Iron 4 5 0 0 / t o n , 20 t o n s / y r l i s t p r .
Sodium c a r b o n a t e 3 0 0 / t o n , 20 t o n / v r l i s t pr.
Pond u t i l i t i e s 500/mo., 18 mo.

Total 99500

' T a b l e 13-4. D i r e c t Labor

E i g h t e e n Month P r o j e c t
--------------------------------*-----------------------------------------------

Title E q u i v . Months $/mo. Total, $

--------------------------------.-----------------------------------------------
Research S c i e n t i s t 7 3750 26250
Research E n g i n e e r 1 8 3750 30000
Engineer 3 3750 11250
Lab. Tech.1 18 1667 30000
Lab. Tech.2 6 1667 10000
Pond O p e r a t o r 12 2083 25000

Total 132500
 BUDGET

...............................................................................
CATEGORY COSTS, $
...............................................................................
M a t e r i a l s and S u p p l i e s
Pond c o n s t r u c t i o n (Table 12-9 minus $ 6 7 . 850 f o r equipment

Operating (Table 13-31 . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .

included below 3 7 5 . 253
9 9 . 500

S p e c i a l Equipment
Pond Equipment (Table 13-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7 . 050
Laboratory ( T a b l e 13-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.000
D i r e c t Labor (Table 13-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 2 . 500
Total Direct Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681. 103
Indirect Cost ( 1 . 3 1 8 x Direct L a b o r ) .............. 1 7 4 . 635

Total Direct p l u s I n d i r e c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5 5 . 738

Fee ( 7 % of t o t a l d i r e c t plus indirect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 9 . 901

TOTAL P r o j e c t Cost
 REFERENCES

1. Weissman, J.C. and R.P. Goebel, " P r o d u c t i o n of L i q u i d F u e l s and

Chemicals By M i c r o a l g a e , " Eigal-Rgegot, SERI #XK-3-030135-1, 1985.

2. Benemann,J.R., R.P. G o e b e l , J.C. Weissman, and D.C. A u g e n s t e i n ,

" M i c r o a l g a e a s a S o u r c e of L i q u i d F u e l s , ' E i g p l - R g e g r t , DOE
DEACOS 8 1 ER 30014, 1982.

3. Laws, E . A . , " R e s e a r c h and Development of Shallow Algal Mass C u l t u r e

Systems f o r t h e P r o d u c t i o n o f O i l s , " S u b c p q ~ ~ a ~ t - R p g gSERI
~i,
#XK-3-03136 Oct. 1984.

4. Weissman, J.C. and J.R. Benemann, " M i c r o a l g a e P r o d u c t i o n of G l y c e r o l

and R e l a t e d Chemicals on S a l i n e W a t e r s , " [Fggl-Rppgot, NSF,
PFR-8008748, 1981.

5. B a r c l a y , B . , P e r s o n a l Communication of r e s u l t s of SERI Water Resource

P r o j e c t , 1985

6. Moo-Young, H . , and H.W. B l a n c h , "Design of Biochemical R e a c t o r s : Mass

T r a n s f e r C r i t e r i a f o r Simple and Complex S y s t e m s , "

7. Aiba, S . , A.E. Humphrey, and N.F. M i l l i s , B i p g h g g j c p l - E g q i ~ g ? r i n _ g ,

2nd e d . , Academic P r e s s , New York, 1973.

8. Z l o k a r n i k , M . , " S o r p t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r Gas-Liquid C o n t a c t i n g i n
Mixing V e s s e l s , " figy,Blpche!,Engyl, 8, T.K. Ghose, e d . ,
9. H i l l , A , , D. F e i n b e r g , R. Mclntosh, B. Neenan, and K. Tepry, t l F ~ e l s
form H i c r o a l g a e : Technology S t a t u s , P o t e n t i a l , and Research I s s u e s , "
Q y s f i - R g p p o t , SERI, 4625.20, Dec. 1984.

10. Weissman, J.C. and J.R. Benemann, " P o l y s a c c h a r i d e P r o d u c t i o n By

l l i c r o a l g a e , " Eiqal-Rgppot, NSF, PFR-7917646, A p r i l 1980.

11. Weissman, J.C. and J.R. Benelmann, "Biomass R e c y c l i n g and S p e c i e s

C o m p e t i t i o n i n C o n t i n u o u s C u l t u r e s , " 13ipieghqp3,-jipegql, 21, 1978.

12. Dodd, J . P e r s o n a l Communication.

13. S h e l e f , G . , e t a l , " H i c r o a l g a e H a r v e s t i n g and P r o c @ s s i n g : A L i t e r a t u r e

Review," h b s p n t y a c t - f i p e p y t , SERI, #XK-3-03031-01, August,1984.

14. I m p e r i a l I r r i g a t i o n D i s t r i c t , f i q n g g l - ~ g g i ~ g r - S u ~ ! g ~ 1914182,
y Records
of the W a t e r m a s t e r , 1982.

15. C l i n n t g , f i ~ l g ~ - p f - t h g - ~ ~U.S.
S~, Dept. Commerce, 1979.

16. I m p e r i a l I r r i g a t i o n D i s t r i c t , L a b o r a t o r y C e r t i f i c a t e , Nov. 7 , 1983

 ~PPENDIXI

CARBON D I O X I D E TRANSFER

4.1 INTRODUCTION
T r a n s f e r r i n g carbon t o algae ponds i s a major design p r ~ b l e m . Unlike t y p i c a l
f e r m e n t a t i o n s , which may have volumetric production r a t e s o f 15 g
biomass/L-hr in deep, w e i l - s t i r r e d t a n k s , a l g a e ponds have 200-1000 times
lawer peak volumetric production r a t e s i n shallow, open ponds. Thus, l a r g e
volumes of water rust be t r a n s p o r t e d t o carbonation s i t e s where C02 i s
i n j e c t e d . In t h e plug-flow regime of h i g h r a t e p o n d s , enough C u p must b e
i n j e c t e d , and subsequently s t o r e d in t h e water t o meet t h e carbon demand of
t h e a l g a e , a s well a s any C O 2 l a r s e r due t o outgassing as the water t r a v e l s
between c a r b o n a t i o n s t a t i o n s . Storage capacity i s a f u n c t i o n 04 depth,
a l k a l i n i t y and pH change. The a l k a l i n i t y can be supplied b y t h e water
source, a n d concentrated b y water evaporation from t h e pond, t o a l e v e l
determined b y t h e blow-down r a t i o . The allowable p H changes a r e determined
b y b i o l o g i c a l t o l e r a n c e o f the desired @ i c r o a l g a e population and water
resource c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s . flany inexpensive w a t e r sources c a n t a i n hardness
which tends t o p r e c i p i t a t e , The e x t e n t of p r e c i p i t a t i o n depends en pH and
a l k a l i n i t y , i . e . , carbonate concentration. T h u s , t h e v a r i a b l e s ef water
chemistry, blowdawn r a t e , depth, pH changes, and C s t o r a g e p o t e n t i a l a r e a l l
i n t e r r e l a t e d . C02 lasses d u e t o outgassing depend on p H , a l k a l i n i t y and
carbonator spaclng, a s well a s m i x i n g speed.

2 PHYSICAL ABSORPTION OF C02

Gas-liquid mass t r a n s f e r i s a s u b j e c t which has received much a t t e n t i o n in

the chemical and biochemical engineering l i t e r a t u r e . Theories and
experi.mental c a r r e l a t i o n s a r e wel l devel aped. However, they g i v e on1 y
approximate and/or r e l a t i v e e s t i m a t e s of t r a n s i e r r a t e s . In t h e f i n a l
a n a l y s i s , r a t e s must b e e m p i r i c a l l y derived from prototypes and p i l o t s . T h i s
i s e s p e c i a l l v t r u e o f open channel carbonation, where i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e
deformations occur due t o turbulence, wind and bubbles. These d i s t u r b a n c e s
may well have s i g n i + i c a n t e f f e c t on g a s t r a n s f e r i n ponds, The following
a n a l y s i s q u a n t i f i e s same o+ t h e more p e r t i n e n t a s p e c t s 09 a l g a l pond
carbonation and e v a l u a t e s , r e l a t i v e l y , t h e s e n s i t i v i t s e s t o d e p t h a n d m i x i n g
intensity,

The t h e o r i e s o f g a s - l i q u i d tpansfer i n t o a g i t a t e d l i q u i d s a l l involve some

s i m p l i f i e d manner o f incorporating t h e hydrodynamics into t h e b a s i c
d i f f u s i o n a l models. The r a t i o n a l e i s t h a t a t some s c a l e , c l o s e t o t h e
g a s - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e , t u r b u l e n t eddy d i f f u e i a n i s damped t a the e x t e n t t h a t
r o l e c u i a r d i f f u s i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a n s f e r . I n t h e t h i n film model f l ,
2 1 f i l m thickness parameter, d , i n c o r p o r a t e s ( i n a mostly unspecified manner)
a l l of t h e hydrodynamics, y i e l d i n g a t r a n s f e r r a t e equal . t o ( D i d ) (C*-Ca),
a h e r e D i s t h e molecular d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e s o l u t e gas in c n 2 / r ,
C* i s t h e molar c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s o l u t e gas t h a t would be in equilibrium with
t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of s o l u t e i n t h e gas phase, i n mmoles/cm3 and Co i s
t h e molar c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s o l u t e gas in t h e b u l k l i q u i d . The mass t r a n s f e r
c o e f f i c i e n t , k L i s equal t o D/d . k~ i s defined from t h e e m p i r i c a l l v
observed r e l a t i o n s h i p VdColdt = kLa (C*-Co). Here dCo/dt i s t h e t r a n s f e r
r a t e , mmoles/cm3.sec, V i s t h e volume in cm3, a i s t h e i n t e r f a c i a l a r e a
in cm2, KL i s in cm/sec. Ihe i n t e n s i t y of t u r b u l e n c e determines t h e film
t h i c k n e s s , but t h e l a t t e r i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n f e r t h e o r e t i c a l l y a n d hard t o
measure.

I n other models, t h e l i q u i d t u r b u l e n c e i s viewed a s causing replacement of

small i n t e r f a c i a l s u r f a c e a r e a s w i t h l i q u i d from t h e uniformly mixed bulk,
The type of d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u r f a c e ages assumed determines t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e
p r e d i c t i o n of t h e s e models. Hiqbee's s u r f a c e renewal model assumes a l l
elements of area have a uniform l i f e t i m e C31. A convenient model, and t h e
one used below, i s Danckwert's renewal model t 4 1 in which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
any element of s u r f a c e being replaced i s proportional t o t h e age of t h e
s u r f a c e element, Then t h e s u r f a c e renewal i s a Poisson p r o c e s s , havlng manv
c a l c u l a t i o n a l conveniences.

I n t h i s approximation, gas s i d e r e s i s t a n c e t o d i f f u s i o n i s considered

n e g l i g i b l e , so t h a t a t t h e gas l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e equilibrium does e x i s t
between t h e bulk gas p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of s o l u t e and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
s o l u t e i n t h e l i q u i d a t t h i s i n t e r f a c e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between gas s i d e
p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e and l i q u i d s i d e concentration i s given b y Henry's s o l u b i l i t y
law, w i t h Henry's constant a p p r o p r i a t e l y decreased f o r e l e v a t e d temperatures
and i o n i c s t r e n q t h and composition of t h e l i q u i d . E s p e c i a l l y f o r anything
b u t small gas phase p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e s of C02, where d i f f u s i o n of s o l u t e
molecules t o t h e i n t e r f a c e a c t u a l l y limit t r a n s f e r , t h e equilibrium
relationship is valid.

Once an element has been "renewed," t r a n s f e r i s assumed t o go a s i n an

i n f i n i t e l y deep, stagnant l i q u i d . All t r a n s f e r p r o p e r t i e s a r e determined a s
averages over t h e e n t i r e i n t e r f a c i a l a r e a , u s i n g t h e Poisson d i s t r i b u t i o n a s
t h e weighting f u n c t i o n . Purely physical t r a n s f e r (without chemical r e a c t i o n )
goes a s i D S ) 1 / 2 ( ~ w - ~ owhere), S i s t h e r a t e of s u r f a c e renewal, or 11s i s
t h e average age of any s u r f a c e element a f t e r formation. Several other
models a r e a v a i l a b l e , however, t h e r e i s l i t t l e empirieal evidence f o r any one
i n particular. I n most circumstances, a l l models give s i m i l a r q u a n t i t a t i v e
p r e d i c t i o n s and, in a d d i t i o n , r e l a t i v e p r e d i c t i o n a s t o t h e e f f e c t of
chemical r e a c t i o n s on gas absorption. As alluded t o above, i n many
i n s t a n c e s , t h e model chosen f o r use depends on e a l e u l a t i o n a l e a s e i n t h e
s p e c i f i c case.

The renewal r a t e , S , embodies a l l of t h e e f f e c t s 09 t u r b u l e n c e on gas-liquid

t r a n s f e r . I t i s not p o s s i b l e t o measure, d i r e c t l y , t h i s i d e a l i z e d parameter,
but i t s value can be i n f e r r e d from experiments. Flow of water i n flumes,
s t r e a m s , and sewers i s c l o s e l v r e l a t e d t o t h a t i n open c h a n n e l s , The
e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a developed f o r kL as a f u n c t i o n o f s l o p e , v e l o c i t y and
d e p t h f r o m sewer d a t a ( 5 ) has been f o u n d t o c o r r e l a t e ( 6 ) w i t h n u m e r o u s s e t s
o + d a t a t a k e n f o r f l u m e s , s t r e a m s and open c h a n n e l s . h s indicated i n T a b l e
A I - 1 , D a n c k w c r t . s m o d e l , i n w h i c h k~ = ( 0 ~ 1 was ~ ~used ~ .t o c a l c u l a t e S ,

f r o m k~ based on p u r e l y p h y s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n . Although t h e o r i p i n a l
c o r r e l a t i o n s were made. f o r a e r a t i o n , S i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i f f u s i o n
p r o c e s s and can t h u s b e d e t e r m i n e d . The p r o c e d u r e is t o t l ) choose a c h a n n e l
r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t and use M a n n i n g ' s f o r m u l a t o d e t e r m i n e s l o p e f r o m g i v e n
d e p t h and v e l o c i t y v a l u e s , ( 2 ) i n s e r t t h e d e p t h , v e l o c i t y , and s l o p e v a l u e s
i n t o t h e P a r k h u r s t - P o m e r o y ( 5 ) c o r r e l a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e k ~ and
, 3 ) use
D a n c k w e r t ' s model t o d e t e r m i n e S f r o m k L and DO2. T a b l e Q 1 - 2 shows
v a l u e s o f k L ( f o r oxygen, f o r C02 m u l t i p l y b y ( 1 . 9 1 / 2 . 2 8 ) ) an.d renewal
r a t e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s p r o c e d u r e w i t h n = .02S0

TfiBLE A I - 1 . MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR F L O W I N G WATER

Basis: S1 = ( 1 . 4 9 1 - ~ ( d ) - ~ / ~ ( n ~ ) ~

Wherer S l = elope

d = depth, f t .
V = linear flow velocity, 9t/sec.

g = g r a v i t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , 32.2 f t / s e c 2
kL = t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , cmlsec measured a t 20°C

Do = d i f f u s i v i t y o f oxyqeo = 2.28 x 2 0 ' ~ cm2/sec a t 2 0 O ~

S . a v e r a g e r a t e o f s u r f ace r e n e w a l , s e c - l

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e is t o g e t a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s o f c a r b o n a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s u s i n g d a t a +ram a e r a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s and d e v e l o p a means o f , in
t h e o r y , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n on c a r b o n a t i o n r e l a t i v e .
t o purely physical absorption, The f i r s t o b j e c t i v e could b e met w i t h o u t
c a l c u l a t i n g renewal r a t e s , The r e s u l t s w o u l d a g a i n depend on t h e p a r t i c u l a r
model chosen s i n c e k Dm where m is 1 o r 0 3 , o r a v a l u e i n between.
Since r e l a t i v e molecular d i f f u s i v i t i e s are not substantia,lly d i f h r e n t ,
model d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e based on e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f rn
( 7 ) . However, t h i s a l s o means t h a t , f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s , t h e r e s u l t
i s s u b s t a n t i a l l v i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e model b a s i s . The second o b j e c t i v e i s
c o n v e n i e n t l y a t t a i n e d u s i n g t h e r e n e w a l r a t e when t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n i s
f i r s t - o r d e r o r considered pseudo-first order.

A1.3 CHEMICAL ENHANCEMENT OF C02 ABSORPTION

The c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t o f a gaseous s o l u t e d i f f u s i n g i n t o a l i q u i d c a n be
s t e e p e r if t h e s o l u t e r e a c t s w i t h components o f t h e l i q u i d phase. The
m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s e f f e c t depends on t h e p h y s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n t i m e c o n s t a n t ,
t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t s , and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f r e a c t a n t s . hbsorption
of C02 i n t o a l k a l i n e w a t e r s may be a c c e l e r a t e d b y one o f t w o m a j o r
u n c a t a l v z e d r e a c t i o n p a t h s , t h e h y d r a t i o n of' C02 and s u b s e q u e n t a c i d - b a s e
r e a c t i o n t o f o r m b i c a r b o n a t e i o n and t h e d i r e c t r e a c t i o n o f C02 w i t h t h e
hydroxyl i o n t o form bicarbonate. The r a t e o f t h e f o r m e r r e a c t i o n i s f a s t e r
a t pH v a l u e s b e l o w 8, w h i l e t h e second d o m i n a t e s above pH 10. Between 8 and
10 b o t h can be i m p o r t a n t . S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s (7) have c a l c u l a t e d t h e
m a g n i t u d e o f t h e enhancement o f C02 a b s o r p t i o n r a t e s caused b y t h e s e
chenlcal reactions. B a n c k u e r t ' s r e n e w a l model i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n v e n i e n t
when t h e r e a c t i o n i s f i r s t o r d e r o r p s e u d o - f i r s t o r d e r . Although t h e
r e a c t i o n o f C02 and OH i o n i s , i n g e n e r a l , second o r d e r , u n d e r some
c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e OH i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n mav b e c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h a t
t i m e i n t e r v a l between r e n e w a l o f a s u r f a c e e l e m e n t , when s t a g n a n t d i f f u s i o n
c o n d i t i o n s a r e assumed t o p r e v a i l . Thus i f t h e r a t e o f s u r f a c e r e n e w a l i s
h i g h enough, r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n f l u x o f C02 and s u b s e q u e n t d e p l e t i o n o f OH
i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r , s o t h a t OH i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e p l e t e d , t h e
pseudo-first order conditions prevail.

