SAT GRAMMAR REVIEW

I. Nouns

 Error in subject-verb agreement These errors occur frequently in

 Error in noun agreement Identifying Sentence Errors questions.

The subject is the noun that is “performing” the verb. The verb must agree with the subject in
number. Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.
 Your cat bites me. (singular)
 Your cats bite me. (plural)

Sometimes multiple subjects perform the verb together. This is called a compound subject. A
compound subject is joined together by the word ‘and’, and takes a plural verb.
 Tony and I went to the store.
 Peter Petrelli and Hiro Nakamura travelled together through time.

If the word ‘and’ is not present, you have a subject plus one or multiple tag-alongs. Tag-alongs
often occur with the words and phrases of, in, as well as, with, along with, together with, in addition
to, no less than, rather than, and like. These do not change the relationship between the true subject
and the verb.
 The juice in those bottles has expired.
 The house made of bricks and cement was built by my grandfather.
 Robert along with Hafeez, Michael, and John is going to see the new Judd Apatow movie.
 My mother, like your parents, enjoys gardening.
 The farmer together with the milkman has gone to visit my grandmother.
 Alice as well as Gregory enjoys mathematics.

In addition to subjects, any other corresponding nouns in the sentence must agree in number.
 Parker and Hanley studied hard to become a great lawyer. (incorrect)
 Parker and Hanley studied hard to become great lawyers. (correct)

It is easy to confuse the singular and plural forms of certain nouns. Here are some to keep straight:
Singular  alumni
 alumnus/alumna  antennae
 antenna  criteria
 criterion  data
 datum  phenomenon
Plural  medium

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  millennium  media
 symposium  millennia
 phenomena  symposia

II. Pronouns

 Error in pronoun case

 Error in pronoun-antecedent agreement These errors occur frequently in
 Error in pronoun-verb agreement Identifying Sentence Errors questions.
 Error in pronoun consistency

Pronouns are words that take the place of and refer back to previously mentioned antecedent
nouns. Like their noun counterparts, pronouns can take a subject or object role in the sentence.
Each personal pronoun has a nominative (subject) and objective (object) case.
 She and I went to the store. (nominative)
Nominative Objective
 Jerry took him and me to the dance. (objective)
I me
we us
If you’re unsure, test with a single pronoun.
you you
he him
Who is a subject pronoun, and whom is an object pronoun.
she her
 Who went to the store? (nominative) it it
 Whom did Jerry take to the dance? (objective) they them
who whom
Pronouns that come after a preposition (by, of, for, after, with,
between, except, without, etc.) are considered objects of the preposition and take the objective
case.
 Everyone did well on the exam except him and her.
 Sarah left without John and me.
 Please keep this between you and me.
 By whom was this wonderful short story written?

Constructions with than: whenever a pronoun follows than, it should be in the subjective case. A
following verb is always understood, if not always articulated.
 I am taller than he (is).
 Sarah is better at math than I (am).

Pronouns must agree in number with their antecedents. If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun
must be singular. If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural.
 A student will catch their mistakes if they proofread. (incorrect)

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  A student will catch his or her mistakes if he or she proofreads. (correct)
 Students will catch their mistakes if they proofread. (correct)

Verbs must agree in number with subject pronouns. It is easy to make a mistake with some of the
less basic pronouns. When in a subject position, some of these pronouns always take a singular verb
and others always take a plural verb.
 Each of the apples you bought is bruised. Singular Pronouns
 Everything that my uncle does turns out to be a success. each either
 Neither of the twins knows how to cook. neither someone
 Nobody is at home. anyone everything
 Many are cold, but few are frozen. somebody nobody
anybody everyone
Exception! In neither … nor and either … or constructions, the Plural Pronouns
verb agrees in number with the closest noun or pronoun. many few
 Neither the twins nor Laura was willing to take the blame. several
 Either Mary or her parents are responsible for the flood.

