FM Transmitter LR1
FM Transmitter LR1
1.10 INTRODUCTION
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most homes in the United Kingdom boasted of a “wireless” set or “wireless
radio”. Radio is thus one of the longest established applications of
electronics.
Radio communication was made possible through the invention of triode
valve and was greatly simulated by the work done during the World War II.
With the discovery of radio communication, information could now be
propagated through space as an electronic wave. It has subsequently become
even more widespread and refined through the invention and use of
transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices. The
propagation of wave through space was then known to depend on the
frequency of transmission, such as audio wave frequency (Af), radio
frequency (Rf) and microwave frequency (Mf) and other characteristics.
After this, electrical communication began with its origin from elementary
wire telegraphy which has finally developed into the invention of
telephones, radio, television, radar, laser, to the modern means of
communication using satellite communication systems.
In these modern days, communication or telecommunications could be
defined as the sending, reception or processing of information by electrical
means. The purpose of communication therefore is to transmit information –
bearing signals from a source located at one point in space, to a user
destination, located at another point in space. As a rule, the message
produced by the source is not electrical in nature. Accordingly, an input
transducer is used to convert the message generated by the source into a
time-varying electrical signal called the message signal. By using another
transducer at the receiver, the original message is recreated at the user
destination.
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Communication
Transmitter channel Receiver
CHAPTER TWO
2.10 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.11 INTRODUCTION
In radio transmission, it is necessary to send audio signal (e.g. music, speech
etc) from a broadcasting station over a great distance to a receiver. This
communication of audio signal does not employ any wires(wireless). The
audio signal cannot be sent directly over the air for appreciable distance.
Even if the audio signal is converted into electrical energy, the latter cannot
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be sent very far without employing large amount of power. The energy of a
wave is directly proportional to its frequency. At audio frequencies (20Hz to
20KHz) the signal power is quite small and radiation is not practicable. The
construction of this project was carried out using discrete electronic
components as will be discussed below.
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lengths. It may be emphasized here that radio waves are sent without
employing any wire. It can be easily shown that at high frequency, electrical
energy can be radiated into space.
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monophonic propagation, regularly permit intercontinental broadcasting and
communications.
For convenience, the radio frequency spectrum is divided into a
number of bands each spanning a decade of frequency. The use to which
each frequency range is put depends upon a number factors paramount
amongst which is the propagation characteristics within the band concerned.
Other factors that need to be taken into consideration include efficiency of
practical aerial systems in the range concerned and the band width.
The radiation of electrical energy is possible only at high frequencies e.g.
above 20KHz. The high frequency signals can be sent thousands of miles
even with comparatively small power. Therefore, if the audio signal is to be
transmitted properly, some means must be devised which permit
transmission to occur at high frequencies while it simultaneously allows the
carrying or transportation of the audio signal. This is achieved by
superimposing the electrical audio signal on a high frequency carrier. The
resultant wave is known as a modulated wave or radio wave, while the
process is called Modulation.
At the radio receiver, the audio signal is extracted by a process known as
Demodulation(the reverse of modulation). The extracted intelligence signal
is then amplified and reproduced into sound by the loudspeaker.
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2.12 TRANSMITTER
The transmitter is a device capable of capturing signals representing sound
and light and converting them by the process of modulation into a form
suitable for transmission as electromagnetic waves in the radio spectrum.
Any radio communication system that transmits intelligence from one point
to another requires a high power transmitting module that prepares signal at
the radio frequency and drives power to the transmission medium through
the antenna. The transmitter consists of a transducer, an audio amplifier, an
oscillator to generate the signal, sometimes frequency multiplier, radio
frequency amplifier, power amplifier and antenna.
Transmitters are used to propagate intelligence signals between distant
locations. Propagation (transmission) could be over a variety of media,
including transmission lines, optical fibers, waveguide and free space. The
signals to be broadcast may be in the form of voice i.e. speech or digitally
coded data. The output of which is of very small signal level, usually of the
order of milli-volts, hence the need for amplification before further
processing could be effected.
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• It must provide some form of modulation that causes information
signal to modify the carrier signal.
With various types of transmitters available, this project concentrates
on FM type of a transmitter.
The output power ranges from the milli watt level up to the 100KW
for broadcast FM. We will note that FM is not used at frequency
below about 33MHz. This is due to the phase distortion introduced to
the FM signals by the earth’s ionosphere to these frequencies.