When t h e r e n e w a l t i m e i s l o n g , t h e a b s o r p t i o n r a t e o f LO2 i s h i g h a n d / o r
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f OH i s l o w t h e r e a c t i o n p r o c e e d s q u i c k l y , d e p l e t i n g t h e
OH c o n c e n t r a t i o n j u s t b e l o w t h e i n t e r f a c e . When t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l ,
t h e r a t e o f a b s o r p t i o n i s n e a r l y t h e same a s i f t h e r e a c t i o n were
instantaneous. The i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n g i v e s t h e maximal enhancement f o r
the qiven conditions. The enhancement f a c t o r s a r e pH dependent because t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f r e a c t a n t , OH, depends on pH. The a l k a l i n i t y a f f e c t s OH
c o n c e n t r a t i o n by b u f f e r i n g pH changes upon a b s o r p t i o n o f C02. Thus,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e i s g o v e r n e d b y t h e d i f f u s i o n o f C02 down f r o m
t h e i n t e r f a c e and d i f f u s i o n o f d i s s o l v e d OH f r o m t h e b u l k l i q u i d , i n c e r t a i n
pH r a n g e s t h e d i f f u s i o n o f many more m o l e c u l e s o f C02 ( f r o m t h e s a t u r a t e d
i n t e r f a c e ) i s needed t h a n o f OH f r o m t h e b u l k , due t o t h e b u f f e r a c t i o n . For
example, a t pH 9, o v e r 100 m o l e c u l e s o f C02 must d i f f u s e downward f o r each
m o l e c u l e o f OH a c t u a l l y d e p l e t e d f r o m t h e r e a c t i o n zone.
 ThBLE AI-2. C02 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS AS A FUNCTION
OF POND HYDRAULICS

Velocity
Depth ft/s (cm/s) Slope k L cm/sec S , sec-I t ,sec
-----1----------1-------------------------.-------"-"-.-------"--.1-----------

-a164 + t ,16 ( 5) 8.2 x lom5 2.5 x l o e 4 2.7 x loa3 370

* F o r C02 a t 20°C t h i s o v e r e s t i m a t e s k~ b y I O X . However, since

diffusion coefficients a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s more
a c c u r a t e estimation is n o t c a l l e d f o r .
 The h v d r a t i o n r e a c t i o n , on t h e o t h e r hand, d i f f e r s i n t h a t i t i s n o t pH
dependent a t t h e s u r f a c e ( b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e i t i s , w h i c h l i m i t s t h e r e v e r s e
r e a c t i o n ) , and i t i s f i r s t o r d e r i n C02. Thus, enhancement due t o t h i s
r e a c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l v t h e same a t a l l pH v a l u e s between 7 and 11. Table
A I - 3 q i v e s t h e f o r w a r d and r e v e r s e r e a c t i o n r a t e s , and T a b l e 41-4 t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f r e a c t a n t , a t t h e s u r f a c e and i n t h e b u l k a t pH 7.5 and
10.3. A l l r a t e c o n s t a n t s a r e f o r 20°C and i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n , g i v i n g l o w e r
l i m i t s t o enhancement. Reverse r e a c t i o n s a r e n e g l i g i b l e .

TABLE AI-3. CHEHICAL ENHANCEMENT FACTORS ( 9 ) AND REACTION

RhTE CONSTANTS
..............................................................................
Enhancement o f F i r s t O r d e r R e a c t i o n s : (1 + ~I
lI2
S)

Enhancement o f I n s t a n t a n e o u s Second
Order Reaction: 1 + *
D ~ ~ ( o H ) ~ I ~ D ~ ~ ~ ~ c o ~ )

Reaction%: H20 + GO2 -

v
k1

k2
fast
H~CO~-H+
7
+ HC03-

k - 1 s t o r d e r r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t o r pseudo f i r s t o r d e r c o n s t a n t

B - Bulk l i q u i d concentration

*- Saturated surface concentration

Z - Effective stoichiometric coefficients

Constants: kl 0.02 5 e c - l

- k2 = 20 sec-l

k3 = 104 L m o l e - 1 sec-1

A l l 20°C, infinite dilution

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e second o r d e r r e a c t i a n o f C02 and OH a t pH 10.3, t h e
p a r a m e t e r s w h l c h determine w h l c h r e g i m e i s a p p r o p t i a t a e ( p s e u d o - f i r s t o r d e r
o r i n s t a n t a n e o u s , , a r e ( 1 ) t h e r a t e o f C02 a b s o r p t i o n , ( 2 ) t h e r a t i o o f OH
t o d i s s o l v e d C02 a t t h e s u r f a c e , and ( 3 ) t h e r a t i o 0 4 t h e t i m e any e l e m e n t
o t + h i d remains a t t h e surface ( t h e turnover t i m e = i n v e r s e a f t h e renewal
r a t e ) t o t h e maximal r a t e o f t h e p s e u d o - f i r s t o r d e r r e a c t i o n , k S ( O H ) . W i t h
1 atm C 0 2 - i n t h e gas phase, t h e p h y s l c a l a b s o r p t i o n r a t e i s .01 x
n m u l e s / c m 2 / s e c . , o r a f t e r 200 s e c . o f q u i e s c e n c e o f an e l e m e n t o f f l u i d . 1
c r deep. 20 mmales C02/L is absorbed. T h i s amount o f a b s o r p t i o n overwhelms
t h e b u f f e t , c a u s i n g a d r o p I n OH c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . Thus, t h e p s e u d o - f i r s t
o r d e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n does n o t a p p l y . Similar c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r o t h e r pH r a n g e s
T a b l e Ai-4) c o n f i r m t h i s o v e r t h e e n t i r e pH r a n g e o f i n t e r e s t .

The e f f e c t i v e s t o i c h i o n e t r y o f t h e r e a c t i o n i s pH dependent, as shown i n

[ a b l e QI-4. T h i s s t o i c h i o m e t r y , a l o n g w i t h t h e b u l k c o n c e n t r a t i o n a f QH and
t h e s a t u r a t e d l e v e l o f C02 d e t e r m i n e s t h e m a x i m a l enhancement o f an
i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n regime. Even t h o u g h t h e s t o i e h i o m e t r y can become
q u i t e h i g h , t h e c o n c u r r e n t l y f a l l i n g OH con cent ratio^ keeps t h e maximal
enhancement f r o m g o i n g above 1 * 0 S . Even this is n o t a c h i e v e d due t o t h e
t i n i t e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t o f l o 4 L/male-sec. Thus t h e d i r e c t r e a c t i o n
o f C o p and OH does n o t s e r v e t o enhance t h e r e a c t i o n when t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e
is on t h e o r d e r o f 200 sec.

Even when t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e i s o n l y 6 sec., there is n o a p p r e c i a b I e c h e m i c a l

enhancement. M o u n d pH 9 . 5 t h e r e a c t i o n i s c l o s e t o f i r s t o r d e r because t h e
anount o f Cog a b s o r b e d d u r i n g hart c o n t a c t t i m e can b e b u f f e r e d by t h e
s o l u t i o n , k e e p i n g t h e PH c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t . However, t h i s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s low, k e e p i n g t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e l o w r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a t e o f
physical absorption. I n c r e a s e s i n a b s o r p t i o n r a t e s under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s
due a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t o t h e h y d r o d y n a m i c enhancement d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y .

The o t h e r r e a c t i o n p a t h , t h e h y d r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d G O Z , i s a f i r s t o r d e r
r e a c t i o n w h i c h can n e v e r be c o n s i d e r e d i n s t a n t a n e o u s . R c c o r d i n q t o any o f
t h e models t h e enhancement f a c t o r i s 2-3. A g a i n i f h y d r u a l i c c o n d i t i o n s a r e
chosen t o i n c r a s e t h e r e n e w a l r a t e , and hence t h e p h y s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n r a t e ,
t h e n c h e m i c a l enhancement i s reduced. F o r example, w i t h a 6 sec vs. a 200
sec t u r n o v e r t i m e , p h y s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n r a t e s i n c r e a s e 6 - f o l d , b u t c h e m i c a l
enhancement d e c r e a s e s b y a l m o s t t h e same f a c t o r , q i v i n q o v e r a l l o n l y a 12%
increase i n absorption rates, T h i s i s a consequence o f t h e l o w v a l u e o f t h e
r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t , 0.02 s e c - l . The enhancement v a r i e s as
(1 + k/9) s o a t h i g h e r v a l u e s o f S, t h e r e a c t i o n c o n p e t e r p o o r l y w i t h
t u r n o v e r i n a b s o r b i n g Cog.

S i n c e even w i t h 30 meq/L ~f a l k a l i n i t y t h e b u f f e r c a p a c i t y i s n o t g r e a t
enough t o enhance t h e a b s o r p t i o n r a t e s , the n e t e f f e c t o f c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s
i s t h e same f ~ trh e l o w pH, l o w a l k a l i n i t y case. Here a g a i n , due t o t h e
f i r s t o r d e r r e a c t i o n o f CQ2 and w a t e r , r a t e s a r e enhanced-2-3 f o l d a t a
s l o w - t u r n o v e r r a t e ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 1 f o o t deep pond mixed a t 0 . 5 f p r ) and
a b o u t 12X a t h i g h t u r n o v e r r a t e s ( a pond d e p t h o f 1 / 3 #t: and l i n e a r v e l o c i t y
o f 1.5 f p s under t h e c o v e r ) .
C h e m i c a l enhancement c a n t h e r e f o r e b e e x p e c t e d t o l o w e r a r e a l c a r b o n a t o r
c o v e r a g e b v 50967% when t h a t c o v e r a g e was i n i t i a l l y c a l c u l a t e d t o be h r g h .
I f measures a r e t a k e n t o i n c r e a s e p h y s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n r a t e s u n d e r a c o v e r ,
t h e n t h e 80% r e d u c t i o n i n c o v e r a g e t h e r e b y g a i n e d w i l l n o t be much more
a f f e c t e d by chemical r e a c t i o n s , I n sumps c h e m i c a l enhancement i s a l s o n o t
e f f e c t i v e u n d e r p o n d c o n d i t i o n s , unless t h e r e a c t i o n s a r e c a t a l y z e d .

REFERENCES

1. Whitman, W . G . , - C h e g - a n ~ - ~ p t , - 5 g g L , 29, 1 4 7 , 1923.

2, O ' C o n n e r , O.J. and W.E. D o b b i n s , "The Hechanism o f R e a e r a t i o n I n

N a t u r a l S t r e a m s , " J L - s ~ ~ ~ t i , E ~ g r r l - ~ ~ ~ Z Z 4SAC
S C ,1-30,
E , J ~ 1956.
~

4. D a n c k w e r t s , P . V . , 'The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f L i q u i d F i l m C o e f f i c i e n t s i n
Gas A b s o r p t i o n , " i n I n d l _ ~ ~ q g q , - & g , , !3, 1460, 1951.
5. P a r k h u r s t , J . D . and R I D . Pomeroy, "Oxygen A b s o r p t i o n i n S t r e a m s , "
J L , j ~ ~ j t L - E ~ g g g l , P i v _ I I f l ~ G Z , zg, s g r , 101-124, 1972.

6. Wilson, G.Y. and N. H a c C l e o d , " h C r i t i c a l A p p r a i s a l o f E m p i r i c a l

E q u a t i o n s and flodels f o r t h e P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t o f
R e a e r a t i o n o f D e o x y g e n a t e d W a t e r , " b $ g c , R e ~ ~8~, 341-366 1974.

7. Danckwerts, P . V . , @g,-L~gy~u-qg~gfjgn& McGraw H i l l , New Y a r k , 1970.

 APPENDIX A11

b y D. C. Augenstein

GASLIFT PUMPS FOR COMBINED PUMPING A N D

GAS C O N T A C T I N G IN ALGAL P R O D U C T I O N SYSTEMS

AII.1 INTRODUCTION

G a s l i f t p u m p s have been proposed t o f u l f i l l t h e simultaneous needs f o r

pumping and gas t r a n s f e r i n microalgal growth systems. T h i s treatment
examines, f i r s t , t h e f a c t o r s governing p u m p i n g e f f i c i e n c y , then f a c t o r s
governing t h e gas t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n . Gas t r a n s f e r requirements d i c t a t e t h e
most important design parameters. Likely performance of a g a s l i f t meeting
both p u m p i n g and gas t r a n s f e r requirements i s then examined.

P r i o r t o p r e s e n t i n g d e t a i l , some important conclusions can be summarlzed

here. With a c o n f i g u r a t i o n guaranteeing adequate ( > 8 0 % )f r a c t i o n a l t r a n s f e r
of C02 from s t a c k g a s , energy a v a i l a b l e t o pump l i q u i d meets or exceeds
p u m p i n g needs a n t i c i p a t e d f o r high r a t e pond systems w i t h channel v e l o c i t i e s
i n t h e 15-30 cm/sec range. A good match between pumping c a p a c i t y and system
needs seems p o s s i b l e w i t h s e v e r a l p l a u s i b l e combinations of other
parameters. When C02 containinq s t a c k gas i s sparged t o supply C02
needs, i t seems t h a t energy requirements will be h i g h b u t probably t o l e r a b l e
function - -
5 t o 25% of system output. However, when t r a n s f e r of pure C02
i s considered, a g a s l i f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n guaranteeing adequate ( > 9 0 % )
f r a c t i o n a l C02 t r a n s f e r seems unable t o meet p u m p i n g needs. Energy demand
f o r pure C02 sparqing would be l e s s than 3% o f system output.
Representative p u m p i n g e i f i c i e n c i e s a r e i n t h e range of 20-50% and optimum
sump depths range between 5-20 meters. I t appears t h a t i f power p l a n t s t a c k
gas i s t o be considered bar C02 source, more energy e f f i c i e n t t r a n s f e r
methods through q a s l i f t s m i g h t be considered. Major remaining u n c e r t a i n t i e s
a f f e c t i n g t h i s treatment concern t h e channel roughness, n , which will
a c a t u a l l v be encountered, and t h e absorption c o e f f i c i e n t , Kg, f o r CO2 in
t h e pond l i q u i d . Other d e t a i l s a r e presented in t h e r e p o r t , which follows.

AI1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AIRLIFT CONTACTOR/PUMP

The schematic of an a i r l i f t system of t h e type envisioned f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n

an a l g a l growth system i s shown i n Figure 411-1. In t h e f i g u r e , a ductinq
system ( A ) b r i n g s l i q u i d t o t h e base of t h e u n i t . There, a t t h e base 04 t h e
v e r t i c a l d r a f t tube ( 0 ) gas i s introduced through a sparger t o c r e a t e a
d i s p e r s i o n of gas i n l i q u i d . Because of t h e lower e f f e c t i v e d e n s i t y of t h e
g a s / l i q u i d d i s p e r s i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i q u i d , i t r i s e s through t h e v e r t i c a l
Section B a s shown and i s discharged a t an e l e v a t e d head ( t h e p u m p i n g head)
r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n l e t . Necessary g a s - l i q u i d c o n t a c t i n g ( t o be discussed
l a t e r ) i s a l s o accomplished in t h e v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n 0. In p r a c t i c e , i n . a n
a l g a l growth system w i t h wide channels, t h e g a s l i f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n would be
one i n w h i c h t h e n e c e s s a r y number o f a i r l i f t u n i t s , s i d e b y s i d e , span t h e
channel, o r a u n i t w i t h c r o s s s e c t i o n o f F i g u r e A I I - 1 ( r e c t a n g u l a r ) spanning
t h e c h a n n e l , o r even, j u s t one d r a f t t u b e , Analyses t o f o l l o w a r e general t o
a l l these possible configurations. The a d v a n t a g e c l a i m e d f o r a i r l i f t u s e -
r e l a t i v e t o i n d e p e n d e n t l y pumping a t one l o c a t i o n i n t h e s y s t e m and s p a r g i n g
gas i n a t a n o t h e r - i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s b o t h pumping and gas c o n t a c t i n g
f u n c t i o n s i n one u n i t o p e r a t i o n .

A11.3 GENERAL BACKGROUND

Recent c h e m i c a l a b s t r a c t s (1980-83) c o n t a i n e d no r e l e v e n t r e f e r e n c e s on
g a s l i f t u s e s o l e l y f o r pumping l i q u i d s . F u r t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h D r . R.
T. H a t c h (who h a s e x t e n s i v e l y r e s e a r c h e d and p u b l i s h e d on a i r l i f t f e r m e n t e r s )
r e s u l t e d i n t h e f i n d i n g t h a t t h e o n l y r e c e n t u s e o f g a s l i f t s known t o h i m h a s
been i n h a n d l i n g o f l i q u i d r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s i n n u c l e a r f u e l p r o c e s s i n g
p l a n t s , and i n c o l l e c t i n g ( " v a c u u m i n g " ) manganese n o d u l e s f r o m t h e sea
floor. I n essence, g a s l i f t pumping h a s been u s e d r e c e n t l y o n l y when e i t h e r
i t s h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y ( d u e t o n o moving p a r t s ) a n d / o r i t s a b i l i t y t o h a n d l e ,
u n a t t e n d e d and r e m o t e l y , v e r y a b r a s i v e s l u r r i e s such a s manganese n o d u l e s a t
great depths i s required. I t seems - a l t h o u g h n o r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s i s done
here - t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e pumping methods a r e i n most c a s e s r e l i a b l e enough and
more e f f i c i e n t and e c o n o m i c a l t h a n t h e combined c o s t o f t h e c o m p r e s s o r / d r a f t
t u b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e g a s l i f t approach. I t i s w o r t h commenting, however,
t h a t b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i m p r o v e d m a t e r i a l s and pumps, a i r l i f t s were
u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n a p p l i c a t i o n s such a s p r i m a r y sewage, o i l w e l l , and c o a l
m i n e ( a c i d w a t e r ) pumping. References t o these a p p l i c a t i o n s date t o t h e
e a r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s C2,31. F o r r e a s o n s s t a t e d , and a l s o because o p t i m i z i n g gas
t r a n s f e r ( t r e a t e d l a t e r ) g i v e s operating c o n d i t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e range f o r
e x i s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s t 4 , 5 1 i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y l a t e r t o t r e a t a i r l i f t
pumping based on f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s .