Keep pronouns consistent. Don’t change between “we,” “you,” “they,” “he or she,” and “one” in a
single sentence.
 If one doesn’t study, your grade will drop. (incorrect)
 If one doesn’t study, one’s grade will drop. (correct)

III. Verbs

 Error in verb tense

 Error in verb form or conjugation These errors occur frequently in both
 Misuse of passive voice Identifying Sentence Errors and
 Error in gerund usage Improving Sentences questions.

The tense of a verb indicates when the action of the sentence takes place. Use the present tense
for action that is currently occurring, action that generally occurs, and action that takes place in
literature (novels, movies, comics, short stories, poetry, non-fiction books, etc).
 I always eat breakfast at home.
 In Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth murders Duncan after he hears the prophecy.

There are several ways to indicate action that occurs in the past. Use the regular past tense for
completed actions in the past. Use the imperfect past tense (was + present participle) for actions
that were continuous in the past.

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  I ran.  I was running.
 He drank.  He was drinking.
 She swam.  She was swimming.

Both the regular and imperfect past tense can be combined for actions that were simultaneous in
the past. Connect these with words like as, when, and while.
 I was swimming when my cell phone rang.
 She broke her arm while skating.

The perfect tense (have + past participle)describes an action that you have done in the past, but
are talking about in the present.
 Yes, she has seen that movie.
 I have walked one hundred miles and I will walk one hundred more…

The pluperfect or past perfect tense (had or had been + past participle) describes action that
occurred before another action in the past. Do not leap into the past perfect tense when one of your
actions occurs in the perfect, present, or future tense.
 I will not go with Sohana because I had already seen the movie. (incorrect)
 I didn’t go with Sohana because I had already seen the movie. (correct)
 Chris had already read the book, but he will read it again. (incorrect)
 Chris had already read the book, but he decided to read it again. (correct)

To describe a hypothetical action in the past tense, use would rather than will.
 I knew that I will win the game. (incorrect)
 I knew that I would win the game. (correct)

Use the subjunctive tense (formed by the past tense were) to express wishes, particularly with the
word if.
 If I was you, I would take a vacation. (incorrect)
 If I were you, I would take a vacation. (correct)

Transitive verbs take a direct object. Intransitive verbs take an indirect object or no object at all.
Certain verbs can be both transitive and intransitive without changing form or conjugation:
 I am reading a book. (direct object)  I am reading. (no object)
 He made an error. (direct object)  He made the man cry. (indirect object)

Certain verbs look similar, but have very different forms depending on whether they are transitive
or intransitive. Raise and lay (present tense) take direct objects. Rise and lie do not take direct
objects. However, lay can also be the past tense of lie. The past tense of lay is laid.
 Jill raises her hand.  I lay my coat on the bed.
 They raised their children well.  I laid my coat on the bed.

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  The sun rises in the east.  I think I should lie down.
 The farmers rose at dawn.  I lay down immediately.

The passive voice is not a verb tense but an inverted sentence order. In this construction, the noun
performing the action does not appear in the normal subject position. Passive construction often
leads to wordiness and lack of focus; re-write passive sentences in the active voice.
 Another helping was asked for by my friend. (passive)
 My friend asked for another helping. (active)
 Three finalists for the open position have been selected by the administration. (passive)
 The administration has selected three finalists for the open position. (active)

Gerunds are –ing verb forms that act as nouns. Nouns or pronouns preceding gerunds should be in
the possessive case, as they technically modify the gerund rather than act as a subject to a verb.
Gerunds are required in certain idiomatic phrases.
 He constantly babbling drives me crazy. (incorrect)
 His constant babbling drives me crazy. (correct)
 The tiger growling frightens the small animals. (incorrect)
 The tiger’s growling frightens the small animals. (correct)
 Experts suggest to water your garden later when the sun is less intense. (incorrect)
 Experts suggest watering your garden later when the sun is less intense. (correct)

IV. Sentence Structure and Punctuation

 Sentence fragments
 Run-on sentences These errors occur most frequently in
 Error in conjunction usage Improving Sentences questions.
 Error in punctuation: commas,
semicolons, colons, apostrophes

Clauses come in two forms: independent and dependent. Independent clauses can stand alone as
sentences.
 I saw a movie with Danny.
 We meet for coffee once a week.