Transmitting aerial
Audio
amplifier
microphone
Oscillator Modulator
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2.12.1.2 The Audio Amplifier
This is sometimes called a low frequency amplifier. It is basically designed
to amplify electrical signal of about 20Hz -20KHz. The two principal types
of audio amplifiers are the voltage and power amplifiers. Primarily, a
voltage amplifier is designed to produce large output voltage with respect to
the input voltage. A power amplifier develops, primarily, a large signal
current in the output circuit. Schematically, there is no way to distinguish
between the two types of the audio amplifier except their types of load.
In this project design, the audio amplifier circuit was employed since the
audio signal from the microphone is quite weak and requires amplification.
The amplified output from the last audio amplifier is fed to the modulator
for rendering the process of modulation.
2.12.1.3 The Oscillators
An electric oscillator may be defined as one of the following;
- A circuit which converts DC energy to AC energy at a very high
frequency.
-An electronic source of alternating current of high voltage having sine,
square or saw tooth or pulse shapes.
-A circuit which generates an output signal without requiring any
externally applied input signal.
-An unstable amplifier.
-A circuit that produces an output which varies its output with time.
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external signal either to start or maintain energy conversion process as
shown in the figure below. It keeps producing an output so long as the DC
power source is connected.
This stage generates the carrier signal on which the audio signal from the AF
amplifier is super imposed for effective transmission. Radio frequency
parallel L-C oscillator was used in this project to generate about 100MHz
oscillator frequency.
Signal output
OSCILLATOR
DC power input
Fig 2.2 Block Diagram of an oscillator
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oscillators may be broadly divided into two groups namely; sinusoidal and
non- sinusoidal oscillators.
-Damped oscillations:
Oscillations whose amplitudes keeps decreasing (or decaying) with
time are called damped oscillations. The waveform of such
oscillations is shown in the figure below. These are produced by those
oscillator circuits in which IR losses takes place continuously during
each oscillation without any arrangement for compensating the same.
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Fig 2.3 Damped Oscillation waveform
Ultimately, the amplitude of the oscillations decays to zero when there is not
enough to supply circuit losses. However, the frequency or time-period
remains constant because it is determined by the circuit parameters.
Sinusoidal oscillators serve a variety connection in telecommunications and
in electronics. Its most important application in telecommunication is the use
of sine waves as carrier in both radio and cable transmission. Since wave are
also used in frequency response testing of various types of systems and
equipment including analogue communications channels, amplifier and
filters and closed-loop control system.
• Undamped Oscillations
Oscillations whose amplitude remains constant, that is, does not change with
time are called undamped oscillations. These are produced by those
oscillators circuit which have no losses or if they have, there is provision for
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compensating them; the constant-amplitude and constant frequency
sinusoidal waves. Shown below is an example of a carrier wave used in
communication transmitter for transmitting low-frequency audio information
to far distant places.
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The basic types of oscillators are Phase oscillator, Hartley Oscillator,
Colpitts Oscillator etc.
The oscillator in this project is the Colpitts Oscillator.
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Xc = 1 ……………………………………………….2.2
2πfC
At resonance,
2πfL = 1 …………………………………………………2.4
2πfC
f= 1 ....................................................................................2.5
2π√LC
This is the resonant carrier frequency of a Colpitt Oscillator
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level. RF power amplifier is operated under either class B or class C
condition.
2.13 Modulation
Modulation is the process of superimposing information contained in a
lower frequency electronic signal into higher frequency signal. The higher
frequency is called the carrier signal while the lower frequency, the
modulation signal. In the process of modulation, some characteristics are
varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of modulating signal such
as sine wave which may be represented by the following equation.
e = E sin (wt+ φ) ………………………………………….2.6
Where:
e is the instantaneous value of the sine wave, called the carrier;
E is its maximum amplitude,
w is the angular velocity
φ is its phase relation with respect to some reference value.
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Any of these last three characteristics or parameters (ε, w, and φ) of the
carrier may be varied by the modulating signal, giving rise to amplitude,
frequency or phase modulation respectively in this project, frequency
modulation is considered.
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Basically, these are two types of modulation namely Amplitude
modulation and Angle modulation. Angle modulation is further divided
into frequency and phase modulation. They are each discussed below.
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• Lack of audio quality: This is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude
modulation. In order to attain high – fidelity reception all audio
frequencies up to 15 KHz must be reproduced. This necessitates
bandwidth of 30 KHz since both sidebands must be reproduced.