411.4 GENERAL ASPECTS OF PAST INVESTIGATIONS: PUMPING AND CONTACTING

Because o f e x t e n s i v e p i l o t and c o m m e r c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f a i r l i f t f e r m e n t e r s ,
numerous a r t i c l e s a r e a v a i l a b l e d i s c u s s i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n for -
example r e f e r e n c e s 6-12. Pumping e f f i c i e n c y i n a i r l i f t f e r m e n t e r s -
which
d e t e r m i n e c y c l e t i m e a r o u n d t h e f l o w l o o p c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e a n n u l u s and d r a f t
t u b e i n such f e r m e n t e r s - i s a l m o s t a l w a y s a d e q u a t e and hence pumping h a s n o t
been a c o n c e r n . I t i s , however, a d d r e s s e d i n r e f e r e n c e 8. A m a j o r t o p i c f o r
a n a l y s i s i n t h e c i t e d r e f e r e n c e s 6-13 h a s been t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e u n i t t o
t r a n s f e r oxygen e f f i c i e n t l y . This transfer capacity relates d i r e c t l y t o the
a b i l i t y o f t h e u n i t t o t r a n s f e r C02, w h i c h i s t h e c o n c e r n w i t h a l g a l g r o w t h
systems. C e n t r a l t o b o t h gas t r a n s f e r and pumping i s t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e
g a s - l i q u i d d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e u p d r a f t s e c t i o n , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e
b e h a v i o r o f t h e b u b b l e swarm g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u p f l o w s e c t i o n . As b u b b l e
b e h a v i o r i s c r i t i c a l i n b o t h t h e s e r e s p e c t s , t h i s t o p i c i s addressed f i r s t .
1 . 5 B E H A V I O R OF BUBBLE SW4RMS I N GAS-LIQUID DISPERSIONS

A number o f c o r r e l a t i o n s have been developed t o d e s c r i b e t h e behavior sf

swarms o f bubbles which r e s u l t from sparging 09 g a s i n t o l i q u i d . The
treatment t o follow uses some s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions which a r e v a l i d f o r
aqueous systems with low s u r f a c t a n t l e v e l s . S u c h low s u r f a c t a n t c o n d i t i o n s
a r e expected t o exist in most a l g a l growth systems,

Sparging of gas i n t o l i q u i d r e s u l t s in swarms of i n d i v i d u a l gas bubbles w h i c h

r i s e away from t h e s p a r g e r . The s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n u + t h e bubbles leaving t h e
sparger may i n i t i a l l y be a s t r o n g f u n c t i o n of the sparging method, However,
a s bubbles of d i f f e r i n g s i t e r i s e through t h e f l u i d a t d i f f e r i n g velocities,
coalescence of t h e smaller bubbles occurs; on t h e other hand, bubbles above a
c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l diameter, about 0 . 5 cm in water, w i l l b e broken u p b y f l u i d
f o r c e s . The net r e s u l t of t h i s coalescence of smaller bubbles and breakup o f
l a r g e r ones i s t h a t a s t e a d y - s t a t e bubble s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a t t a i n e d o n c e
g a s has r i s e n a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e above t h e s p a r g e r . Coalescence ( a n d hence
t h e height above t h e sparger a t which equilibrium s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s
a t t a i n e d ) depends s t r a n g l y on f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s , b u t f o r f l u i d s s i m i l a r t o
water, a t gas holdups e > . 0 1 , equilibrium would appear t o be a t t a i n e d b v t h e
time g a s had r i s e n above 1 meter C131. This can b e i n t u i t i v e l y understood b y
considering v e l o c i t i e s of bubbles of v a r i o u s s i z e s . ( f o r bubble diameter
DB ( 0 . 2 cm, t h e S t o k e ' s range, t h e bubble v e l o c i t y VB IIB2) and t h e
f a c t t h a t a l a r g e r bubble sweeps out a c y l i n d r i c a l locus exceeding i t s own
diameter (DE), Within t h a t c y l i n d e r i t will catch up and coalesce w i t h a
s m a l l e r , slower bubble above i t .

The outcome of an example c a l c u l a t i o n can i l l u s t r a t e t h e coalescence

process, Consider an i n i t i a l c a s e of two bubbles with a diameter r a t i o o f 2
(DO,l = 0 . 2 cm and DO,t = 0 . 1 cm, both i n Stokes l a w range) and an
i n i t i a l v e r t i c a l s e p a r a t i o n 0 9 15 cm, w i t h t h e smaller bubble above t h e
l a r g e r , ( T h i s circumstance w i l l e x i s t en t h e average i n t h e case where e =
0.01). The l a r g e r bubble w i l l catch up a n d c o a l e s c e w i t h t h e smaller b u b b l e
a f t e r only a 25 em r i s e . (Note though t h a t higher l e v e l s of s u r f a c t a n t s and
e l e c t r o l y t e s can hinder t h e coatescence process, and t h e a n a l y s i s i s done
o n l y f o r f l u i d s with p r o p e r t i e s near water, f o r example low TDS a l g a l growth
systems.) Power d i s s i p a t i o n can a f f e c t t h e equilibrium bubble s i z e , b u t f o r
power d i s s i p a t i o n s expected i n a i r l i f t operation t h i s a f f e c t h a s . b e e n shawn
( a l b e i t i n other types of fermentations systems) t o be n e g l i g i b l e L663. Gas
holdup, e , may vary with p r e s s u r e b u t a n y e f f e c t on bubble diameter from t h i s
i s a l s o expected to be n e g l i g i b l e , both a s p r e s s u r e e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e
and a s t h e coalescence d i s p e r s i o n process tends t o maintain t h e
characteristic size distribution.

Rise v e l o c i t i e s o f bubbles have been e s t a b l i s h e d a s a function of bubble

diameter C151. B u b b l e s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , " r i g i d s p h e r e "
u p t o D0 0 . 2 cn which r i s e according t o S t o k e s ' law, a t v e l o c i t i e s u p t o 30
c m / s - f o r D0 = 0 . 2 cm, and l a r g e r b u b b l e s whose g a s i l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e i s
f l u i d and which - over a wide range o f sizes, D0 0.25 t o 2.0'cm - r i s e a t
about 25-32 cm/sec ti51. A t an equilibrium b u b b l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n
discussed n o s t g a s , 9 3 + X , i s i n bubbles with Dg N.25 cm a n d a very
important consequence of this i s t h a t t h e averaqe r i s e v e l o c i t y of gas
through l i q u i d , a t l e a s t a t gas holdups u p t o E = 0.25, i s about 28-32
cmlsec. An average bubble r i s e v e l o c i t y of 30 cm/sec r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i q u i d
w i l l be assumed f o r a n a l y s i s t o follow. finother assumption i s t h a t c r o s s
s e c t i o n of flowing l i q u i d i n t h e g a s l i f t - hence t h e average l i q u i d v e l o c i t y
- i s c o n s t a n t . This assumption i s t o some e x t e n t a r t i f i c i a l b u t i n t r o d u c e s
l i t t l e e r r o r and s i m u l i f i e s t h e mathematics.

Given a net r i s e v e l o c i t y of 30 cmlsec of gas r e l a t i v e t o l i q u i d , a constant

l i q u i d v e l o c i t y VL and a flow r a t e r a t i o of gas t o l i q u i d of Q q c / Q L
(where Q g c i s t h e gas flow c o r r e c t e d f o r p r e s s u r e , temperature and moisture
effects - t h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s a r e t r e a t e d l a t e r ) , t h e following r e l a t i o n s hold:

where A L and A g C a r e t h e flowinq c r o s s s e c t i o n of l i q u i d and gas,

r e s p e c t i v e l y . Gas holdup, e , which can a l t e r n a t i v e l y be defined a s t h e void
f r a c t i o n of gas i n t h e g a s - l i q u i d d i s p e r s i o n , i s given b y

and, making t h e necessary s u b s t i t u t i o n s , average holdup can be derived i n

terms of Q g / Q L rand VL a s

where Qg i s t h e gas flow, a t STP, i n t o t h e sparqer and t h e term Cpe i s a

p r e s s u r e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r . Expression ( 4 ) w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o l a t e r .

A11.6 C O R R E C T I O N FOR P R E S S U R E

As noted, p r e s s u r e must be compensated f o r i n determining. gas holdup. If gas

flow through t h e l i q u i d i s expressed a t 1 atmosphere, then t h e r a t i o of
a c t u a l gas volume and volumetric flow t o t h e s e v a l u e s a t one atmosphere can
be e a s i l v computed a s a f u n c t i o n of a r e s s u r e and l i a u i d head. An a v e r a g e
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , termed Cpe h e r e , can a l s o be computed f o r t h e g a s s t r e a m
between t h e s o a r g e r and s u r f a c e i n t h e d r a f t t u b e s e c t i a n . T h i s f a c t o r , Cpe,
c a n be e x p r e s s e d e i t h e r i n terms o f p r e s s u r e or a l t e r n a t i v e l y i n t e r m s o f
h i and d o ( r e f e r t o F i q u r e 1911-1). T h i s c o r r e c t i o n h a s been compiled
q r a p h i c a l l y w i t h r e s u l t s shown i n T a b l e 411-1, Another a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t
w a t e r vapor a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n s ( ( 5 % t o t a l ) can be n e g l e c t e d . No
c o r r e c t i o n s a r e i n f a c t n e c e s s a r y i f both 1) t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e q a s l i f t
f l u i d e q u a l s compressor i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e , and i f 2 ) i n l e t a i r t o t h e
compressor h a s t h e same weight r a t i o o f w a t e r t o g a s a s t h e s a t u r a t e d g a s
rising through t h e d r a f t tube.

411.7 P U M P I N G BY GASLIFT PUMPS

R e f e r i n g t o Figure AII-1 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a flow e q u a t i o n can be d e v e l o p e d :

where

h i = i n l e t l i q u i d s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n above s p a r g e r
ho o u t l e t (and hi - h i = pumping head)
p~ fl i q u i d density
g = 980 cm/su2
e holdup ( = eoCp,)
K C = c o n t r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f l i q u i d on e n t e r i n g g a s l i f t i n l e t
duct
K g = F r i c t i o n a l loss c o e f f i c i e n t o f l i q u i d i n i n l e t d u c t - d r a f t t u b e
turn
KE = e x i t c o e f f i c i e n t
f = f r i c t i a n factor (dimensionless)
L = l e n g t h of f l u i d f l o w p a t h i n g a s l i f t ( i n l e t c o n d u i t and d r a f t
tube)
D = hydraulic diameter (= 2 1 w i d t h f o r l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r crmss
section)
V L = F l u i d v e l o c i t y i n a i r l i f t (assumed e q u a l t o channel v e l o c i t v )

I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e o v e r a l l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , a s KF = ( K L +
K B + K C + 4 f L I D ) . Then e q u a t i o n 5 becomes
 TABLE A I I - 1 . Computed V a l u e s o f CpE vs. D e p t h *

D e p t h , cm C~~

100 .96

200 .92

300 .89

400 .86

500 ,823

600 .803

700 ,775

800 ,752

1000 ,712

1200 ,676

1400 ,645

1600 ,619

*Gas volume c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r d e p t h and p r e s s u r e . See T e x t .

I t 1s evident t h a t w i t h values f o r CpE a v a i l a b l e equation b can b e used f o r
v a r i o u s p r e d i c t i v e purposes. Discussion o f t h e use o i equation 6 w i l l come
l a t e r a f t e r i t i s demonstrated how g a s t r a n s j e r and pumping requirements f i x
some o f t h e independent v a r i a b l e s ,

Before going on, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o consider l i k e l y magnitudes of

f r i c t i o n a l l o s s terms within t h e g a s l i f t d u e t o f l u i d flow, i f g a s l i f t s a r e
applied t o a l g a l growth systems channel flow. V e l o c i t i e s proposed f o r
h i g h - r a t e pond systems range from 10-30 cm/sec C173. The f l u i d head
increment a t an a i r l i f t pumping s t a t i o n i s l i k e l l y t o b e in t h e order of 30
t o 100 c m , or even more, t o provide economical pumping s t a t i o n spacing C171.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t a 30 cm pumping head i s equivalent t o 65
velocitv heads (= p v 2 / 2 ) . I t c a n b e r e a d i l v c a l c u l a t e d t h a t i f f l u i d flow
in t h e g a s l i f t i s 30 cm/sec, and t h a t if ( f o r one "bad c a s e " example) j l u i d
i s both drawn from and e x i s t i n g i n t o s t a g n a n t l i q u i d , i n which c a s e b y
Reference 20 K C = 0.43 and KL = 1 . 0 - that the f r i c t i o n a l entrance and
e x i t l o s s e s a r e anlv about 2,4% of t h e work expended t o pumpinq l i q u i d
through t h e pumping head. The balance o f expected f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s , from a
( p o s s i b l e ) 180° bend between g a s l i f t i n l e t duct a n d d r a f t t u b e , and t h e
t o t a l f r i c t i o n a l l o s s from channel flow a t LID = 2 0 , w i l l t o t a l l e s s than 3%
of t h e pumping work. T h u s f o r this example t o t a l f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s i n t h e
a i r l i f t pump a r e s m a l l , abcut 9%. Because VL and V c h can be e q u a l , and a
bend c o n f i g u r a t i o n can be chosen t o minimize f r i c t i o n a l l o s s , f r i c t i o n a l
l o s s e s due t o f l u i d flow should i n f a c t be i n t h e range of 1 % of t h e pumping
work expended f o r c a s e s of i n t e r e s t .

While f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s a r e minor, r e l a t i v e t o useful work done in p u m p i n g ,

o t h e r i n e f f i c i e n c i e s e x i s t . Dne of t h e s e , which i s major, can be understood
i n t u i t i v e l y a s due t o t h e 30 cm/sec s l i p v e l o c i t y of qas r e l a t i v e t o l i q u i d
discussed e a r l i e r , T h i s and other f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o e f f i c i e n c y a r e
di scussed next .
A11.8 EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS

The work done b y an element of g a s on t h e l i q u i d c a n be s t a t e d a s ( f o r c e

exerted b y gas on l i q u i d ) X ( d i s t a n c e moved b y l i q u i d during time f a r c e i s
e x e r t e d ) . Note t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e i s g p t t h e t o t a l moved b y t h e g a s element,
a s t h e f o r c e x d i s t a n c e product of t h e 30 cm/sec gas movement through t h e
l i q u i d i . 5 l o s t , i . e . , d i s s i p a t e d a s heat. (Also note here t h a t t h e following
a n a l y s i s i s i n C . G . S . u n i t s . and based on 1 c n 3 gas o r viewed b y t h e
compressor.)

The average f o r c e exertad b v 1 cn3 gas on t h e l i q u i d i r gCpp A 4 , w i t h

Cpe a s c a l c u l a t e d e a r l i l e r r f o r t h e time t h e gas i s i n t h e l i q u i d . If gas
r i s e s from t h e s p a r g e r t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e time qas i s i n contact with t h e
l i q u i d i s h,/(V' + ' 3 0 ) . Thus t h e work done b y t h e 1 cm3 g a s element on
t h e l i q u i d , w g ~d u r i n g t h e r i s e o f t h e gas element, i s
 q a s l i f t temperature T g l i s d i f f e r e n t from compressor i n l e t temperature
, t h e term Tql/TC compensates f o r t h i s . The term Ap i s assumed t o
1 qm/cm3 and so i s omitted i n 7. Other terms were defined e a r l i e r .

For low head compression, which i s t h e case f o r a l g a l growth systems, s i n g l e

s t a q e i s e n t r o p i c compression w i l l be a p p l i e d , and t h e expression f o r t h e work
done t o pump 1 cm3 gas, U g c , i s given b y

where

n = mols gas in 1 cmJ a t compressor i n l e t temperature

T C = gas temperature e n t e r i n g compressor, OK
k = Cp/CV of gas, = 1.4 f o r a i r
P I = compressor i n l e t p r e s s u r e , "I atm ( o r l o h dyne/cm2)
P Z = compressor o u t l e t p r e s s u r e
X = p o l y t r o p i c compression f a c t o r , 3.5 (dimensionless)

I n CGS u n i t s , R = 8.31 X l a 7 erg/mall0K. For 1 cm3 gas e n t e r i n g t h e

compressor a t one atmosphere t h e product n T C i s constant (whatever t h e
temperature) a t 1.218 X k 1 0 ' ~ a01 O K , and w i t h t h i s value (8) becomes, in
e r g s expended t o pump 1 em3 (compressor i n l e t c o n d i t i o n s )

I s e n t r opic compression i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t than isothermal compression s i n c e a

p o r t i on of t h e i s e n t r o p i c compression work appears a s unusable h e a t , but i t
i s in t e r e s t i n g t h a t e f f i c i e n c y of i s e n t r o p i c compression i s s t i l l h i g h
r e l a t i v e t o isothermal a t p r e s s u r e s l i k e l y t o be needed. For example, a t a
compression r a t i o of 2/1 ( o r ca 10M depth f o r h i ) , i s e n t r o p i c compression
i s 91% a s e f f i c i e n t a s isothermal.
The work done b v an element of g a s on t h e l i q u i d has been given previously a s
equation ( 7 1 , Given equation ( 6 ) and i f i t i s assumed f o r t h e moment t h a t
channel and g a s l i f t flow v e l o c i t i e s a r e e q u a l then t h i s energy expenditure
d i v i d e s between pumping head and f l u i d f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s in t h e r a t i o

The expression f a r e f f i c i e n c y , E g / p , defined a s t h e r a t i o of p u m p i n g work

accomplished t o gas compression work requirement t h e n becomes

The remaining f a c t o r t o be considered i s t h e motor/compressor e f f i c i e n c y

by which I 1 i 5 m u l t i p l i e d t o give E,, t h e o v e r a l l c x p r ~ r s i o nf o r
efficiency:

I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o note t h a t o v e r a l l puaping e f f i c i e n c y E, should range

b y equation ( 1 2 ) between about 25% and 50%. One s e t of t y p i c a l o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s (based on 80% COg t r a n s f e r need, computations presented l a t e r )
m i g h t c o n s i s t of a f l u i d gaslift and channel flow v e l o c i t y o f 15 c e / s e c ,
d r a $ t t u b e height = 5 . 4 meters, and a p u m p i n g head o f 1 4 . 5 cm. E f f i c i e n c y
under these circumstances a t Em, = 0 . 8 would be about 2 9 . 5 2 . If C O p
t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y r i s e s t o 9 5 X , and f l u i d flow v e l o c i t y i s increased t o 30
cmfsec, t h e pump head needed w i l l i n c r e a s e t o 1.lb m . W i t h o t h e r parameters
kept t h e same, the d r a f t tube height must i n c r e a s e t o 13.5 a e t e r s and o v e r a l l
e f f i c i e n c y would i n c r e a s e somewhat, t o 40.8%. Higher e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e
o b t a i n a b l e w i t h higher channel and g a s l i f t f l o w v e l o c i t i e s ; however, such
higher v e l o c i t i e s can r e s u l t i n energy consumption w h i c h i s a l a r g e f r a c t i o n ,
e a s i l y around S O X , of t o t a l expected s y s t e m output ( s e e l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n ) and
i n a d d i t i o n , there i s no evidence t h a t such f l o w v e l o c i t i e s a r e required.
Such v e l o c i t i e s m i g h t i n f?ct be d e l e t e r i o u s in t e r n s of suspending s o l i d s i n
the types a f unlined channel systems which a r e l i k e l y t o be a f f o r d a b l e .
The pumping needs o f a c h a n n e l g r o w t h s y s t e m c o u l d be met w i t h any s u i t a b l e
c o m b i n a t i o n o f g a s l l i q u i d f l o w r a t i o s f ( = Q g / Q L ) , and g a s l i f t d r a f t t u b e
h e i g h t and a r e a . However, c o n f i g u r a t i o n s must a l s o be a b l e t o meet CO2
t r a n s f e r needs. Because o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f gas (C02) t r a n s f e r and d e s i g n
c o n s t r a i n t s posed b y g a s t r a n s f e r , t h i s t o p i c i s a d d r e s s e d n e x t .