Dependent clauses do not stand alone. Instead, they provide extra interest in the sentence.
 After I completed my homework, I saw a movie with Danny.
 In our efforts to be good friends, we meet for coffee once a week.

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A dependent clause on its own is a sentence fragment, and needs to be altered to make a complete
sentence.
 When I finished this slice of pizza. (sentence fragment)
 I finished this slice of pizza. (complete sentence)
 Because I detest Sarah. (sentence fragment)
 Because I detest Sarah, I try to avoid her whenever I can. (complete sentence)

Independent causes can be separated by periods, connected by semicolons, or joined by

coordinating conjunctions. If you try to connect two independent clauses with only a comma, you
have a comma splice. If you try to connect them with nothing, you have a run-on sentence.

 The teacher is very angry I think he is going to call my

Coordinating Conjunctions
friend’s parents. (run-on sentence) and or
 The teacher is very angry; I think he is going to call my but nor
friend’s parents. (correct) so for
 It was a beautiful day outside, I didn’t want to stay in and yet
do homework. (comma splice)
 It was a beautiful day outside, so I didn’t want to stay in and do homework. (correct)
 I finished the slice of pizza, I felt my stomach turn. (comma splice)
 After I finished the slice of pizza, I felt my stomach turn. (correct)

An independent and a dependent clause can be joined together using a subordinating

conjunction. In this construction, one idea depends on the other. Coordination and subordination
test our ability to see logical relationships between ideas. Thus, we
must understand and determine how the ideas in the clauses work Subordinating
together: does one give supporting or contrasting information? Is Conjunctions
after rather than
there a progression in time and sequence? There might be two or
although since
more ways to express the relationship, but often only one will be
as so that
correct, clear, and concise.
as if than
 It was snowing, but I wore my boots. (incorrect)
as long as that
 Because it was snowing, I wore my boots. (correct) as though though
 Henry tried to read War and Peace in the original Russian, because unless
and it was too difficult. (incorrect) before until
 Henry tried to read War and Peace in the original Russian, even if when
but it was too difficult. (correct) even though whenever
 Although Henry tried to read War and Peace in the original if where
Russian, it was too difficult. (correct) if only whereas
in order that wherever
However, consequently, furthermore, therefore, instead, thus, as a now that while
result and similar words are conjunctive adverbs and cannot be once
used in the same way as coordinating or subordinating

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conjunctions. They can be used to introduce an independent clause following a period or a
semicolon. They can also act as interrupters, separated from the main sentence with commas.
 John didn’t read the assigned homework, consequently he failed the exam. (incorrect)
 John didn’t read the assigned homework. Consequently, he failed the exam. (correct)
 We decided not to go out tonight, instead we are going to save our money. (incorrect)
 We decided not to go out tonight; instead, we are going to save our money. (correct)
 Sarah is normally clumsy, however she is a good skater. (incorrect)
 Sarah is normally clumsy; she is, however, a good skater. (correct)

Semi-colons are used in only two contexts: to join two independent clauses with or without a
conjunctive adverb, or to separate very lengthy items in a list. Use a colon to introduce examples or
items in a list.
 Four people worked on the project; only one received credit for it. (correct)
 Victoria was frequently tardy; therefore, she received a low grade. (correct)
 Elaine has three daughters; Amy, Michaela, and Christine. (incorrect)
 Elaine has three daughters: Amy, Michaela, and Christine. (correct)
 Elaine has three daughters: Amy, who is studying law at Harvard; Michaela, who is working
as a masseuse; and Christine, who is still in high school. (correct)