But FM broadcasting stations are assigned bandwidth of only 10
KHz to minimize the interference from adjacent broadcasting
station. This means that the highest modulation frequency can be
5KHz which is hardly sufficient to reproduce the music properly.
2.15 DEMODULATION
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is
known as demodulation or detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the signal over
large distances to receiver when the modulated. Wave is picked up by the
radio receiver. It is necessary to recover the audio signal from it. This
process is accomplished in the radio receiver and is called demodulation.
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It was noted previously that amplitude modulated wave consists of carrier
and sideband frequency. The audio signal is contained in the sideband
frequencies which are radio frequencies. If the modulated wave after
amplification is directly fed to the speaker as shown in fig 2.3 a, no sound
will be heard. It is because diaphragm of the speaker is not all able to
respond to such high frequencies. Before the diaphragm is able to more in
one direction, the rapid reversal of current tends to move it in the opposite
direction i.e. diaphragm will not move at all. Consequently, no sound will be
heard.
Loud speaker
receiver antennae (No sound)
Station RF
selection amplifier
From the above discussion, it follows that the audio signal must be separated
from the carrier at a suitable stage in receiver. The recovered audio signal is
than amplified and fed to the speaker for conversion into sound.
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Frequency modulation is a system of modulation in which the amplitude of
the modulated carrier is kept constant, while its frequency and rate of change
are varied by the modulating signal. The first practical system was put
forward in 1936 as an alternative to A.M in an effort to make radio
transmissions me resistant to noise. Phase modulation is a similar system in
which the phase of the carrier is varied instead of the frequency: as in FM,
the amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
Let us assume for the moment that the carrier of the transmitter is at its
resting frequency (no modulation) of 100MHz and we apply a modulating
signal. The amplitude of the modulating signal will cause the carrier to
deviate from this resting frequency by a certain amount. If we increase the
amplitude (loudness) of the modulating signal we will increase the
deviation to a maximum of 75khz as specified by the Federal
Communications Council. If we remove the modulation, the carrier
frequency shifts back to its resting frequency(100MHz).
It can be shown that the deviation of the carrier is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating voltage. The shift in the carrier frequency in
comparison to the amplitude of the modulating voltage is called the
Deviation Ratio. A deviation ratio of 5 is the maximum allowed in
commercially broadcast FM.
The rate at which the carrier shifts from its resting point to a non resting
point is determined by the frequency of the modulating signal.
Frequency modulation can also be described as the process of changing a
particular property of the carrier wave in sympathy with the instantaneous
voltage or current which is the signal. The most commonly used method of
modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM)
in the former case, the carrier amplitude (its peak voltage varies according to
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the voltage at any instant of the modulation signal in the latter case, the
carrier frequency is varied in accordance with voltage, at any instant of the
modulating signal.
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of the same frequency will deviate the carrier at the same rate no matter
what their individual amplitudes. The amplitude of the frequency modulated
wave remains constant at all times. This is the greatest single advantage of
FM.
+V
-V
Modulating signal
+V
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t
-V
Frequency modulation
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V = A sin {2πfct + (∆F/ƒa) cos 2πƒat} ……………………….2.12
It must be noted that in this equation, the cosine term is preceded by the
∆F/ƒa. This quantity is called the modulation index and is indicated as
“Mƒ”
Modulation index = Mƒ = ∆F/ƒa …………………2.13
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• Narrow band public service channels from 108 to 174MHz and in
excess of 806MHz.
• Narrow band amateur radio channels at 29.6MHz, 52 to 53MHz, 144
to 147.99MHz, 440 to 450MHz and in excess of 902MHz.
• Digital – FSK: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is used on HF for low
speed telegraphy or data transmission, eg RTTY at speeds of 45.45 or
50 baud. FSK is also used on VHF for data transmission at 4800 bps
using the HAPN Direct Frequency Modulation (DFM) technique, or
G3RUH modulation at 9600bps.
• Digital – AFSK: Audio Frequency Shift Keying is the use of a
frequency shift keyed audio tone to modulate a FM or SSB
transmitter. This is commonly used for speeds of 300bps on HF and
1200bps on VHF/UHF. On VHF/UHF, the AFSK signal is fed into
the microphone input of the transmitter to pick up pre-emphasis, and
de-emphasized audio is used for the demodulator.