A11.9 GAS TRANSFER FROM BUBBLE SWARMS TO L I Q U I D

Oxygen t r a n s f e r i s an i m p o r t a n t u n i t o p e r a t i o n i n f e r m e n t a t i o n and w a s t e
treatment. I t h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e o v e r a l l t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t ,
KL, i s i n one r a n g e f o r s m a l l r i g i d s p h e r e b u b b l e s DBL ( 2 mm, and i n
another range - a b o u t t w i c e as h i g h , f o r l a r g e r b u b b l e s DB > 2 mm. A number
of c o r r e l a t i o n s ( f o r example a s d i s c u s s e d i n 2 1 ) h a v e e v o l v e d f o r t h e s e
bubbles o f v a r i o u s s i z e ranges, T h i s w o u l d seem on t h e s u r f a c e t o i m p l v a
d i f f i c u l t analytical situation. However, even w i t h t h i s d i s p a r i t y o f
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h bubble s i z e i t f o r t u n a t e l y t r a n s p i r e s t h a t t h e
c o a l e s c e n c e and r e d i s p e r s i o n o f b u b b l e s i n a r i s i n g swarm l e a d s t o a s t e a d y
s t a t e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a s h o r t d i s t a n c e above t h e s p a r g e r as d i s c u s s e d
e a r l i e r (and as i n t u i t i o n would s u g g e s t ) . I n t h i s s t e a d y s t a t e t h e r a t i o of
KLaT t h e combined mass t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t (whose u n i t s can be h,-I or
nmol/L.hr.atm) t o volume o f t h e r i s i n g gas, i s c o n s t a n t . A l s o , gas p r e s s u r e
( h e n c e s o l u b i l i t y ) and a r e a t e r m s c a n c e l . A very important i m p l i c a t i o n of
t h i s i s t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n a l approach t o l i q u i d e q u i l i b r i u m a c t i v i t y of a
g i v e n gas component i n t h e gas phase i s c o n s t a n t p e r u n i t t i m e . ( I t h a s been
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t power d i s s i p a t i o n i n t h e l i q u i d does n o t a f f e c t KL.) If
thermodvnamic a c t i v i t y o f gas d i s s o l v e d i n t h e l i q u i d phase s t a y s c o n s t a n t
r e l a t i v e t o gas p h a s e a c a t i v i t y , t h e n t h e f r a c t i o n o f gas phase component
which i s l o s t f r o m t h e gas i s c o n s t a n t p e r u n i t time. Thus,

where

Pg = a c t i v i t y o f s p e c i e s i n gas phase, atm

PL = a c t i v i t y o f s p e c i e s i n l i q u i d phase, atm
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t based on gas a c t i v i t y
Kg
more s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s

Atmospheres g a s l o s t / u n i t t i r e
K, =--------------------------------
. A t a o s p h e r e gas d r i v i n g f o r c e
The c o n s t a n t f r a c t i ~ n a ls t r i p p i n g o+ ~f o x y g e n p e r u n i t h e i g h t h a s been
e s t a b l i s h e d i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r r e f e r e n c e 8 ( H a t c h ) and i n r e f e r e n c e 13 i n t h e
deep t a n k work o f S c h m i d t and Redmond,

F o r o x v q e n , t h e f r a c t i o n a l a b s o r p t i o n p e r u n i t t i m e f r o m t h e gas phase i s
.0065 - . 0 0 7 5 s e t o 1 a t 20°C ( 0 . 1 3 ) . A v a l u e o f 0.007 w i l l be u s e d i n
t h i s analysis. However, t h e c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m f o r a l g a l g r o w t h s y s t e m s i s n o t
oxygen t r a n s f e r , b u t C U 2 t r a n s f e r . Though n o l i t e r a t u r e was f o u n d
d i r e c t l l v a p p l i c a b l e t o Cog t r a n s f e r i n t h e s i t u a t i o n e n v i s i o n e d f o r t h e
a l g a l g r o w t h s y s t e m , a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d mas5 t r a n s f e r c o r r e l a t i o n may be u s e d
t o compare t h e Kg f o r C02 t r a n s f e r f r o m t h a t o f 02 t 7 , 131.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , a t a q i v e n g a s p h a s e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e the l i q u i d o i d e mass
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t p e r u n i t area, which c o n t r o l s KL, i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
D ~ ( w h e~ r e D * = gas ~ d i f f~ u s i v i t y i n l i q u i d ) . K q is i n t u r n
proportional t o K times salubilitv. Thus

and Kg f o r C02 c a n b e computed t o b e a b o u t 0 . 1 2 5 sec'l ( t h o u g h a

cautionary note i s t h a t smaller bubble size w i t h s u r f a c t a n t present could
g i v e a much h i g h e r K g ) . W i t h t h i s Kg, a swarm o f g a s b u b b l e s r i s i n g t h r o u g h
q a s - f r e e l i q u i d w o u l d l o s e a b o u t 13X o f t h e i r r e m a i n i n g CB2 each second.
( I n d e r i v i n g CQ2 t r a n s f e r d a t a f r o m U2 d a t a , n o t e h e r e t h a t i t h a s been
-
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r e i s n e g l i g i b l e c h e m i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f CO2 u p t a k e
see Ref. 1 7 ) .

A11,lO COMPUTATION OF TIME AND HEIGHT NEEDED FOR TRhNSFER

The l i m i t i n g c a s e w i l l s o m e t i m e s e x i s t where b a c k p r e s s u r e o f C02 i s

negligible. T h i s w l l l b e t r u e i n p a r t i c u l a r when t h e s y s t e m is o p e r a t e d a t
l o w CQ2 and h i g h a l k a l i n i t y t o p r e v e n t C O 2 escape t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e
E171. In t h i s c a s e c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d c o n t a c t t i m e is
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 ) and Kg = 0.125 s e c - l . Required contact
t i n e s f o r B O X and 95% a b s o r p t i o n o f C 0 2 , f o r b o t h 15 c a / s e c and 30 c n / s e c
d r a f t t u b e v e l o c i t i e s i n each c a s e , a r e shown i n T a b l e 411-2. These v a l u e s
o f d r a f t t u b e h e i g h t and + l o w v e l o c i t y a r e t h o s e w h i c h were u s e d e a r l i e r t o
compute r e p r e s e n t i v e e f f i c i e n c i e s .

I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s C O 2 t r a n s f e r w i l l t a k e p l a c e where b a c k p r e s s u r e i s
n o t zero. The p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f C02 ( P L i n e q u a t i o n 1 3 ) i s needed and
can b e d e r i v e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f a n y ~f s e v e r a l i n t e r r e l a t e d paramet.ers. One
c o n v e n i e n t d e r i v a t i o n i s a5 a f u n c t i o n o f pH ( o r ti+ c o n c e ' n t r a t i o n ) and
a l k a l i n i t y , A. Here, a l k a l i n i t y i s d e f i n e d as n i l l i e q u i i a l e n t s p e r l i t e r
excess o f c a t i o n s over a l l a n i o n s o t h e r than c a r b o n a t e species. It i s also
assumed a s a s i m p l i f v i n g measure in t h i s a n a l y s i s t h a t no b u f f e r s o t h e r than
c a r b o n a t e a r e p r e s e n t . The s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can a l s o be made f o r pH v a l u e s of
i n t e r e s t ( 5 - 1 1 ) t h a t 'H and OH' a r e n e g l i g i b l e r e l a t i v e t o c a r b o n a t e
s p e c i e s . Data in t h e a n a l y s i s t o follow i s from r e f e r e n c e 18 and 19. The
term C C02 i s used t o d e f i n e t h e sum of C02 and H2C03 i n s o l u t i o n .

A = meq/L a l k a l i n i t v = HC03' + 2C03 =

(H') (C03=
given t h a t --------------- - = 4 . 4 X 1 0 - l 1 Refs. 1 8 , 19
HC03-

and

Also, given t h a t

(H') (HC03-1 /CCO2 = 4 m 3 1

and Cc02
p -------- --------------
4 . 3 ~ 1 0 ' ~H+ + 8.8~10'~~
 l e t t i n g K1 4 . 3 1 X l o e 7 and K 2 = 4 . 4 X 10-11,

t o t a l carbon i n s o l u t i o n , TC, i s given by

As s o l u b i l i t y o f C O T i s 29 mmol/L . a t m (20°C) t h e t e r m PI f o r u s e i n
e q u a t i o n (13) w o u l d - b e 1129.1 a t r X C C02 o r 0.034 CCU2 kt 200.
O t h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s can b e t r e a t e d i n t h e sane way u s i n g t h e C02 s o l u b i l i t y
+or those temperatures,

All.11 COMPUTATION OF REQUIRED RESIDENCE T I M E IN DRAFT T U B E

The e n t i r e p r o a c e d u r e f o r c o m p u t i n q t r a n s f e r t i m e ( o r h e i g h t ) is complex and
o n l y t h e b r i e f e s t p o s s i b l e d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l be g i v e n here, Given e q u a t i o n
I ? and 20 a g r a p h c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d s h o w i n g t o t a l c a r b o n a t e s p e c i e s I i . e .
n m o l / L C i n l i q u i d ) and PC02 as a f u n c t i o n o f pH. I t i s assumed h e r e t h a t
g a s and l i q u i d f l o w s are known, and t h a t t h e s t a r t i n g c o m p o s i t i o n s o f b o t h
t h e g a s and l i q u i d p h a s e s ( a t t h e s p a r g e r i n t h e d r a f t t u b e ) a r e known. Thus
a p o i n t can be drawn above t h e i n l e t l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n / p H p o i n t showing
pC02 o f t h e i n l e t g a s and l i q u i d . Gas and l i q u i d f l o w s w i l l b e c o n c u r r e n t
where t h e g a s l i f t i s u s e d f o r pumping as w e l l as C02 t r a n s f e r ; t h u s t h e sun
o f gas and l i q u i d f l u x e s u p w a r d i s c o n s t a n t . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,

where B g and QL a r e f l o w r a t e s o f gas (S.T.P.) and l i q u i d , The m a t e r i a l

b a l a n c e o f e q u a t i o n 2 1 c a n b e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t a PC02 f o r t h e gas p h a s e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o each PC02 o f t h e l i q u i d phase. The t i m e needed f o r
t r a n s f e r c a n t h e n b e computed t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e r a t i o n :

1) S t a r t i n g w i t h i n i t i a l PCO2 o f g a s and l i q u i d e l e m e n t s , c h o o s e a
P C O 2 i n c r e m e n t f o r each ( n e p a t i v e f o r gas, p o s i t i v e f o r l i q u i d ) b y
e q u a t i o n 21 small enough t h a t u s e o f a v e r a g e s f o r PL a n d P g g i v e s
acceptable e r r o r , Then t h e a v e r a g e d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r t r a n s f e r i s
( P C 0 2 g I + PCO2qF) - (PCO2I.I + PCO2LF) = PC02 a v e r a g e . The
s u b s c r i p t s g , L, I, and F a r e gas, l i q u i d , i n i t i a l , f i n a l
respectively,
 2) Compute t i m e n e c e s s a r v f o r t r a n s f e r a s

3) Repeat p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e n e x t chosen increment of g a s and l i q u i d

PC02.

The p r o c e d u r e i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e f i n a l d e s i r e d P ~ 0 2 gas
and l i q u i d a r e a t t a i n e d . The h e i g h t needed f o r t r a n s f e r i s e a s i l v d e r i v e d
from t h i s t i m e and t h e g a s v e l o c i t y ( V L + 30).

There c e r t a i n l v e x i s t s a r i g o r o u s a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r t h e h e i g h t
c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t i t i s almost c e r t a i n l y t o o messy t o be u s e f u l . The
p r e c e d i n g computation s h o u l d , however, be easv t o a c c o m ~ l i s hw i t h an
a p p r o p r i a t e computer program.

411.12 COMBINED PUMPING A N D GAS TRANSFER

To t h i s p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s e x p r e s s i o n s have been developed f o r g a s f l o w

r e q u i r e d f o r t h e pumping f u n c t i o n , and f o r t h e d r a f t t u b e h e i g h t needed f o r
C02 t r a n s f e r . Regarding which independent v a r i a b l e s a r e t o be f i x e d , two
s e t s of c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e of i n t e r e s t : one s i t u a t i o n i s where t h e d r a f t t u b e
h e i g h t i s s u f f i c i e n t o n l y t o accomplish needed C02 t r a n s f e r , w i t h t h e
b a l a n c e of pumping - i f needed - accomplished b y o t h e r means. The o t h e r
s i t u a t i o n i s where t r a n s f e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e met and g a s does a l l of t h e
pumping work a s w e l l .

In a t y p i c a l channel flow s y s t e m , depth and flow v e l o c i t y w i l l be f i x e d on

t h e b a s i s of v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a such a s 1 ) s u f f i c i e n c y t o m i x a l g a e , 2 )
avoidance off e r o s i o n and sediment t r a n s p o r t i n u n l i n e d pond s y s s t e m s , 3 )
s p a c i n g of g a s t r a n s f e r and mixing s t a t i o n s , and o t h e r f a c t o r s (more
d i s c u s s i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n r e f e r e n c e 1 7 ) . Choice of depth and channel flow
v e l o c i t y d i c t a t e pumping energy r e q u i r e m e n t s and g r a d e , o r l i q u i d s u r f a c e
s l o p e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow. Grade i n t u r n d e t e r m i n e s pumping head ( =
g r a d e X l e n g t h of flow p a t h ) . Carbon d i o x i d e a d d i t i o n m u s t be s u f f i c i e n t t o
meet t h e needs of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s by t h e a l g a e . The assumption h e r e i s t h a t
a l g a l p r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l a v e r a g e 75 m e t r i c t o n s / h e c t a r e y r . , w i t h a maximum
p r o d u c t i v i t y of 20 gm/m2.dav and t h a t 2 qms of C02 must be t r a n s f e r r e d t o
t h e system per gram of a l g a e which i s grown C171. I t i s assumed t h a a t C02
l o s s from t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e - o r i n a l t e r n a t e t e r m s , back d i f f u s i o n t o t h e
atmosphere - i s minimal s o t h a t t h e C02-containing g a s s t r e a m can be
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m , and mixing can be c a r r i e d o u t , 24 h r / d a y . T h i s
i s an o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i m p o r t a n t f o r system economics. For p u r p o s e s
of i l l u s t r a t i o n and a n a l y s i s , model s y s t e m s w i l l be a s s u r e d w i t h
c h a r a c a t e r i s t i c s shown i n Table AII-2.
 TABLE AII-2

SYSTEM C H A R A A C T E R I S T I C S USED FOR ILLUSTRATIONS (See T e x t )

A, S t a c k gas use

I. C h a n n e l f l o w v e l o c i t y = 15 cm/sec
Channel D e p t h = 30 cm
Pumping h e a d = 7 . 2 cm (From M a n n i n g e q u a t i o n , n = . 0 2 , p u m p i n q
s t a t i o n = 3240 m, 6 h r c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e )
A l g a l P r ~ d u c t i v i t v= 20 g r l m 2 . d a v
Cog r e q u i r e m e n t = 40 g n / n 2 . d a v
80% a b g o r p t i o n o f C02 f r o m qas s t r e a m
R e q u i r e d Q 9 / Q L = 0 . 1 5 5 ( Q g e x p r e s s e d a t 25OC. 1 a t m , 15%
Cop)
R e q u i r e d hL f o r 80% a b s o r p t i o n = 5.4 M

11. 4s above, e x c e p t

Channel F l o w Velucity = 30 c a / s e c
Pumping station s p a c i n g = 6480 m e t e r s
Pumping head = 58 cm ( 6 h r c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e )
Q g / O L = 0.139 ( Q g a t 25OC 1 at., gas has I S X C O 2 b y
volume)
Required hL f o r 90X a b s o r p t i o n = 13.4 m e t e r s

0. P u r e C02 use

W i t h p u r e C02 ( o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s a b a v e h o l d ) :

See t e x t f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f p u r e C02 case.

A11.13 COMPARISON OF GASLIFT PUMPING ChPACITY WITH CHANNEL GRQWTH SYSTEM
NEEDS

The c h o i c e s f o r C02 c o n t e n t o f t h e s u a r g e d gas, i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h d e s i r e d

f r a c t i o n a l C02 s t r i p p i n g and d e s i r e d f l u i d f l o w v e l o c i t y i n t h e q a s l i f t
d r a f t tube f i x the g a s l i f t d r a f t tube height. (Calculated heights for the
examples a r e shown i n T a b l e A I I - 2 . ) V a l u e s chosen f o r t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a l s o
f i x t h e qas h o l d u p i n t h e system, and power i n p u t w h i c h i s d i r e c t l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o gas h o l d u p . Holdup needed t o p r o v i d e a g i v e n pumping head,
f r o m e q u a t i o n 6, can be compared t o t h e a c t u a l h o l d u p f r o m chosen p a r a m e t e r s
by e q u a t i o n 4. I f h o l d u p by e q u a t i o n 4 ) i s l e s s t h a n needed f r o m e q u a t i o n 4 )
t h e n a u x i l l i a r y oumping power must be p r o v i d e d .

H o l d u p s c a l c u l a t e d by e q u a t i o n 4 f o r c a s e A 1 and A I I a r e 0.0406 and 0.045

respectively. I f t h e pumping head needs f o r t h e t w o systems a r e 7 . 2 and 5 8
cm, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e n pumping power a v a i l a b i l i t y i s a f a c t o r o f above t h r e e
t i m e s need f o r c a s e 01, b u t i s i n a l m o s t p e r f e c t b a l a n c e ( h o l d u p computed a t
1.04 t i m e s need) f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o f c a s e A I I . As t h e r e a r e u n c e r t a i n t i e s
( d i s c u s s e d u n d e r " u n c e r t a i n t i e s " l a t e r ) t h i s must be c o n s i d e r e d a p e r f e c t
match w i t h i n c o m p u t a t i o n a i p r e c i s i o n .