As we have seen, commas are used to join together two clauses with a conjunction. Commas are
also used after introductory phrases and around interrupters (words, phrases, and clauses that
interrupt and are not essential to the core meaning of the sentence). Commas should never come
between a subject and its verb.
 Mary, decided to relax with a good book. (incorrect)
 Mary decided to relax with a good book. (correct)
 After a long day at work, Mary decided to relax with a good book. (correct)
 Mary a paediatrician really enjoys her work. (incorrect)
 Mary, a paediatrician, really enjoys her work. (correct)

Apostrophes are used to form contractions by taking the place of a missing letter or number; to
form plurals of letters, figures, and numbers; and to indicate ownership with an ’s. To form a
possessive for a noun already ending in s, add ’s if the noun is singular; add only an apostrophe if
the noun is plural. Keep in mind that not all plural nouns end in s. Show possession in the last word
for names of organizations and businesses, for hyphenated words, and for cases of joint ownership.
 We’re going out of town next week. (contraction)
 My husband was in the class of ’89. (contraction)
 My street address contains three 5’s. (plural of a number)
 She has a hard time pronouncing r’s. (plural of a letter)
 The drummer’s solo was fantastic. (singular possessive)

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  Mr. Perkins’s persuasive essay was very convincing. (singular possessive)
 The customers’ access codes are confidential. (plural possessive)
 Men’s shirts come in a variety of neck sizes. (plural possessive)
 Brad and Janet’s graduation was three months ago. (joint ownership)
 I went to visit my great-grandfather’s alma mater. (hyphenated word)
 The Future Farmers of America’s meeting was moved to Monday. (name of organization)

Possessive pronouns never use apostrophes. A pronoun with an apostrophe always signifies a
contraction with the word is or are.
 Its fur is thick.  It’s a beautiful day.
 Whose book is this?  Who’s in charge here?
 Your shirt is a great color.  You’re in a great mood today.
 I enjoyed their presentations.  They’re horrible players.
 Is this sandwich yours or theirs?

V. Sentence Logic

 Misplaced modifiers These errors occur most frequently in

 Error in parallel structure Improving Sentences questions.
 Faulty comparisons

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies or describes a noun or action in the sentence.
Modifiers need to be placed as close as possible to the word they are modifying.
 Walking to the store, the street seemed so quiet and peaceful to Laura. (incorrect)
 Walking to the store, Laura thought the street seemed so quiet and peaceful. (correct)
 Unable to beat the enemy through brute force alone, deception seemed necessary. (incorrect)
 Unable to beat the enemy through brute force alone, the army decided that deception was
necessary. (correct)
 Although a small dog, my sister found her new puppy a big responsibility. (incorrect)
 Although her new puppy was a small dog, my sister found him a big responsibility. (correct)

When you have multiple items in a list or in a comparison, these must be stated in a similar—or
parallel—manner.
 Andrew enjoys swimming, skating, and to play golf. (incorrect)
 Andrew enjoys swimming, skating, and playing golf. (correct)
 Kate is more ambitious, but Emily shows more patience. (incorrect)
 Kate is more ambitious, but Emily is more patient. (correct)

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Comparisons must be complete and logical. Always compare similar items.
 The rooms on the second floor are larger than the first floor. (incorrect)
 The rooms on the second floor are larger than those on the first floor. (correct)
 Jackson Pollack’s paintings are better than any other painter. (incorrect)
 Jackson Pollack’s paintings are better than paintings by any other painter. (correct)
 Some students prefer watching videos to textbooks. (incorrect)
 Some students prefer watching videos to reading textbooks. (correct)
 David Letterman is the best talk show. (incorrect)
 David Letterman’s talk show is the best talk show. (correct)

Use the comparative ‘er’ ending to compare two items. Use the superlative ‘est’ ending to compare
three or more items.
 There are two children in the family. Jo is the elder and Paul is the younger. (comparative)
 There are four children in the family. Jo is the eldest and Paul is the youngest. (superlative)
 Of the couple, Eric is the better cook. (comparative)
 Of all of his siblings, Eric is the best cook. (superlative)

Avoid double comparisons and double negatives.