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signals. Noise rejection is obtained only when the signal is at least twice the
noise peak amplitude. Other forms of interference found in receivers
include:
• Adjacent channel interference
Frequency modulation offers not only an improvement in the S/N
ratio but also better discrimination against other interfering signals,
no matter what their source. Also wideband FM broadcasting channel
occupies 200KHz( of which only 180KHz is used), and the remaining
20KHz guard band goes a long way toward reducing adjacent channel
interference even further.
• Co-channel interference—capture effect
Fm receivers incorporate the use of amplitude limiters, which work
on the principle of passing the signal and eliminating the weaker.
This was the reason for mentioning earlier that noise rejection is
obtained only when the signal is at least twice the noise peak
amplitude. A relatively weak interfering signal from another
transmitter will also be attenuated in this manner, as much as any
other form of interference. This applies even if the other transmitter
operates at the same frequency as the desired transmitter
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This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance with a
pre-arranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and the compensation at the
receiver is called de-emphasis. The standard unit for defining emphasis is
microseconds. A 75-µs pre-emphasis in FM gives a noise rejection at least
24dB better than AM.
CHAPTER THREE
3.10 METHODOLOGY
The overall method and steps involved during the design of this project are
briefly explained here. These can best be explained using the block diagram
below,
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Fig 3.1 A block diagram of an FM transmitter
• RF oscillator unit
• Antennae
• The indicator
The function of this stage is to pre-amplify the audio signal from the
microphone which is very weak so that it ca be set for modulation.
This stage consists of NPN transistor, common emitter configuration,
with collector feedback biasing, biasing resistors and capacitors. The
input to this stage is from the base of the transistor while the output is
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from the collector. The capacitors this unit serve as a coupling unit,
filter networks and frequency determination of input signal.
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3.16 RESISTOR
For a resistor, according to Ohm`s law, the voltage dropped across it is
proportional to the amount of current flowing through it. i.e.
V= IR ………………………………………………..3.1
Where V is the voltage across the resistor,
I = the current flowing through the resistor and R, the resistance of the
resistor.
Any current waveform across a resistor will produce the same voltage
waveform across the resistor.
Resistors are essential to the functions of almost every electronic circuit and
provide means of controlling the circuit and/or voltage present. There are
almost as many types as their application. Resistors are used in amplifiers as
loads for active devices in bias networks and as feedback element. In
combination with capacitors they establish time constant and act as filters,
they are used to set operating currents and signals levels. Resistors are used
in power to measure currents and to discharge capacitor after moving power
source. They are used in precision circuit to establish currents to provide
accurate voltage ratio and to set precise gain values.
3.17 INDUCTOR
The voltage across an inductor leads the current through it by 90 degrees.
This is due to the fact that the voltage across an inductor depends on the rate
of change of current entering the inductor. The impedance of an inductor is
+jwL (w=2πf) which reflects the fact that the voltage leads the current.
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Given the dimensions of an inductor coil such as average radius of the
coil(r), number of turns of the coil(N), length of the coil(L), the inductance
in micro Henrys(μH) can be computed using this relationship.
L = N^2 r^2 ……………………………………………3.2
228r + 254L
3.18 CAPACITOR
A capacitor temporarily stores charge or electricity in the form of
electrostatics .this should not be confused with the function of a battery
,which chemically generate electricity a capacitor is said to be like a water
storage tank while the battery is like the central heating pump .pumping the
water round the radiator .capacitor ,like resistor ,are so widely used that
book are written about them .so capacitors are used in storing small amour
of electrical energy they are used in smoothing [decoupling ]power
supplies , removing of voltage spikes from supplies etc
CHAPTER FOUR
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4.10 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF MODULE
4.11 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Design Specification
The design specification is a detailed description of the expected
characteristics of the designed FM transmitter.