F o r t h e p u r e C02 t r a n s f e r c a s e , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e
v o l u m e t r i c change as C02 i s a b s o r b e d d u r i n g b u b b l e r i s e . The s i t u a t i o n is
c o m p l i c a t e d by back d i f f u s i o n o f oxygen i n t o t h e b u b b l e s . Tho a s s u m p t i o n
made h e r e i s t h a t t h e C02 volume o f t h e r i s i n g gas d e c r e a s e s e x p o n e n t i a l l y
w i t h h e i g h t ( a s would occur w i t h t h e c o n s t a n t b u b b l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r ) b u t t h a t back d i f f u s i o n o f oxygen i e e o u a l t o 25% o f t h e
C02 w h i c h d i f f u s e s o u t . F o r t h e 80% C02 a b s o r p t i o n case, t h i s l e a d s t o a
f i n a l gas volume o f 40% o f t h e i n i t i a l , and f o r t h e 7 5 % a b s o r p t i o n case, a
v o l u m e w h i c h i s 29% o f t h e i n i t i a l . The a v e r a g e gas f l o w (STP) used i n
c o m p u t i n q h o l d u p i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e l o g mean o f i n l e t and o u t l e t , t i m e s
a p r e s s u r e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , P1/P2, f o r a d e p t h o f 2 / 3 o f hL ( 3 . 6 M
f o r c a s e B I , 9fl f o r 0 1 1 ) t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y 04 gas i s
a t l o w e r t h a n mean d e p t h . ( T h i s c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r i s t a be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f r o m t h e t e r m CpE u s e d e a r l i e r ) . With t h e s e assumption, t h e holdups f o r
c a s e s 0 1 and B I I a r e 0.0035 and 0.00304. These v a l u e s a r e o n l y 15% and 5 % o f
need, r e s p e c t i v e l l y , f o r 15 and 30 cm/sec c h a n n e l f l o w v e l o c i t i e s , 50 t h a t an
a u x i l l i a r y pumping p r o c e s s w o u l d be needed where p u r e C02 i s used t o s u p p l y
c a r b o n needs.

The above c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e o n l y i l l u s t r a t i o n s , b u t i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t when

CQ2 is s u p p l i e d b y s t o c k gas w i t h p l a u s i b l e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r m i x i n g
v e l o c i t y and f r a c t i o n a l s t r i p p i n g , t h a t g a s l i f t p u n p i n q c a p a c i t y can b e
c a p a b l e o f m e e t i n g t o t a l s y s t e m needs. I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t a v a l u e of
0.02. was u s e d f o r t h e Manning e q u a t i o n r o u g h n e s s , n (See 22 f o r d i s c u s s i o n ) .
A v a l u e o f n = 0.01 c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l b e e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h a smooth c h a n n e l
b o t t o m , w h i c h w o u l d mean f o r even c h a n n e l f l o w v e l o c i t i e s o f 30 cm/sec t h a t
pumping power o f t h e s t a c k gas t r a n s f e r s y s t e m c o u l d b e w e l l i n e x c e s s of
needs. A t n = 0.01, power a v a i l a b i l i t y ' f o r t h e p u r e ~ O ~ , ' c a sc@ ould supply
a l a r g e f u n c t i o n , o r p o s s i b l y a l l pumping needs, i f c h a n n e l
velocities o f 5-10 cm/sec c o u l d be t o l e r a t e d . U n c e r t a i n t i e s w h i c h a t t e n d t h e
e s t i m a t e s a r e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , b u t a good m a t c h b e t w e e n g a s l i f t p u m p i n g power
and n e e d s seems p o s s i b l e w i t h r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s .

A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h a t t h e s y s t e m must a l s o b e e n e r g y
e f f i c i e n t , which i s t o say t h a t t h e C o p t r a n s f e r / p u m p i n p f u n c t i o n s s h o u l d
not consume a l a r g e f u n c t i o n o f system energy o u t p u t . Not energetics a r e
examined n e x t .
A11.14 NET ENERGETICS; GASLIFT ENERGY CONSUMPTION AS 4 FRACTION OF TOTAL
GROWTH SYSTEM OUTPUT

I n a d d i t i o n t o c h o i c e s made e a r l i e r , t w a a d d i t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s must b e
assumed i n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e e n e r g y demand o f t h e g a s l i f t s y s t e m as a
f u n c t i o n o f system o u t p u t . These a r e f ) t h e g r o s s s y s t e m e n e r g y o u t p u t per
u n i t a r e a p e r day, and 2 ) t h e t h e r m a l t o m e c h a n i c a l c o n v e r s i o n e f f i c i e n c y
w h i c h i s o b t a i n e d when c o n v e r t i n g t h e q r o a a e n e r g y o u t p u t , i n t h e f o r m o f
d i l u t e algae, t o mechanical energy. The w o r k i n g a s s u m p t i o n h e r e f o r 1 ) i s
t h a t t h e 20 g m / m 2 day o f a l g a e h a v e a g r o s s h e a t i n g v a l u e o f 5000 c a l / g n ( =
9000 B T U / l b ) s o t h a t s y s t e m g r o s s e n e r g y o u t p u t i s 100 ~ c a l / i n * . d a v . A
s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n , w i t h o u t s p e c i f y i n g mechanism, i s t h a t t h i s g r o s s e n e r g y
can be c o n v e r t e d t o mechanical energy a t a t h e r m a l - t o mechanical conversion
f a t i o , o r e f + i c i e n c y , o f 30X. A v a i l a b l e mechanical energy, f r o m which energy
f o r g r s l i f t o p e r a t i o n must come, is w i t h t h i s a s s u m p t i o n 1.26 X lo2
erg/n2.day. U s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 8 ) and a v a l u e o f EnL = 0.8, t h e f r a c t i o n o f
t o t a l s y s t e m e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s a m p l e c a s e A I o f T a b l e 2 is 7 . 9 % and f o r
A H , pumping t h r o u g h 13.4 M, i t i s t 5 . 2 X . These a r e f a i r l y major, b u t n o t
i n t o l e r a b l e , l e v e l s o f energy cunsumption. F o r c a s e s B I and B I I , w h e r e C02
is pumped t g h r o u g h t h e same heads, w i t h o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n as p r e s e n t e d
e a r l i e r , c o n s u m p t i o n s a r e 1.2% and 2.2% o f t o t a l s y s t e m o u t p u t . Carbon
d i o x i d e f r o m some s o u r c e s ( e . g . g e o l o g i c a l r e s e r v o i r s ) may b e p r e s s u r i z e d .
No e n e r g y a t a l l w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o s p a r q e t h i s C02 i f i t i s a v a i l a b l e on
s i t e a t more t h a n a b o u t 2 a t m o s p h e r e s .

A11.15 UNCERTAINTIES

U number of u n c e r t a i n t i e s e x i s t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
e f f i c i e n c y o f gas t r a n s f e r and n e t e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n b y t h e g a s l i f t . Han~
o f t h e s e h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , b u t i t is w o r t h w h i l e t o r e v i e w t h e
p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f e r r o r a n d - u n c e r t a i n t y h e r e . Some s o u r c e s o f e r r o r a n d
t h e i r magnitude a r e d i s c u s s e d below.

A v a l u e o f 0.125 s e c - l f o r K q was d e r i v e d based on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t gas

b u b b l e s i n a l g a l systems w i l l b e h a v e a s a i r b u b b l e s d o i n ' s t e a d y - s t a t e d i l u t e
aqueous s y s t e m s . There is major u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e a s s u m p t i o n , b u t r
r a n g e c a n n o t be g i v e n t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t y a t t h i s t i m e . Experimental values
f o r Kg a r e b e i n g o b s e r v e d a t 2-5 t i m e s t h e 0 . 1 2 5 sec-i assumed h e r e C221.
T h i s may i n d i c a t e h i g h f r a c t i o n a l C02 s t r i p p i n g f r o m s m a l l b u b b l e s n e a r t h e
sparger b e f o r e coalescence/dispersion e s t a b l i s h e s a steady s t a t e , or else,
p r e v e n t i o n o f c o a l e s c e n c e ( h e n c e m a i n t e n a n c e o f s m a l l e r C02 b u b b l e s and
h i g h e r Kg) b y s u r f a c t a n t s i n a l g a l g r o w t h systems. E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i l l be
r e q u i r e d t o g i v e some answers i n t h i s a r e a . T h i s t o p i c i s q u i t e i m p o r t a n t as
b o t h e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n ( b u t a l s o a v a i l a b l e pumping c a p a c i t y ) a r e i n v e r s e l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o Kg.

V a l u e s f o r n , t h e c h a n n e l w a l l and b o t t o m r o u g h n e s s , c a u l d e a s i l y v a r y b y a
f a c t o r o f 3, w h i c h c o u l d change power r e q u i r e m e n t s by an e q u a l f a c t o r .
E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e v a l u e f o r n ( i f n o t 0 . 0 2 as assumed) w i l l r e q u i r e
c o n s i d e r a b l y more a n a l y s i s and i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s t r e a t m e n t .

I n c o m p u t i n g e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n b y t h e c o m p r e s s o r , and buoyancy e f f e c t o f
s p a r g e d gas, a c c o u n t must b e t a k e n o f t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e
compressor i n l e t and i n t h e r i s i n g column o f b u b b l e s i n t h e d r a f t t u b e .
C o r r e c t i o n s s h o u l d a l s o b e made f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n w a t e r v a p o r c o n t e n t between
t h e t w o p o i n t s . However, t h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s a r e s m a l l w i t h minimum t o t a l
e r r o r a t l e s s t h a n 5%.

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f pumping work done on t h e l i q u i d b y r i s i n g gas b u b b l e s was

p r e d i c a t e d on l i q u i d " p l u g f l a w , " i . e . t h a t a l l l i q u i d e l e m e n t s i n t h e d r a f t
t u b e had t h e same v e l o c i t y . O b v i o u e l y , t h e y do n o t , and t h e r e w i l l b e an
e f f i c i e n c y l o s s r e l a t i v e t o t h a t c a l c u l a t e d e a r l i e r i f f l u i d has a v e l o c i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t u r b u l e n t f l o w 1213 even when gas b u b b l e s a r e
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d over t h i s area. T h i s e r r o r i n pumping e f f i c i e n c y
c a l c u l a t i n g h a s been worked o u t C23; d e t a i l n o t shown1 and i s , s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
l e s s t h a n 2%. T h i s e r r o r i s s m a l l because t h e t u r b u l e n t f l o w v e l o c i t y
p r o f i l e i s r a t h e r f l a t , t h o u g h i t does v a r y . I f gas " c h a n n e l s , " o r i s
u n e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n , o r t r a v e l s i n f l u i d elements
h a v i n g much g r e a t e r t h a n a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y , t h e n pumping e f f i c i e n c y l o s s e s
c o u l d be l a r g e . I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e what t h e e f f i c i e n c v decrement
m i g h t be, b u t i n any e v e n t t h i s s i t u a t i o n c a n be a v o i d e d b y s p a r g i n g s o a s t o
i n t r o d u c e gas u n i f o r m l y o v e r t h e d r a f t t u b e c r o s s s e c t i o n .

Power i n p u t and e f f i c i e n c y were computed e a r l i e r f o r s t a c k gas ( 1 5 % C02)

s p a r g l n q on t h e b a s i s o f u n c h a n g i n g g a s volume. However, t h e a c t u a l s t r e a m
f l o w - c o u l d a c t u a l l y change by a s much a s 15%. T h i s 15% seems t o be t h e
l i k e l v maximum e r r o r f r o m t h i s s o u r c e . Back d i f f u s i o n o+ 02, and t h e f a c t
t h a t some C02 r e m a i n s w i t h t h e gas s t r e a m d u r i n g i t s r i s e , w i l l p r o b a b l y
keep t h i s e r r o r t o 10X o r less, w i t h s t a c k gas. F o r pure C o g s u a r q i n g , t h e
g a s a b s o r p t i o n c o r r e c t i o n is o b v i o u s l y m a j o r , b u t C o p pumping i s not a
m a j o r e n e r g e t i c d r a i n ( i f any energetic d r a i n a t a l l ) and p u r e CQ2 s p a r g i n g
does n o t a p p e a r t o s u p p l y enough pumping power i n most l i k e l y cases, t o meet
system needs. Thus m o d e l i n g gaslift pumping b y p u r e C02 s t r e a m s does n o t
seem t o b e a p r e s s i n g need.

T h e r e are l i k e l y t o be o t h e r s o u r c e s o f e r r o r w h i c h h a v e n o t been
considered. However, i t seems t h a t t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and CD2
a b s o r p t i o n Kg u n c e r t a i n t i e s a r e dominant. Thus in summary, t h e c o n c l u s i o n
must r e m a i n t h a t a g a s l i f t system c a p a b l e o f t r a n s f e r r i n g s t o c k g a s s h o u l d b e
c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g enough o r more t h a n enough pumpinq c a p a c i t y t o meet t h e
needs o f a h i g h r a t e pond system w i t h c h a n n e l f l o w v e l o c i t i e s o f 15-30
cm/sec. E n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n f o r t h i s a p p r o a c h s h o u l d b e a h i g h ( 5 2 5 % ) but
t o l e r a b l e f u n c t i o n o f system o u t p u t .
 REFERENCES

Hatch, R . T . , Chemical Engineering Department, University of Maryland.

Personal Communication, August 1984,

Parch, Proceedings of t h e I n s t i t u t e of Mechanical Engineers, 1917 cf

Ref. 4 below.

Ivens, Trans. A.S.M.E. 1909 CF Ref. 4.

Mark's Mechanical Engineers Handbook p . 1874 Fourth Edition ( 1 9 4 1 ) .

P e r r y ' s Handbook of Chemical Engineering p p . 5-39, 5-40, and 6-13.

F i f t h E d i t i o n , 1973.

Dussap, C.J. and J.B. Gross. Energy Consumption and I n t e r f a c i a l Mass

Transfer in' an A i r l i f t Fermenter. Chemical Engineering Journal
(France) 25 151-162 ( I n E n g l i s h ) .

Moo-Young, M. and Blanch, Ha#. Design of Biochemical Reactors: Mass

Transfer C r i t e r i a f o r Simple and Complex Systems. Advances in
Biochemical Engineering.

Hatch, R . T . , Ph.D. Thesis, M. I.T., 1973.

L i p p e r t , J . , Adler, I . , Meyer, H . O . , Lubbert, A. and K . Sckurgerl.

C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e Two-Phase Systems in A i r l i f t Tower-Loop Readers
During t h e C u l t i v a t i o n 0 f . E . Coli. Biotech. Bioeng. 2 5 ( 2 ) p . 437-50
4 1983).

Merchuk, J.C., S t e r n , Y . and R . I . Mateles. D i s t r i b u t e d Parameter Model

of an A i r l i f t Fermenter, Biotech. Bioeng. 22 pp. 1189-1261 (1980).

Moresi, M. Optimal Design of A i r l i f t Fermenters. Biotech. B i o ~ n g . 23

p. 2537-2560 ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

Schmid;t, F.L. alnd D.T. Redmon. Oxygen Transfer E f f i c i e n c y in Deep

Tanks. Journal Water P o l l u t i o n Control Federation 4 7 ( 1 1 ) 2586-2590
(1975) 1

Augenstein, D.C. Oxygen Transfer in Fermenters a t High Power Inputs.

M.S. Thesis. M.I.T. ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

Far example, i n " A i r l i f t Fermentation; A Bibliography t o t h e BRL

A i r l i f t Fermenter, a v a i l a b l e from Bethesda Research L a b o r a t o r i e s ,
Gartnersburg, Md. ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
 RIII-1 TRAVELLING SOLIDS REMOVER FOR POND SUMPS

(By Joseph C. Dodd, C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r )

C o n t i n u o u s r a i l s a r e p r o v i d e d so t h a t a s i n g l e s o l i d s remover say s e r v i c e a
number of pond sumps where t h e ponds a r e a r r a n g e d t o a l l o w t h i s . The r a i l s
a r e s u p p o r t e d on p i e r s and pond n a l l s , n i t h s p a c i n g t o a l l o w u s e o f l i g h t
r o l l e d berms such as 6 " o r 8 " WF o r B s e c t i o n s (span 15-20 f t . ) . S t e e l
s e c t i o n s a t about 1 5 # / f t n i t h a h i g h q u a l i t y p r o t e c i v e c o a t i n g i s p r e f e r r e d ,
a l t h o u g h f i b e r g l a s s s e c t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e b u t more expensive. The p i e r
s p a c i n g must be c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h t h e walkway s u p p o r t r e q u i r e m e n t s , which may
be more c r i t i c a l if t i m b e r i s used ( 2 " x 10" s t r i n g e r s w i t h 15' span
p r e v i o u s l y u s e d ) . tlinimum p i e r t h i c k n e s s i s 4" f o r r e b a r c o v e r .

The t r a v e l l i n g s o l i d s remover i s f a b r i c a t e d f r o m 6' Cs, r o l l i n g on 6 " s t e e l

nheels w i t h rubber treads ( t o p r o t e c t coatings). Two wheels a r e d r i v e n by a
hand crank t o move t h e c o l l e c t o r a t t h e speed which j u s t p i c k s up t h e b l a n k e t
of solids. A s i g h t g l a s s on t h e s u c t i o n hose r a y be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e
rate of travel. The c o l l e c t o r i s a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l p i p e a r a w i t h p e r f o r a t e d
t e e p i p e having r o l l e r s t o m a i n t a i n t h e d e s i r e d bottom clearance. The arm 1 s
p i v o t e d up t o c l e a r t h e w a l l s when t r a n s f e r r i n g t o a n o t h e r pond. I t may a l s o
be moved a l o n g t h e s o l i d s remover r a i l t o sweep s e v e r a l s t r i p s a l o n g t h e
b o t t o m t o remove as much s e t t l e d s o l i d s as p o s s i b l e . The s o l i d s a r e pumped
by a s e l f - p r i m i n g pump (e.g, p r o g r e s s i n g c a v i t y ) .

Power s u p p l y t o t h e pump and s o l i d s d i s c h a r g e hose a r e draped between a f i x e d

n a s t a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e sump and a mast on t h e s o l i d s remover. Quick
connect c o u p l i n g s a l l o w t r a n s f e r f r o m one pond t o t h e n e x t . The d i s c h a r g e o f
s o l i d s i s conveyed i n a p i p e s u p p o r t e d a l o n g t h e walkway o r r a i l , e i t h e r t o
d i s p o s a l , o r t o a s e t t l i n g t a n k ( s ) f o r t h i c k e n i n g and r e t u r n o f s u p e r n a t a n t
t o t h e pond. The l a t t e r method r e d u c e s s a l t l o s s and d i s p o s a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
b u t adds t o f a c i l i t i e s c o s t and o p e r a t i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y .

Cnef 12o r - l 9 2 , H e ~ t ~ c e ~ 1 4 Z 9 ~ s ? c _ r e L - S ~ s t e ~
F o r s a l i n e systems, f r e q u e n c y o f c l e a n i n g i s l e s s t h a n w i t h wastewater
systems, so two removers can p r o b a b l y h a n d l e 12 ponds, o r a t o t a l o f 4
removers f o r t h e 192 h e c t a r e s y s t e n . A 2" o r 3 " pump s h o u l d be used,
o p e r a t e d a t a reduced speed ( s a y 500 -800 r p r ) due t o a b r a s i v e n a t u r e o f
solids. S e t t l i n g t a n k s (if
used) s h o u l d be designed f o r 50 gpa o v e r f l o w r a t e
o f 3000 g p d / f t 2 . Need 24 f t 2 o r approx. b f t . d i a m e t e r , n i t h hopper
bottom.
Rough e s t i m a t i n g c o s t s :

R a i l s @ 612/ft. i n c l u d l n p coatings, s p e c i a l s ,
anchor b o l t s , installation,

0.5' X 1.5' x 4.5' .