 This is the most longest I’ve ever waited for a pizza. (incorrect)
 This is the longest I’ve ever waited for a pizza. (correct)
 This isn’t hardly the best pizza in town. (incorrect)
 This isn’t the best pizza in town. (correct)

VI. Diction

 Wordiness and redundancy These errors occur in both Improving

 Adjective/adverb confusion Sentences and Identifying Sentence
 Confused word pairs Error questions, though wordiness
 Error in idiom occurs almost exclusively in Improving
Sentences questions.

Wordiness is caused by unnecessary “filler” or repetition, inexact phrases, and overly complicated
sentence structure. The more concise, the better, as long as all the necessary information is
conveyed.

Replace the following wordy and redundant phrases with a more concise alternative:
 a lot of → many or much  are able to → can
 all of a sudden → suddenly  at the present time → currently/now
 along the lines of → like  basic fundamentals → fundamentals
 any and all → all  both of these → both

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  close proximity → close  often times → often
 due to the fact that → because  on a daily basis → daily
 end result → result  on account of the fact that → because
 final destination → destination  past history → history
 final outcome → outcome  rarely ever → ever
 first and foremost → first  take action → act
 general consensus → consensus  the majority of → most
 important essentials → essentials  the reason why → the reason
 in order to → to  through the use of → through
 in the event that → if  true facts → facts
 in the near future → soon  various differences → differences
 in the neighborhood of → about  with regard to → about/regarding
 last but not least → finally  with the exception of → except for

Avoid the following wordy phrases and “filler”:

 as a whole  by definition
 as the case may be  for all intents and purposes
 as a matter of fact  it is clear that
 being that  the fact that
 by and large  really, totally, very

Since adjectives and adverbs serve similar functions – they both modify or describe – they are often
confused. Remember that adjectives modify nouns or pronouns while adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs often end in –ly.
 He was a quick study.  He learned quickly.
 He had a violent temper.  He was a violently angry person.
 I have a good dog.  My dog is well trained.

Use less and amount for non-countable items (water, air, intelligence, etc.). Use fewer and number
for items that can be counted.
 There is less grass on the soccer field.
 I scored fewer goals than you.
 There is a greater amount of water in this lake.
 There is a greater number of ducks on this lake.

Use between when talking about two items only. Use among for three or more.
 Keep this between you and me.
 There was peace among the three countries.

Other commonly confused word pairs:

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  accept : receive, agree to  except: exclude
 adapt: evolve  adept: skilled
 affect: verb  effect: noun
 allusion: reference  illusion: false representation
 already: previously  all ready: ready to go
 beside: next to  besides: in addition
 conscious: aware  conscience: moral sense
 disinterested: impartial  uninterested: not interested in
 eminent: important, esteemed  imminent: upcoming
 farther: distance  further: quantity
 latter: second in a list of two items  later: time
 loose: not tight, not fastened  lose: misplace
 principal: chief  principle: rule
 than: comparison  then: time

Neither is always used with nor, and either is always used with or. The correct structure following
not only is but also.
 Neither Amanda nor Jarome received an ‘A’ on that assignment.
 Leave your paper either with me or with the front office.
 Not only did he wash the dishes, but he also walked the dog.

An idiom is an expression characteristic of a particular language. Many idioms involve preposition

choice. Using the wrong preposition is a grammatical error. Be familiar with some of these:
 abide by the rule  comply with a request
 accuse someone of a crime  contrast with (when noting
 agree on an amendment differences)
 agree to do something  correspond to or with something
 agree with someone (meaning to relate)
 amazement at something  correspond with a person (meaning to
 appreciation of something communicate)
 argue about or for a proposal  differ from something
 argue with a person  independent of someone or
 apologize for an error something
 approve of a change  interested in a subject
 blame a mistake on a person  oblivious to an issue
 blame a person for a mistake  separate from something
 bored with small talk  similar to something
 concerned about or with an issue  succeed in an endeavour

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