Modulation Type : FM
Frequency of Operation: about 104MHz
Antenna Type: wire cord of a few centimeters long
Range Obtained in Free space: Up to 100meters
Working Voltage : 3 volts(DC)
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4.11.1.1 THE TRANSDUCER SECTION
The current ,I, flowing into the microphone is given by ohms law
V = I R from eqxn 3.1
R=33k
V=3 volts
I=V/R
I=3/33k
I= 90µAmps
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From the circuit diagram above,
Rb=1MΩ
Rc= 10kΩ
Vcc= 3volts
hƒE= 60
from the equation for the collector feedback biased transistor,
Vcc=Ic Rc + (Ic/hƒE)Rb……………………………..4.1
Making Ic the subject of the formula, we obtain
Ic = Vcc/( Rc + Rb/hfE)……………………………..4.2
Ic= 3/10k + 1M/60
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Ic= 0.1mAmps
Now from this relationship,
hƒE = Ic/Ib…………………………………………….4.3
substituting the values of Ic and hfE
Ib=Ic/ hƒE
Ib= 0.1mA/60
Ib= 1.7µAmps
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using the above transistor characteristics and component values,
the resistors 47k and 100k both constitute a voltage divider network
therefore the voltage across the 100k resistor, Vb, is given as
Vb = [100kΩ/100k+ 47k] 3volts
Vb= 2.0volts
From fundamental transistor equation, we know that
Vb = Ve + Vbe……………………………………..4.4
Where Vbe=0.6volts for a silicon transistor by standard
Ve=2—0.6=1.4volts
Where Ve is the voltage across the emitter. The current, Ie, across the
emitter is given by
Ie=Ve/Re……………………………………………….4.5
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Ie= 1.4/39k
Ie=36µAmps
Now Ie is approximately = Ic=36 µAmps
Therefore, using equation 4.3 .and noting hƒE=60
Ib= Ic/ hƒE
Ib= 36 µA/60
Ib= 60 µAmps
• Determination of the tank circuit parameters
L = Inductance
C = Capacitance=47pF
XL = Inductive reactance
Xc = Capacitive reactance
XL = 2πfL
Xc = 1
2πfC
Resonance occurs at XL=Xc
At resonance,
f= 1 as in equation 2.5
2π√LC
This is the resonant carrier frequency of a Colpitt Oscillator
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From equation 3.2
L(µH) = N^2 r^2
228r + 254L
Given the dimensions of the inductor coil to be as follows,
N=number of turns = 5
r = average coil radius= 0.16mm
L = length of coil=0.5mm
substituting these values into the expression, we obtain
L= 25(2.25)
228(0.16) + 254(0.5)
L= 0.05µH
from equation 2.5 Above , substituting the values for L and C
we obtain, the resonant frequency ƒ to be
ƒ= 1/2π√ 0.05µH×47pF
ƒ= 100MHz
this is thus the carrier frequency of the parallel L-C network
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of current entering the electret microphone. This consequently stabilises the
gain of the microphone and maintains good stability of the sensitivity.
In the pre amplifier circuit and oscillator stages, the BC848 transistor was
utilized because of its high frequency response characteristics.
The capacitors were used as coupling and filter networks to the various
stages of the circuitry. The parallel L-C tank oscillator was chosen due to its
ability to generate a stable sine wave at the carrier frequency, a better
performance at high frequency generation of signal and its availability in the
market.
A flexible cord was used as the antenna due to the miniature nature of the
circuit and under impedance matching considerations was seen to best suit
this project work,
A 3volts DC battery was used as the power supply for this circuitry because
of its ability to produce a steady current and its ready availability.
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the inductance and consequently the carrier frequency. Also worth
mentioning is the observation that touching of the inductor coil caused the
frequency to drift by a reasonable amount. In addition, The main area of
instability is the oscillator part. Shielding the oscillator helps in part to
counter this and an extension of the antenna length increased the range of
signal propagation.
3 CAPACITORS
22n,100n,1n,10p,22n,4p7 6 N150.00 N900.00
4 ELECTRET MICROPHONE 1 N500.00 N500.00
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7 SWITCH 1 N50.00 N50.00
Total N6,000.00
CHAPTER FIVE
5.10 CONCLUSION
The FM transmitter is essentially a design and implementation project. To
approach a project like this, a parallel path has to be taken in regards to the
theory and the practical circuitry. For a successful completion of any project,
these paths must meet and this only happens when they are fully understood.
Ipso- facto, a good grounding in the basics of communication theory and
analogue designs cannot be over emphasized before approaching a project
like this. To start off, looking at block diagrams or basic transmitter was a
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necessity even if it seemed abstract and obscure. The underlying meaning of
each block can be found out individually. Which is what made the overall
project challenging and rewarding.
5.11 REMARKS
The design used for this project is essentially quite a simple one and it is this
simplicity which partly brings it down when it comes to the overall reliable
performance. The main area of instability is the oscillator part. Shielding the
oscillator helps in part to counter this.
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5.20 REFERENCES
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