P t e r concrete (assume 10 per pond)
33.8/27 = 1 . 2 5 yd3/pond

1.25 x 24 pondr B $ 2 0 0 / ~ d ~ $6.000

Solids remover ( e a ) .
Complete e x c e p t f a r pump, elec. & p i p i n g 10,000

Pump, e l e c , & p i p i n g ( t o f i x e d r a e t ) 5 , 000

------
Total $15,000

hssume p i p i n g & electrical on p o n d s t r u c t u r e is included i n other estimates

(7. o f p r o j e c t c o s t s ) .

Total f o r 475 a c r e module:

Rails ( 4 r a i l s x 3400' = 13,600 8 $ 1 2 / f t , )

Piers

Solids removers 4 x lSaOOO

T o t a l without t a n k s

With t a n k s , add 4 @ $5,000

 Appendix A I I I - 2

SLUDGE RECMOVAL FROM SHALLOW GROWTH PONDS

(by Lloyd Bracewell, Consulting Engineer)

Shallow h i g h r a t e a l g a l growth ponds w i t h mixing low v e l o c i t i e s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y

e x p e r i e n c e some s e t t l i n g o u t of o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s t o form a
s l u d g e l a y e r o v e r t h e pond bottom. Since t h e growth ponds have only about 20
cm of d e p t h , any s i g n i f i c a n t l a y e r of s l u d g e would i n t e r f e r e i n t h e pond's
o p e r a t i o n . It is t h e r e f o r e necessary t o p r o v i d e f o r the removal of s l u d g e s
from t h e bottom of t h e growth ponds once t h e depth r e a c h e s about 15 p e r c e n t
of t h e water depth o r 3 cm. The proposed method of c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e growth
ponds and t h e i r l a y o u t c r e a t e s e v e r e c o n s t r i n t s on t h e methods t h a t can be
used c o s t - e f f e c t i v e l y f o r s l u d g e removal. I n p a r t i c u l a r , a c c e s s i s l i m i t e d
t o t h e ends and t h e pond bottoms w i l l b e of e a r t h e n c o n s t r u c t i o n .

A form of h y d r a u l i c removal of s l u d g e would t h e r e f o r e b e most a p p r o p r i a t e

i f r e q u i r e d on a f r e q u e n t b a s i s . I f t h e pond mixing v e l o c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d
s e v e r a l - f o l d t h e n t h e s l u d g e would be resuspended i n t h e water column and t h e
water could be withdrawn f o r s e t t l i n g i n a n o t h e r b a s i n w i t h adequate d e t e n t i o n
t i m e f o r s o l i d s removal. T h i s approach would r e q u i r e s i z i n g t h e mixer d r i v e
motors much l a r g e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y f o r normal mixing purposes. One p o s s i b l e
s o l u t i o n t o keep t h e i n s t a l l e d s i z e of t h e motors t o a minimum would be t o
d e s i g n t h e mixing systm t o i n c l u d e a power take-off s o a s t o accommodate t h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n - o f a supplemental d r i v e r o n l y when s l u d g e removal was needed*

The s l u d g e removal approach proposed whenever thorough pond c l e a n i n g i s r e q u i r e d ,

such a s a n n u a l l y , i s t o decant t h e pond w a t e r , i n s t a l l a boom and s l u d g e
pump arrangement, o p e r a t e d by a winch and by a combination of dragging and
pumping, move t h e s l u d g e t o s m a l l s m p s a t each end of each pond. The boom
would be t h e width of t h e pond and dragged by s e v e r a l c a b l e s connected to
winches i n s t a l l e d on mounts f o r t h a t purpose when needed t o remove sludge.
Small sludge pumps would be mounted on t h e boom w i t h 100 f t d i s c h a r g e p i p e s
suspended along t h e p u l l i n g c a b l e s t o keep e x c e s s i v e amounts of s l u d g e from
accumulating i n f r o n t of t h e boom a s i t i s dragged along t h e pond bottom
toward a sludge sump. T h i s reduces t h e l o a d on t h e c a b l e s and boom a s t h e s l u d g e
i s g r a d u a l l y moved t o t h e end of t h e pond. The s l u d g e c o l l e c t e d i n t h e end
slumps would b e pumped t o a s t o r a g e pond f o r later d i s p o s a l . The boom would be
c o n s t r u c t e d of 12 by 12 i n c h wooden beams 2 0 f e e t long and hinged a t each con-
n e c t i n g j o i n t f o r t h e width of t h e pond. A p u l l i n g c a b l e would b e a t t a c h e d
a t each of t h e connecting j o i n t s and a t t a c h e d t o i n d i v i d u a l winches. A
3 horsepower s l u d g e pump would be mounted on each s e c t i o n of t h e boom w i t h i t s
s u c t i o n manifold set along t h e f r o n t of t h a t s e c t i o n of t h e boom t o pump
s l u d g e a s i t a c c u l a t e s i n f r o n t of t h e boom. T h e pump d i s c h a r g e hose would
be extended along t h e p u l l i n g c a b l e approximately 100 f e e t t o keep t h e pumped
s l u d g e ahead of t h e boom a s i t t r a v e l s t h e l e n g t h of t h e pond. The s l u d g e a s
i t was pumped would t e n d t o flow, a l b e i t slowly, toward t h e end of t h e pond
s i n c e t h e dragging would be done i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e pond g r a d i e n t .

The e s t i m a t e d c o s t f o r a s l u d g e removal system of t h i s t y p e i s about $60,000.

A s i n g l e system would be shared among a l l t h e ponds.
 Appendix AIII-3

DIVIDER WALL COST ESTIMATES#

METHOD ----- MATERIALS ------ -------- LABOR --------

QTY UNIT TOTAL HOURS HOURLY TOTAL SUBTOTAL
PER FT COST RATE

1. HYPALON MEMBRANE

POSTS 0.250 $1.65 $0.41 0.025 $35.00 $0.88 $1.29

CONCRETE 0.004 $5 1.50 $0.19 0.004 $16.35 $0.06 $6.25
MEMBRANE 2.000 $0.50 $1.00 0.100 $16.35 $1.64 $2.64
RAILINGS 1.000 $1.00 $1.00 0.020 $16.35 $0.33 $1.33
TRENCHING 0.019 $1.00 $0.02 $0.02
------
TOTAL $5.51

2. CONCRETE BLOCK

BLOCKS 1.780 $0.66 $1.17 0.130 $16.35 $2.12 $3.30

MORTAR 0.080 $2. 60 $0.21 $0.21
GROUT 0.244 $2.25 $0.55 0.067 $16.35 61.09 $1.64
STEEL 1.000 $0.23 $0.23 0.008 $16.35 $0. 13 $0.36
FOOTINGEXC0.019 $1.00 $0.02 $0.02
CONCRETE 0 . 0 19 $50.00 $0.93 0.04 1 $16.35 $0.67 $1.60
-----
TOTAL $7.12

3. POURED CONCRETE

CONCRETE 0.035 $51.50 $1,80' 0.061 $14.40 $0.88 $2.68

STEEL 1.OClQ $0.23 $0.23 0.008 $16.35 $0.13 $6.36
FORMWORK 2.670 $0.10 $0.27 0.116 $17.35 $2.01 $2.28
FOOTINGEXC0.019 $1.00 $0.02 $0.02
------
TOTAL $5.34

PIPE 1.000 $6.77 $4.41 0.012 $94.00 $1.13 $5.54

FOOT I NG 0.025 $50.00 $1.23 0.055 $16.35 $0.90 $2.13
-----
TOTAL $7.67

S S ~ l p pil ed by L l o y d E r a c e w e l l , consul t i ng engineer

S t Not described i n t e x t
 Appendix AIII-5

Large Scale System Paddle Wheel Costs

-- -
LC
--
-"
L.
.I
I-
I-
--
--
-.
..
..
..
.

PADDLE WHEEL COST BREAKDOWN 8

-- .
.-.
."1-1-.
..1.
- .
.-.
- -.
...
-

8.0 Hectare l a s i s
flATERIhLS--------------
0 - 0 I------
TOTAL
DESCRIPTION RUAN UNITS UNIT $ COST COST COST COHNEffT
---- ----- ------ ---- ----- -------
Drive Tube 46% l b 0.55 2,361 1,280 3,841 16' 150 p s i steel
Hubs 498 l b 0.55 274 411 685
F l anqes 869 l b 1.00 863 0 869
Spokes t f -gl ass) 431 f t 2'73 1,103 59 2 1,777 Fi berqlas 2 ~ 2 ~ 0 . 2 5
Paddles I ' 1 1473 sq f t b.00 0,836 incl. 8,836 Fiberglas 0.30' thk
Fasteners 353 333
Drive motor 1 900 900 900 15 hp, Severe Duty
notar Starter 1 450 450 450 NERA size 2, type 4
Hot or lase 1 277 Base oniv, not struc,
Var. Speed U n i t I 2,700 2 q 700 2,700 Boi er 15ACY, 29: 1
Speed Reducer 1 1,400 1T400 1 400 Cyclo 1870
5R Base 27 5 Bdse only, nat structral lupport
SR Sprocket 25
Jackshaf t 648 3.38' dir S,S,, 24'lonp, n/ keyways
JS 0earinqs 200
JS Spr. t1 75
JS Spr, t2 SO
PY Solid Shrfto 1,344 3,s' dir S,S,, 12' long, one keyway
PW Drive Spr a 100
Dr. Chain #I 25
Dr. Chain I 2 50
Chain Guard9 200
PU Beilrinqs 1,500 Rol ler bearing, split housing
PU Coupling 1,700 Fa1 k 120T t l ~ ta ) lOOT(2nd)
Torque l i r i t e r 350
Hisc,
-------
TOTAL 24 799
IHSTbLLATION (not incl structural 1

TOTbL IHSTALLED COST

 Appendix AIII-6

Experimental System Paddle Wheel Costs

-------------------------
+ PhDDLE YHEEL C0iT BREAKDOWN +
...........................
0.4 Hectare Basis

----------
MATERIALS---- -me------
FAB. TOTAL
DESCRIPTION PUAN UNITS UNIT $ COST COST COST COHHENT
------------ ---- ---- ------ ---- ---- ----- -------
Drive Tube 819 l b 0,bO 492 246 737 8' sch 40 steel
Hubs 139 l b 0.60 84 125 209
Flanges 195 l b 1.00 195 0 195
Spokes ( f -qlass) 140 f t 3.00 420 210 630 Fi berglas 2~2~0.25
Paddles ( ' 331 sq f t 6.00 1,987 incl. 1,987 Fiberqlac 0.23' thk
Fasteners 79 79
Drive rotor 350 350 2 hp, Severe Duty
notor Starter 200 200 EflA sire 0, type 4
Hotor Base 47 Base only, net struc.
Var, Speed Unit 750 Bei er ZACY, 29: 1
Speed Reducer 700 Cyclo 1870
SR Base 275 Base only, not structral support
SR Sprocket 25
Jackshaf t 196 1.63' dia S.S., 24"lonj, w/ keyways
35 Bearings 100
JS Spr, #I 50
JS Spr, 12 25
PW Solid Shafts 1.75' d i r S.i., 12' long, one keyway
PW Drive Spr
Dr. Chain #I
. 140
7s
2s
Dr. Chain I 2 30
Chain Guards 200
PW Bearings 300 Roller bearing, s p l i t housing
PW Coupling 0
Torque L i r it e r 300
Misc. 250
--- ---
TOTAL 6,826 7,897
INSTPilLATIOl (not i n c l r t r u c t u r a l ) 2,764

TOTAL IN8TUED COST

(unit prices have bem adjusted for quantity)
 TABLE 6-1V-1 SETTLING POND HARVEST O P T I O N
1 s t S t a q e Pumps and P i p i n g C o s t s

F o r one h a r v e s t i n g s t a t i o n s e r v i n g 8 g r o w t h ponds ( 6 4 h e c t a r e s ) .
I n c l u d e s 2 s e t t l i n g ponds, one pump s t a t i o n + p i p i n g .
Does n o t i n c l u d e secondary t h i c k e n i n g (see A - f V - 2 ) .

PIPE: A11 p i p e i s " f Q O f t . head" PVC, includes i n s t a l l a t i o n

Pond d r a i n l i n e s
2 2 " d i a X 2300 f t @ $ 2 0 / f t $46,000
Effluent return lines
22" d i a X 1100 f t 4 $ Z O / f t = 22,000
Settling pond s u p e r n a t a n t d r a i n system
16" d i a X 200 f t @ 5 1 2 / f t = 2,400
--

VALVES: A l l v a l v e s a r e l o w head t y p e w i t h epoxy c o a t e d c a s t i r o n

bodies, stainless steel structurals, i n s t a l l e d

Pond D r a i n ( 2 p e r pond)
16 X 22' c a n a l g a t e @ 91200 = 19,200
E f f l u e n t Return
8 X 22" c a n a l g a t e @ 51200 9,600
4 X 18" a d a p t - t o - l i n e g a t e s @ 51500 = 6,000
Check v a l v e s a t pumps 3 @ $600 = 1,800
Air r e l e a s e v a l v e s 10 @ $250 = 2,500

PUMPS: P r i m a r y s u p e r n a t a n t , includes
m o t o r , starter and i n s t a l l a t i o n
3 X 1 2 " v e r t i c a l m i x e d f l o w pumps I $ 9 , 0 0 0 = 27,000

SUMP, w i t h pump s u p p o r t 7,000

FITTINGS and M I S C .

TOTAL COST/HARVESTINO S T A T I O N

TOTAL COST/HECTARE
 TABLE A-IV-2. SETTLING POND HARVESTING OPTION
Secondary T h i c k e n i n g Cost Breakdown

EXCAVATION: 1200 yd3 I $3.00/yd3

CONCRETE ( o r g u n n i t e ) TANK
S t r u c t u r a l 36 yd3 $300/yd3
Slab b o t t o m 38 yd3 @ $100/yd3

CONCRETE ALLEY i n SETTLING POND

PIPING & VALVES ( i n s t a l l e d )

S e t t l i n g pond c o n c e n t r a t e l i n e s
22" d i a . X 00 f t $18/ft
C o n c e n t r a t e v a l v e a t sump ( 2 )
F l u s h system p i p i n g
18' d i a X 1200' @ $ 1 4 / f t
F l u s h system v a l v e s
32 X 15" mud v a l v e s w i t h h . y d r a u l i c a c t u a t o r s
Thickener i n f l u e n t / e f f l u e n t p i p i n g
S u p e r n a t a n t d e c a n t e r and r e t u r n p i p i n g
Concentrate p i p i n g t o c e n t r a l processing
6" d i a X 1000' ( a v e ) @ $ 4 . 0 0 / f t
Flush d i v e r t e r valves

PUflPS ( i n s t a l l e d on s l a b ) .
2O s u p e r n a t a n t , 2 c e n t r i f u g a l s , 500 gpa each
Z0 c o n c e n t r a t e , 2 s o l i d s h a n d l i n g , 300 gpn each
lo c o n c e n t r a t e , 2 s c r e w pumps, 1 5 0 0 ' g p a each

FLUSH SYSTEII CONTROLS

Sequencer and s o l e n o i d s , h y d r a u l i c l i n e s

HISC.

TOTAL COST/HARVEST STATION

 MPENDIX V
CS COVERED LAGOON BIOGAS SYSTEM
FOR ALGAE PROCESSING WASTES

J e f f Chandler
J e f f Chandler + A s s o c i a t e s
1 1 1 4 21st Street
Sacramento, California
(916) 456-0126

The c o v e r e d l a g o o n b i o g a s s y s t e m approach has been Cound wel l -

suited for a v a r i e t y of liquid wastes. For o v e r 13 years laqoone
have been c o v e r e d far ador control or p o t a b l e w a t e r protection.
Biaqas produced by t h e s e first facilities w a s o f t e n viewed as a
p r o c e s s byproduct requiring flaring. However in April o+ 1982,
t h e first covered l a g o o n system designed specifically far

hog farm in C a l i f ornia (Chandler et a1 .

biogas collection and utilization was p l a c e d into operation at a
1983)- For the p a s t
t h r e e y e a r s t h i s system has d e m o n s t r a t e d itself as being
efficient, law cost and easy ta maintain system. Recently a
similar system has been a p p l i e d t o distillery w a s t e s . T h u s the
c o v e r e d lagoan approach a p p e a r s amendable t o a l a r g e variety o f
agr-i cc11t u r a l and i n d u s t r i a1 l i q u i d wastes.
C o v e r e d lagoons are t y p i c a L l y large unheated b a s i n s u s i n g
floating rubber-like membrane c o v e r s . They h a v e been i o u n d to b e
very efficient at converting wastes to b i o g a s at temperatures as
low as 36:) d e g r e e s f a h u e n h e i t . Covered lagoons are s t t i t a b l e f o r
ambient temperature waste s t r e a m s in mild climate regions at t h e
U.S.. Since algae production facilities m u s t also b e l o c a t e d i n
w a r m regions, it appears that converting algae processing wastes
to biogas using the c o v e r e d l a g o o n approach holds p r o m i s e .
In this r e p a r t a c o v e r e d lagoon biogas system for processing
~ a ~ a s t efsr o m a 1000 acre algae production facility is e x a m i n e d .
'l"t-\i s d c s i . qn uses t h e m a s t current i n - f c r m a t i o n and e:-:perie n c e
t r o m o t h e r waste streams. This is a preliminary analysis and
f c t r t h e r worl:: 1s necessary to verify t h e feasibility o f the
proposed desi gn.

DESIGN PARAMETERS

T h e p r o p o s e d 1OOO acre facility is e x p e c t e d to produce 24,Y90

t o n s - o f processing waste volatile solids ( V S ) annually. The
waste s t r e a m as-produced is 13 to 20 p e r c e n t total sol i d s ITS! of
w h i c h 83 p e r c e n t a r e VS. I t h a s been assumed t h a t 5,124 t o n s o f
V S are produced each month during a 6 month s u m m e r per-iod (1.5
times! annual m o n t h l y a v e r a q e ) and 1,041 t a n s of V S a r e p r o d u c e d
 l o a d d u r i n g t h e summer months w h i l e ? n l y une u n i t w i l l b e
@per-ational d u r i n g t h e wint.er. Each u n i t w i l l be equipped w i t h a
act.towla.tic t r a c k i n s d e v i c e w h i c h w i 11 match gen-set ocltput t o
bioqas a v a i l a b i l i t y . These u n i t s a r e i n t e n d e d t o be o p e r a t e d
under l e a n b u r n c o n d i t i o n s i a i r ; f u e l = -iO/l) inorder t h a t a i r
e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s can b e rnet w i t h o u t c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s . Each
u n i t w i l l have i t s own h e a t r e j e c t i o n system. B o t h gen-set and
h e a t r e j e c t i o n system w i l l b e t r a i l e r mounted by t h e system
d e s i g n e r and d e l i v e r e d t o t h e s i t e as a t u r n k e y system. A l l
t h r e e gen-sets w i l l f e e d power- t o a s i n g l e s u b s t a t i o n .

DESIGN COS'T'

T a b l e 5 pr-esents t h e e s t i m a t e d i n s t a l l e d c o s t o f t h e c o v e r e d
l a g o o n system. The p r e p a r a t i o n and s t o r a g e b a s i n i n t e n d e d t o
have n e a r - v e r t i c a l g u n i t e w a l l s i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e u s e o f
p o u r e d - i n - p l ace c o n c r e t e . The c o v e r e d 1agoons rvere assumed n o t
t o need a b o t t o m l i n e r . S t a n d a r d 45 m i l 5 p l y Hvpalon i s
s p e c i f i e d f o r t h f~ l . o a t i n q c @ v e r s . 'The t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c o s t f o r
t h e co.k,cred 1agoon system in c l u d i n q 15 percent- c o n t i n g e n c y and 2(.!
p e r c e n t e n q i n e e i r i n q .fee i s .614,C!OC!.
T a b l e b shows. tt-te turnl::e\,?'=.yst~.rnc o s t s f o r t h e Z; MW gen-set
system. 'lhese c o s t s were quoted by a colnmercial system
+&br.icat.or. w i tt.) p r e v i o u s e:.:perience p a c k a g i n g megawatt-size qen-
set: systems. 'f'he t o t a l t.urnl::ey c o s t i ~ .
$8,20r:),<i)00',,

DESlGN ECONOMICS

Fable 7 p r e s e n t s a economic surlimary f o r t h e 3 MW covered l a g o o n

b i o q a s e,ystem. The t o t a l c a p i t a l c c ~ s thas been e s t i m a t e d a t
.f3,814,(3OC!. Gross e 1 e c t . r - i c i t v r e v e n u e has been e s t i m a t e d t o
exceed 81,00i?,(:)00 a n n u a l l v . Net e l e c t r i c i t y revenue i s e:.:pected
tln c:.:ceed $745,0i:)C) and rrst..!lt i n l e s s t h a n a 5 year pavbacl::.
It s h o u l d be a g a i n n o t e d t h a t t h e system d e s c r i b e d was s i r e d t o
accornodate t:.he ma:.: j. ml-tm' sunirner p r o c e s s i nq waste p r o d u c t i o n 1eve1 .
T h i s t o sotne d e ~ r - e ehas ad\:,erselv [email protected] system economics
Gei:a~.tse o f t h e d r a s t i c se3.cc1nal v a r i a t l o r i i n p r o c e s ~ i n qwac.te
prc:lcl~-rctian. F r ~ rexample., t h e '3 MW system h a g a v e r y l o w
inc5tal l e d cost. o t :f 1 ,2?ii.il::!r.j. l t rA$a.atep r o d c ! c t i o n c o u l d o f been
ma]. n t i a i ned a t scrmtrrer cortdi t ion 1 e.*el s year- r-crund, t h e svstem
wn!-rlcl p ~ s c i b l ypay t o r i t c ~ l t1.n l e s s t h a n 3 %,!ears.
l ' h i c s i m p l e a n a l y s i c a c c n i ~ n t so n i y f o r t.he e l e c t r i c i t v d e r i v e d
revent..!c pr-c~dr.~.ced b y t h e cystem. i)b..v:iously t h e e,\;r;tem
accompl i shes some wastc tr-eatment and d i s p o s a l benef it . I t was
?.scucr~cdt h a t tt-tc tnarl:et ,./ali.te o f s o l i d5 removed t r o m t h e lagoon=
a.nd d r i e d o n l y equal t h e i r - h a n d l i n g c o s t s . F u r t h e r m o r e no c r e d i t
t ~ a cb c ~ r i+:alien tor- t h e geri-set. t- e c o v c r a b l e w a 5 t . e h e a t . 'Thus t h e
' d e c c r i bed Co\cered l a q o o n b i o q a c svst.em cov.ld b c b e n e f i c i a l i n
sever-al ways t o t . 1 . 1 li)(X) ~ a c r e al.sae p r o d u c t i o r i f a c i 1it v .
each month d t . { r i n g t h e 6 month winter period 0'').9 t i m e s a n n u a l
monthly a v e r a g e i . T h i s results i n a three-fold seasonal
variation in waste stream p r o d u c t i o n . It was assumed .for t h i s
d e s i g n that conv;rsion and t r e a t m e n t o f a1 1 o f t h e processing
wastes y e a r r o u n d i s desirable thus l a g o o n s and e n g i n e g e n e r a t o r s
( q e n - s e t s ) were s i r e d t o accomadate summer production l eve1 s.
Table 1 . p r e s e n t s i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n parameters f o r s i z i n g t h e
covered lagoons. It h a s b e e n assumed t h a t t h e p r o c e s s i n g waste
stream w i l l r e q u i r e dilution t o 7 percent T S p r i m a r i l y d u e t o
i t ' s h i g h s a l t content, A t ~ i q hloading r a t e 0.f 70 ltts/l00(:) cu f t
- d a y w a s assumed. T h i s loading r a t e has been employed w i t h
d i s t i l l e r y wastes with l o w pH ( 4 or below). This i s c o n s i d e r e d
satisfactory g i v e n t h e long resultins hvdraulic r e t e n t i o n t i m e
(HWT'? of 50 days and t h e n e a r n u e t r a l pH oS t h r w a s t e stream. In
total , o v e r 23 m i l l i o n gal 1013s o f c o v r r e d 1 agoon v o l u m r i s
required.
Table 2 presents t h e e s t i m a t e d methane and biogas y i e l d f r o m
algae p r a c ~ s s i n gwastes., I t has been assumed t h a t algae
p r o c e s s i n g w i l l p r o d u c e a r e a d i l v d e g r a d a b l e waste stream. k
v o l z t t i le sol i d s destruction e f . + i c i e n c y o f 65 percent h a s been
a s ~ u m e d . The h i g h m e t h a n e and b i o q a s y i e l d s shown a r e assumed t o
b e a c h i e v a b l e y e a r round. Any r e d u c t i o n i n biogas prcsdcrction d u e
t o decreased w i n t e r l a g o a n temperatures should mare t h a n b e
compensated by v e r y l o n g w i n t e r HRT's o f o v e r 150 days.
' T a b l e 3 shows the estimated s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r average daily -
b i a q a s and e l e c t r i c i t y p r o d u c t i o n . O v e r 1.6 m i l l i - o n s t a n d a r d
c t ~ b i cf e e t ( S C F ) o f biogas will b e p r o d u c e d d u r i n g summer month.;
w h i l a only r:).5 million SCF is w p e c t e d d u r i n q w i n t e r months.
Summer- and w i n t e r e l e c t r i c i t y p r o d u c t i o n capacities are 297-(3 and
990 I z W r e s p e c t i v c l y .
T a b l e 4 p r e s e n t s a annual e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n s u m m a r y + o r t h e
covered lagoon s y s t c m . a l m o s t 373 m i l l i o n SCF o f b i a g a s
e q u i v a l e n t to 2.2 million t h e r m s o f natural g a s w i l l b e p r a d u c ~ d
anncrally. A t o t a l o.f 15.9 million kwh is expected t o b e prodttce.
t 3 e c o v e r a b l e w a s t e h e a t f rorn t h e qen-sets c a n r a n q e f.ran~brJ,5(:)t:) to
103 ,1r:)O mrrrtiT!J a n n u a l l y .

F i c j c r r ~ !1 present.; a bloci:: diaqram o f t h e 3 MW r a p a c i t y c o v e r e d

l a g o o n biogas system. 'The s y s t e r n c = a n r = , i s t so f a I lC),!:)OC) g a l I o n
waste p r e p a r a t i o n a n d storage basin w h e r e t h e as-recieved
p r o c e s s i n g waste i s diluted t o 7 percent T S . The diluted w a s t e
i s then pumped to thr-ee B million gallon c a p a c i t y lagaans
o p e r a t e d i n parallel. Each l a g o o n has a p p r o , : i m a t e l . y 50,00C) sq t b
of. :Liquid s c r r f a c e area. Liquid l a g o o n effluent i s t o b e r-etcrrned
ta t h e a l q a e p r o d u c t i o n ponds a s a n u t r i e n t s u p p i e m e n t w h i l e
solids will p e r i o d i c a l l y b e pumped f r o m t h e bot.tom o f each lagoon
arrd under-ga f u r t h e r 1 i q u i d s o l i d s separation i n sand d r y i ng b e d s .
Assuminq less than 12 percent of i n f l o w TS will reach t h e b o t t o m
and u s i n g a s t a n d a r d l o a d i n g r a t e uf 22 l b / s q f . t - y r (U.S.E.P.A.,
1 9 7 4 ? , 8 a c r e s uf s a n d d r y i n g b e d s h a v e b e e n s p e c i f i e d .
T h e biogas p r o d u c e d will b e r-emovsd from t h e l a g o o n s b y s u c t i o n
b l o ~ . ~ and - r ~"tsedt o d i r - e c t l y t c . t r l 3 - 1 MW t u r b o c h a r g e d gen-set.;.
I t . i s a n t i c i p a t e d t . h a t all t h r e e u n i t s will b e o p e r a t e d near- f u l l
 TABLE 1

COVERED LAGOON S Y S T E M D E S I G N F'AHAMETERS

B A S E D O N SUMMER PRODUCTION L E V E L S

D a i l y TS P r o d u c t i o n : 251,000 l b

D a i l y US P r o d u c t i o n : 2t:)a,250 i b

I n f l u e n t TS Content: 7%

D a i l y Flow: 432,000 g a l

L o a d i n g Hate: 70 l b vs/l(:)t:)i) c u ft-day

T o t a l Lagoon Volume R e q u i r e d : C million gal

~..T- , . 9

H y d r a u l i c R e t e n t i o n Time: 52 d a y s

TABLE 2

ALGAE P O R C E S S I N G WAS'TE METHANE ANE BIOGAS Y I E L D

VS D e s t r u c t i o n : 652

COD/VS ( 1 ): 1.25

Methane C o n t e n t (1) : 60%

Metilane Y i e l d : 4 . 8 3 SCF'ilb VS a d d e d

Eiogas Yield: 8.04 S L F f lb V S added

1. Adapted f r o m : J e w e l 1 and S c h r a a . 1981

 SCIMMEF;: CANU Ill I N'I Eb: 4AVF:AGE. D A I L Y E( I OGAS
A N i j ELEC'TF: I C I 'I"''/ PHODUC'T I ON

Winter
------

E1ec. Prod. (C::Llh.!'ht-3 ( 1 : ' :

--.
../ f. ,2 5 (1) T -7
A .-v , z,[I)
;j

Ave. Capacity ( P : W . / ' h r ) : 97!:1 Qg (

:!

1: 23.5 SCF/kWh average c o n v e r s i o n efficiency assurncd

1: 334 d a - ; + ~ s / yprr o d u c t i o n
L: "F'at-a1 U l l ! t;'rodtrct.ior-I
,:. : $.+s,
.7
5 5 .l+<:,ic-l(l~ 7 t.1 1.: b.1t.j
dl, : f 2 ~ci.t.l.iTit3 5 bkf\;:Q? l.j f'!..) I::
,I' bll-\
 'TABLE 5

EST' IMA'1 ED COVERED LAGOON SYSTEM INSTALLED COST

I. P r e p a r a t i o n S( S t o r a g e P i t
I . 11(:),0(:)(:! q a l G u n i t e B a s i n (3 $(:).3'.;5iqal: 38 ,5(:!0
-. Pump System: 17 ,~QI.!
3. Plumbing 8< C o n t r o l s : 2 5 ,(1)(1)i:)
4. Misc. 12 ,!:c i:I):!
-------
Scl.btota1 : = 3i,I:)C)

5. C o n t i n g e n c y i15%):

'Total Fi:

11. Covered Lagoons

1. 3 - = -
,..l!-),<-)c;ri:! sq + t c o v e r s @ $2.35/c,q st: 7 c -',a
.-t d- , c - -
.J(-) t-)
2 . E;.:ca.,-~at ion 85,875 y d s @ $ 2 . 2 5 j y d : 193 2(:,rI)
3. Compaction 21,s(;)(:! y d s @ $3.(;)(:)/yd: 6 3 ,9 (Ir:)
!
4. Lagoon S o l i d s Plumbing: 77
-8,4(:)!:)
L
.

5. S o l i d s D r y i n g 8 ac @ 621,750iac: 174 ,Oi!i:!

6. Gas 'rake-of f s and Seals: 2 1 ,[:!t:!!:l
7. Gas H a n d l i n g ZC, Scrcrbbinq: 1 5 (3 ,(I! (I1!;)
8. Misc.: 9{:! ,t::!<:it:j
---------
1 ,<I!?: 7 , !I
i.) I
:!

4. Contingency (15%!:

Total tc:

' T o t a l C?r+B:

111. E17~gi1-1eerinq
<2<:!X!:

I ' o t a l I n s t - a l led i . o c t ::
 13 Mbtl GEN-SE'I' TCfRNk::EY SYSTEM CDS'T'S

3 -- 1 MW T u r b o c h a r q e d G e n - s e t s
trai lcr-mounted:

3 - H e a t Rejection Systems: 225 ,1:33!:)

i - Substation: 175, tjol:,,

1 - U t i l i t v Wetering Package:

'l o t a l :

1 : C'jssumec Lamb i r'tcd I - . r o d u c t i on P,: L'apac i t y Ca 3.C'- (:~65/'

k14t-1
2 : C3 & P( E s t i m a t e d @ $t).c)18.iC:Wh
2 : i4scurncc I@,!:.'. I l ' L tat::cri and s u b t r a c t e d f r o m installed c o s t
2 . C:hand:L~~~-
d. 5 . 3 . Her-me=, I.::. D. S m i t h " A L o w C o s t 75i::N
i',. ?

t?o\ietr-ed Lagoon Hi ogas S y s t e m " Faper p r e s e n t e d at ENEF:G"< FROPI

fillZlMfiSS AtJ1.j WhS-IES '911, La!::@ B u a n a ' $ i s t e a , F . l o r . i d a J a n ~ t a r y ,?f 148::

2. 1 i . Schraa "Microalqac S e p a r a t i o n , C c s r ~ c e n t r a . t i o r i ,
:

(2nd Convpr-(==,iar.l 1 ~ :I=uel

t M i t t 1 A r i C i n a c r u b i c E:.:parrded B e d F;:eactclr"
[JSpaE F i n a l f i e p o r t #,~i3-9-l2--b:.-l-.3 J u l yi; 14131
 Table AVI-la C a p i t a l C o s t Summary - Base Case

Basis: 112 m t a l g a e / h o / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL $ $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks* $4,102,083 $21,365
Walls & Structural 3,360,763 17,504
N i x i n g System 1,991,083 10,370
C a r b o n a t i o n System 740,667 3,858
Instrumentation n o t included elsewhere 202,368 1,054

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary** 3,027,088 15,766
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 1,602,080 8,344

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System
B l o n d o n n D i s p o s a r System*
B u i l d i n g s (harv. b l d r . n o t included)
Roads b d r a i n a g e *
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n ( 3 %o f above)
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING ( 1 0 % o f a b o v e ) * 1,896,475 9,877

CONTINGENCY ( 15X o f above) * 3,129,104 16,298

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e I *

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $13,939,587 $72,602

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,062,662 $57,618

Notesr

* non-depreciable i t e m
** p a r t i a l l y non-depr, ($373,000)
112 r t / h a / y r = 30 g/m2/day
Land a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-lb Operating Costs - Base Case
Basi s: 112.3 m t algae/ha/yr
(30 gm/sq m/day)

UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

COST

kg/kg
NUTRIENTS ( 1 ) -----
4202 2.2
N, as NH3 0.053
P, as Superphosphate 0.005
Fe, as FeSO4 0,005

Total

FLOCCULCINT

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Suppl y
Nutrient Supply
Bui 1 d i n g s

SALT DISPOSfiL

MAINTANENCE ( m a t l r s )

TOTAL

( 1 ) kg/kg = kg required / kg algae produced

 T a b l e AVI-2a C a p i t a l C o s t Summary - Base Case + N u t r i e n t Recycle

Basis: 112 m t a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL S
GROWTH PONDS -------
Earthworks (1) $4,102,083
Walls k S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763
M i x i n g System 1,991,083
C a r b o n a t i o n System 740,667
Instrumentation n o t included elsewhere 202,368

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary (2) 3,027,088
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 1,602 080,
ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM
Depreciable Capital
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System
Blowdown D i s p o s a l System ( 1 )
B u i l d i n g s (harv. blds, not included)
Roads b d r a i n a g e ( 1 )
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n ( 3 % o f above)
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING ( 1 0 % o f above) ( 1 ) 2,016,985

CONTINGENCY ( 1 5 % o f above) ( 1 ) 3,328,023

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 ! 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 ) 1,011,840

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,427,334 $39,517

('1) n o n - d e p r e c i a b l e itern
( 2 ) p a t r i a l l y non-depr, ($373,000)
(3) f i r s b i d f o r turnkey eystea -
enqr. & c o n t i n g e n c y n o t r e q u i r e d
112 m t / h a / y r = 3 0 g/mZ/day
Land a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-3a Capital Cost Summary - 0.5 x Prod. + Recycle

Basis: 56.2 m t algae/ha/yr

1000 acres
TOTAL $ $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks ( 1 ) $4,102,003 $21,365
Walls & Structural 3,360,763 17,504
M i x i n g System 1,991,083 10,370
Carbonation System 457,073 2,381
Instrumentation not included elsewhere 202,360 1,054

HARVESTINO - Settling Pond Option

Primary (2) 3,027,008 15,766
Secondary (centrifugation) 988,660 5,149

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital
Non-depreciable Capital

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water Supply 1,391,200
Water Distribution 398,412
CO2 Distribution 65,043
Nutrient Supply System 316,200
Blowdown Disposal System ( 1 ) 337,200
Buildings (harv, blds, not included) 23 1,880
Roads & drainage ( 1 ) 210,000
Electrical Distribution (3% of above) 529,950
Electrical Supply 230,204
Machinery 168,640

ENGINEERING (10% of above) ( 1 ) 1,860,101 9,680

CONTINGENCY (15% of above) ( 1 ) 3,069,299 15,986

LAND COSTS ($1250/hectare) ( 1 1,011,040 5,270

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR (3)

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $14,566,771 $75,869

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $10,820,503 $56,357

( 1 ) non-depreciable item
(2) patrially non-depr. ($375,000)
( 3 ) firm b i d for turnkey system-engr, & contingency not required
112 mtlhalyr = 30 g/m2/day
Land area = 2 x growth pond area
 Table AVI-3b Operating Costs - .SxProd. + Recycle

Basis:

QUAN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ' D COST
1000 ac
kg / kg $/mt $/ha/yr 8/yr
NUTRIENTS ( 1 ) -----
C02 1.6
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0,0025
Fe, as FeSO4 0.005

Total

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
Nutrient Supply
Bui 1dings

Total
E l e c t . Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)
LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg required / k g algae produced

199
 T a b l e AVI-4a C a p i t a l Cost Summary - 0.67 x Prod. + R e c y c l e

B a s i s: 75 m t a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL $ $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks ( 1 ) $4,102,083 $21,365
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763 17,504
M i x i n g System 1,991,083 10,370
C a r b o n a t i o n System 560,646 2,920
Instrumentation not included al~ewhere 202,368 1,054

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary (2) 3,027,088 15,766
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 1,212,690 6,316

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital 527,558 2,748
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l 256,342 1,335

SYSTEH-WIDE COSTS
Water Supply 1,391,280
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n 398,412
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n 79,782
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System 316,200
Blondown D i s p o e a l System ( 1 337,280
B u i l d i n g s (harv. blds, n o t included) 231,880
Roads & d r a i n a g e ( 1 ) 210,800
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n ( 3 % o f above) 546,188
E l e c t r i c a l Supply 238,204
Machinery 168,640

ENGINEERING (10% o f above) ( 1 ) 1,915,929 9,979

CONTINGENCY (15% o f above) ( 1 ) 3,161,283 16,465

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 O / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 ) 1,011,040 5,270

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $15,293,753 $79,655

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,033,277 $57,465

(1) non-depreciable i t e m
( 2 ) p a t r i a l l y non-depr, ($375,000)
( 3 ) f i r m b i d f o r t u r n k e y system -
engr. & c o n t i n g e n c y n o t r e q u i r e d
112 m t / h a / y r 30 g/m2/day
Land a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-4b O p e r a t i n g Casts - .&7xProd. + Recycle

Basi s: 75 rnt algae/ha/yr

( 2 0 gm/sq m/day)

UNIT YEARLY COST, Thausands

COST

kg/kg
NUTRIENTS >
(1 -----
C02 1.6
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025
Fe, as FeS04 0.005

Total

FLOCCULANT 0,002 5000 $0.75 303

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
Nutrient Supply
Bui 1dings

Total
E l e c t . Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)

LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg required / kg algae produced

201
 T a b l e AVI-5a C a p i t a l C o s t Summary - 1.5 x Prod. + Recycle
Basis: 168 m t a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks (1) $4,102,083 $21,365
W a l l s 81 S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763 17,504
H i x i ng System 1,991,083 10,370
C a r b o n a t i o n System 985,590 5,133
Instrumentation not included elsewhere 202,360 1,054

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary (2) 3,027,088 15,766
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 2,131,873 11,104

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l

SYSTEM-#IDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System
B l owdown D i s p o s a l System ( 1 )
B u i l d i n g s (harv. blds. not included)
Roads & d r a i n a g e ( 1 )
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n (3% o f above)
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING 110% o f above) ( 1 ) 2,160,627 11,253

CONTINGENCY ( 1 5 % o f above) ( 1 ) 3,565,034 18,560

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) (1) 1,011,040 5,270

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $19,644,484 $102,315

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,999,204 $b2,496

(1) ,non-depreciable i t e m
(-2) p a t r i a l l y non-depr. ($375,000)
( 3 ) firm b i d f o r t u r n k e y system -
enpr. & c o n t i n g e n c y n o t r e q u i r e d
112 m t / h a / y r 1 30 g/m2/day
Land a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-Sb Operating Casts - 1.SxProd. + Recycle
Basis: 168.4 m t a1 gae/ha/yr
(45 gm/sq m/day)

UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

COST

kg/kg
NUTRIENTS ( 1 ) -----
C02 1.b
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025
Fe, as FeS04 0.005

Total

FLOCCULANT 0.Qb2 5000 $1.68 680

POWER
Mixing
i Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
Nutrient Supply
Bui 1dings

Total
E l e c t , Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)
LABOR

(1) k g / k g = kg required / kg algae produced

 T a b l e AVI-6a C a p i t a l Cost Summary - 2.0 x Prod. + R e c y c l e

Basis: 225 a t a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL $ $/HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS ------- ---------
Earthworks ( 1 ) $4,102,083 $21,365
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763 17,904
M i x i n g System 1,991,083 10,370
C a r b o n a t i o n System 1,205,472 6,279
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n n o t i n c l u d e d elsewhere 202,368 1,054

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary (2) 3,027,088 15,766
Sacondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 2,607,465 13,581

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water Supply
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
N u t r i e n t S u p p l y System
B l owdown D i s p o s a l System ( 1)
B u i l d i n g s (harv. blds. n o t included)
Roads & d r a i n a g e ( 1 )
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n ( 3 % o f above)
E l e c t r i c a l Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING (10% o f above) ( 1 ) ,

2 ,295 737 11,957

CONTINGENCY (19% o f above) ( 1 ) 3,787,967 19,729

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 ) 1,011,840 5,270

ELECTRICAL BENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $21,904,291 $114,085

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $12,548,620 $65,357

(1) n o n - d e p r e c i a b l e i t e m
( 2 ) p a t t i a l l y non-depr, ($375,000)
( 3 ) f i r m b i d f o r t u r n k e y system - engr. & contingency n o t r e q u i r e d
112 m t l h a l y r = 30 g/m2/day
Land a r e a 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-6b Operating Costs - 2xProd. + Recycle
Basi s: 224.6 m t a1 gae/ha/yr
(60 gm/sq m/day)

WAN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ' D COST

kg/kg
NUTRIENTS ( 1) -----
COZ 1.6
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025
Fe, as FeS04 0,005

Total

FLOCCULANT 0.002 SO00 $2.25 907

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Suppl y
N u t r i e n t Supply
Bui 1d i n g s

Total
E l e c t . Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)
LABOR

(1) kg/kg = kg r e q u i r e d / kg algae p r o d u c e d

205
 T a b l e AVI-7a C a p i t a l Cost Summary - F r e e C02 + R e c y c l e

Basis; 112 s t a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL $
GROWTH PONDS -------
Earthworks (1) $4,102,083
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763
M i x i n g System 1,991,083
C a r b o n a t i o n System 742,055
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n n o t i n c l u d e d elsewhere ,
202 368

HARVESTING -
S e t t l i n g Pond O p t i o n
Primary (2) 3,027,088
Secondary ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ) 1,605,083

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l

SYSTEH-WIDE COSTS
Water Supply 1,391,280
Water D i s t r i b u t i o n 398,412
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n 105,598
N u t r i e n t Supply System 316,200
B l owdown D i s p o s a l System ( 1) 337,280
B u i l d i n g s (harv, blds. n o t included) 231,880
Roads & d r a i n a g e ( 1 ) 210,800
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n ( 3 % o f above) 575,759
E l e c t r i c a l Supply 238,204
Machinery 168,640

ENGINEERING (10% o f above) ( 1 ) 2,017,458

CONTINGENCY (15% o f above) ( 1 ) 3,328,805

LAND COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 ) 1,011,840

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST $28,732,600 $149,649

DEPRECIABLE PORTION $17,304,093 $90,125

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,428,586 $59,524

C l ) non-depreciable i t e r
( 2 ) p a t r i a l l y non-depr. ($375,000)
( 3 ) f i r m b i d f o r t u r n k e y system -
enqr. b c o n t i n g e n c y n o t r e q u i r e d
112 n t / h a / y r = 30 g l m 2 l d a y
Land a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-7C Operating Costs - Free C02 + Recycle

Basis: 112.5 mt algae/ha/yr

(30 grn/sq m/day)

QUAN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ' D COST
lOOCI at
kg/kg $/mt $/ha/yr $/yr
NUTRIENTS ( 1) dm--- ---- ------- -------
COT! 1.6 0 $0.00 $0
N, as NH3 0.013 250 0.37 151
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025 900 0.25 102
Fe, as FeS04 0.005 500 0.28 113
------ ---------
Total $0.91 $366

FLOCCULANT

c/ kwh
POWER em---

Mixing 6.5
1 Harvesting 6.5
2 Harvesting 6.5
Water Supply 6.5
Nutrient Supply tr. 5
Bui 1d i n g s 6.5

Total
Elect. Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)
LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kq = kg required / kg algae produced

 Table AVI+b Operating Costs - $70/mt C02 + Recycle
Basis: 112.3 m t a1gae/ha/yr
(30 gm/sq m/day)

WAN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ'D - COST
1000 ac
kg/kg $/mt $/ha/yr $/yr
NUTRIENTS ( 1 ----- ---- ------- -------
C02 1.6 70 $12.58 65,08 1
N, as NH3 0.013 250 0.37 151
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025 900 0.25 102
Fe, as FeS04 0.005 500 0.28 113
------ ---------
Total $13.48 65,448

FLOCCULCINT 0.002 5000 $1.12 454

10 kwh/yr
POWER ---------
Mixing 4.34
1 Harvesting 0.72
2 Harvesting 2.31
Water Supply 3.53
N u t r i e n t Supply 0.22
Bui 1 dings 0.42
-----
Total 11.55
E l ec t . Produced -15.87
----- 6.5

-4.32

kg/kg c/kg
SALT DISPOSAL ----- ----
1.5 0.67

MAINTANENCE (matl's)

LABOR

1OTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg r e q u i r e d / kg algae produced

208
 Table A V I - 9a C a p i t a i Cost S u m m a r y - 20X L i p i d C o n t e n t + R e c y c l e

Basis: 112 mt a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTPlL $
GROWTH PONDS _ _ - I _ _ -

Earthworks ( 1 ) $4,1029083
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l 3,360,763
Hi x i n g System 1,991,083
Carbonation System 742,055
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n not i n c l u d e d e l s e w h e r e 202,360

HARVESTING -
Settling Pond Option
Primary (2) 3,027,088
Secondary (centrifugation) 1,605,083

4 N A E R O B I C LAGOON SYSTEM
D e p r e c i a b l e Capital
Nan-depreciable Capital

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water Distribution
C02 D i s t r i b u t i o n
Nutrient Supply System
01 a n d o w n Di s p u s a l S y s t e m ( 1
B u i l d i n g s ( h a r v , blds. not i n c l u d e d )
Roads & d r a i n a g e ( 1 )
E l e c t r i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n (3X o f a b o v e )
Electrical Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING (10X o + a b o v e ) ( 1 ) 2,089,764

CONTINGENCY 115% o f a b o v e ) ( 1 ) 3,448,110

L A N D COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 1 1,011,840

ELECTRICAL GENERhTOR ( 3 )

T O T A L C A P I T A L COST
-
DEPRECIABLE P O R T I O N 519,117,593

N O N DEPRECIABLE P O R T I O N $11,049,757

( . I ) n o n - d e p r e c i a b l e item
( 2 ) p a t r i a l l y non-depr. ($375,000)
13) f i r m b i d for t u r n k e y r y s t e a -
engr. & c o n t i n g e n c y n0.t r e q u i r e d
112 m t / h a / y r 3 30 g / m 2 / d a y
Land a r e a 1 2 x g r a w t h pond a r e a
 Table AVI-9b Operating Costs - 20X L i p i d Content + Recycle

Basis:

QUAN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ' D COST

NUTR IENTS ( 11 -----

C02 0.9
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025
Fe, as FeS04 0.005

Total

FLOCCULANT 0.002 5000 $1.12 454

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
N u t r i e n t Supply
Bui 1 dings

Total
Elect. Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (matl's)

LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg required / kg algae produced

210
 T a b l e IVI-101 C a p i t a l Cost Summary - 30% L i p i d Content + R e c y c l e

B a s i s: 112 w t algae/ha/yr

1000 acres
TOTAL $ S/HECTPIRE
GROWTH PONDS -I.(ll--= -----...---
Earthworks (1) $4,102,083 $21,365
W a l l s & Structural 3 ,360,763 17,504
M i x i n g System 1,991,083 10,370
Carbonation System 742,055 3,869
Instrumentation not i n c l u d e d e l s e w h e r e 202,368 1,054

HARVESTING -Settling Pond O p t i o n

Primary ( 2 ) 3,027,088 15,766
Secondary (centrifugation) 1,605,083 8,360

A N A E R O B I C LAGOON SYSTEM
Depreciable C a p i t a l
Non-depreciable Capital

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water Distribution
C02 Di str i but i on
Nutrient Supply System
01 owdawn Disposal System ( 1 )
Buildings ( h a r v . b l d s , not included)
Roads & drainage ( 1 )
E l e c t r i c a l Distribution ( 3 % o f above)
Electrical Supply
Machinery

ENGINEERING (10% of a b o v e ) ( 1 )

CONTINGENCY (13% o f above) ( 1 ) 3,408,342 17,752

LAND COSTS ($1250/hectare) ( 1 ) 1,011,840 5,270

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOTAL CAPITAL COST

DEPRECIABLE PORTION
N O N DEPRECIABLE P O R T I O N $11,709,367 $60,906

(-1 n o n - d e p r e c i a b l e i tern
( 2 ) p a t r i a l l y non-depr. ($373,000)
( 3 ) firm b i d for turnkey s y g t e m - engr. & contingency not required
112 m t / h a / y r = 30 g l m 2 l d a y
Land a r e a = 2 x growth pond area
 Table AVI-lob Operating Costs - 30% L i p i d Content + Recycle

Basis: 112.3 m t algae/ha/yr

(30 gm/sq m/day)

QUClN UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

REQ' D COST

kg/kg
NUTRIENTS (1) -----
C02 1.1
N, as NH3 0.013
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025
Fe, as FeS04 0.005

Total

FLOCCULANT 0.002 5000 81.12 454

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
N u t r i e n t Supply
Bui 1dings

Total
~lect . Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MA INTANENCE (mat 1 ' s 2.32 939

LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg r e q u i r e d / kg algae produced

 T a b l e AVI-lla C a p i t a l Cost Summary - 40% L i p i d C o n t e n t + R e c y c l e

Basis: 112 mt a l g a e / h a / y r

1000 a c r e s
TOTAL O $ 1 HECTARE
GROWTH PONDS I--..)---
--..l--.----

Earthworks ( 1 ) $4,102,083
Walls & S t r u c t u r a l ,
3 360 763 ,
M i x i n g System 1,991,003
C a r b o n a t i o n System 742,055
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n n o t i n c l u d e d elsewhere 202,368

HARVESTING - Settling Pond O p t i o n

Primary ( 2 ) 3,027,088
S e c o n d a r y (centrifugation) 1,605,085

ANAEROBIC LAGOON SYSTEM

Depreciable Capital 944,800
Non-depreciable C a p i t a l 459,120

SYSTEM-WIDE COSTS
Water S u p p l y
Water Distribution
C02 Distribution
Nutrient S u p p l y System
B l owdown Disposal System ( 11
Buildings ( h a r v . blds. n o t included)
R ~ a d s& d r a i n a g e ( 1 )
Electrical Distribution ( 3 %o f above)
Electrical S u p p l y
Machinery

ENGINEERING ( 1 0 % o f a b o v e ) ( 1 ) 2,041,560

CONTINGENCY ( 1 5 % o f a b o v e ) ( 1 ) 3,368,573

L 4 N D COSTS ( $ 1 2 5 0 / h e c t a r e ) ( 1 1 1 1 0 11 , 8 4 0

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR ( 3 )

TOThL CAPITAL COST

DEPREClbBLE PORTION

NON DEPRECIABLE PORTION $11,560,977 $60,253

. ( 1 ) non-depreciable item
( 2 ) patrially non-depr. ($375,0001
13) f i r m b i d for t u r n k e y system -
enqr, & contingency. n o t r e q u i r e d
112 m t / h a / y r = 30 g/m2/day
L a n d ' a r e a = 2 x g r o w t h pond area
 Table AVI-1lb Operating Costs - 40% L i p i d Content + Recycle

Basis:

UNIT YEARLY COST, Thousands

COST

kg/kg $/mt
NUTRIENTS ( 1 ----- ----
C02 1-35 35
N, as NH3 0.013 250
P, as Superphosphate 0.0025 900
Fe, as FeS04 0.005 500

Total

FLOCCULANT

POWER
Mixing
1 Harvesting
2 Harvesting
Water Supply
N u t r i e n t Supply
Bui 1dings

Total
E le c t . Produced

SALT DISPOSAL

MAINTANENCE (mat 1' s )

LABOR

TOTAL

(1) kg/kg = kg r e q u i r e d / kg algae produced

214
 I

Document Control 1. SERl Reporr No. 2. NTlS Accession No. 3. Recipient's Accession No.
Page SERI/STR-231-2840
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Publica!ion Date
Design and Analysis of Microalgal Open Pond Systems October 1985
for the Purpose of Producing Fuels

1 7. Author(s) 1 8. Performing Organization Rept. No. ]

J . C . Weissman, R . P. Goebel
9. Perform~ngOrganization Name and Address 10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
Microbial Products, Inc. 4513.10 , I

Fairfield, Calif 11. Contract (C) or Grant (G) No.

12. Sponsorin Crganization Name and Address 13. Type of Report 8, Period Covered
Solar clergy Research I n s t ~ t u t e
A Division of Midwest Research I n s t i t u t e Technical Report
7617 Cole Boulevard 14.
J
Go1 den, Col orado 80401 -3393
15. Supplementary Notes

' Technical Monitor:

' 16.Abstract (Limit: 200 words)
R. McIntosh
The designs a n d systems developed include many innovative con-
cepts and experiments, including the design and operation of a low-cost system.
cost-effectiveness i s real ized by minimizf n g capital costs of the system a n d
achieving e f f i c i e n t use of inputs. Extensive engineering analysis of carbonation,
mixing, and harvesting subsystems has elucidated both the lowest cost, most e f f i -
cient options and the essential parameters needed to construct, t e s t , and evaluate
these subsystems. The use of growth ponds sealed with clay and 1 ined with crushed
rock results in construction cost savings o f 50% over ponds lined with synthetic
membranes. I n addition a low-cost b u t e f f i c i e n t design allows improvments in
technology to have maximum impact on final product cost reductions. I n addition to
the innovations in low-cost construction, the operational efficiency of the design
i s both higher and more feasible than that attained by any previous system concept
of comparable scale. The water chemistry analysis has led t o operational specifi-
cations that minimize water use and virtually eliminate losses o f carbon dioxide t o
the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide injection system i s designed f o r 95% efficiency
b u t i s s t i l l low in cost. The construction of a large-scale, covered anaerobic
lagoon t o recycle carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus has not been attempted a t the
scale analyzed here. Yet e f f i c i e n t recycling i s essential f o r achieving economic
17. Docurent Analysis a f f ordabi 1i ty .
a. Descriptors
Biomass ; Carbon Dioxide ; Cultivation ; Cultivation Techniques ; Ponds ;
Productivity ; Unicellular Algae
b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms

c. UC Categories
61 c

18. Availability Statement 19. No. of Pages

National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce 232

20. Price

All
Form No. 0069 (3-25-82)