Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

MODULE – 3
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES AND
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Engine
It is a device or machine that converts the chemical energy of a fuel into heat energy by
combustion of fuel and utilizes this heat energy to perform useful mechanical work.

Combustion of fuel can take place either inside or outside the engine, based on this the engines
are classified into Internal combustion and External combustion engines.

External Combustion Engine

In which the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine cylinder. Examples: steam
engines, steam turbines.

Internal Combustion Engine

In which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. Examples: Petrol Engine,
Diesel Engine

Classification of IC Engine

i) According to number of cylinders

a) Single cylinder engine
b) Multi cylinder engine: 2, 3,4,6,8 cylinder
ii) According to type of fuel used
a) Petrol Engine
b) Diesel Engine
c) Gas Engine
d) Bio-fuel Engine
iii) According to method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition (SI) engine
b) Compression Ignition (CI) engine

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

iv) According to number of stroke

a) Two stroke engine
b) Four stroke engine
v) According to cycle of combustion
a) Otto cycle engine
b) Diesel cycle Engine
c) Duel Combustion cycle engine
vi) According to arrangement of cylinders
a) Inline Engine
b) V-type engine
c) Opposed type engine
d) Radial Engine
vii) According to method cooling
a) Air cooled engine
b) Water cooled engine
viii) According to use
a) Stationary engine
b) Automobile engine
c) Marine engine
d) Aircraft engine

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

PARTS OF IC ENGINE

Figure: 3.1 Parts of IC engine

The following are the main parts of an internal combustion engine.

 Cylinder
 Piston
 Piston rings
 Connecting rod
 Crank
 Crankshaft
 Crankcase
 Fly wheel
 Valves

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Cylinder:
It is the heart of an I C Engine, as the name indicates is a cylindrical shaped component in which
combustion of fuel takes place. The cylinder is usually made from gray cast iron or steel alloys in
order to withstand the high pressure and temperature generated inside the cylinder due to
combustion of fuel.
Piston:
The piston is a close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger reciprocating inside the engine cylinder.
The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the piston to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod.
Piston Rings:
Towards the top of the piston, a few grooves are provided to accommodate the piston rings. The
piston rings are two types: compression ring and oil ring

 Compression rings: These rings are press hard with the cylinder walls maintaining a
tight seal between the piston and the cylinder. This is required to prevent the high
pressure gasses from escaping into the crankcase.
 Oil ring: The function of oil ring is to extract the excess lubricating oil from the cylinder
walls and send it back to the oil sump through the holes provided on the piston.

Connecting Rod:
It connects the piston and the crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of the crankshaft.

Crank:
The crank is a lever, with one of its end connected to the lower end of the connecting rod, while
the other end connected to the crankshaft.

Crankshaft:
The function of the crankshaft is to transform reciprocating motion into rotary motion. The
crankshaft transmits the power developed by the engine through the flywheel, clutch,
transmission and differential to drive (move) the vehicle. The crankshafts are made of carbon
steel.

Crankcase:
The crankcase is the lower part of the cylinder block that encloses the crankshaft and provides a
reservoir for the lubricating oil.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Valves:
The valves are the devices which controls the flow of the intake and the exhaust gases to and
from the engine cylinder. They are also called poppet valves. These valves are operated by
means of cams driven by the crankshaft through a timing gear or chain.

Flywheel:
It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain uniform rotation of the
crankshaft.
IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY:

Figure: 3.2 IC Engine Terminology

Bore: The inner diameter of the cylinder is called bore. It is denoted by d.

Top Dead Centre (TDC): The extreme position of the piston near to the cylinder head is called
top dead centre.
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): The extreme position of the piston near to the crankshaft is called
bottom dead centre.
Stroke: The linear distance travelled by the piston when it moves from top dead centre to bottom
dead centre is called stroke or stroke length. It is denoted by L.
Stroke volume or Swept volume or Piston displacement: The volume swept by the piston
when it moves from the top dead centre to bottom dead centre is called stroke volume or swept
volume or piston displacement. It is denoted by Vs.

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Clearance volume: The volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when the piston is at
the top dead centre is called clearance volume. It is denoted by Vc.
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume. The
total volume includes swept volume and clearance volume

Compression ratio: Rc = (Vs + Vc) / Vc

Compression ratio for petrol engine 8:1 to 12:1 and for diesel engine 16:1 to 24:1

Piston Speed: The average speed of the piston as it moves from the TDC to BDC is called piston
speed.

Piston speed = 2LN

L= Stroke length in meters and N= Engine speed in revolutions per minute

FOUR STROKE (4-S) ENGINE

In 4-S engines, the working cycle is completed in four different strokes of the piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft. The four different strokes are

i) Suction stroke
ii) Compression stroke
iii) Power stroke or Expansion stroke or Working stroke
iv) Exhaust stroke’

Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. Hence in a 4-stroke engines, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the
crankshaft based on the type of fuel used.

Note: In 4 Stroke engines, opening and closing of valves during different strokes with respect to
piston position and the rotation of crank is given in the table below.
Position of the
Stroke piston Inlet valve Exhaust valve Crank rotation
Initial Final
Suction TDC BDC Open Close 00 - 1800
Compression BDC TDC Close Close 1800 - 3600
Power TDC BDC Close Close 3600 - 5400
Exhaust BDC TDC Close Open 5400 -7200
Four stroke engines are commonly classified based on type of fuel used

a) Four stroke petrol engine b) Four stroke diesel engine

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FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

A four stroke petrol engine works on Otto cycle, hence it is also called Otto cycle engine. The
charge used in the four stroke petrol engine is a mixture of Air and Petrol, which is supplied by
carburetor in suitable proportion. The charge is ignited by the spark generated by a spark plug.
Four stroke petrol engines are commonly used in motor bikes, cars etc.

Figure: 3.3 Working of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

Figure: 3.4 P-V diagram of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Working

Suction stroke: At the beginning of the suction stroke, the piston moves from Top Dead Center
(TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC). At this instance inlet valve opens and exhaust valve is in
closed position.

The downward movement of the piston produces suction in the cylinder, due to which fresh
charge of air and petrol mixture is drawn into the cylinder through inlet valve. When the piston
reaches the BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve is closed. The suction stroke is
represented by the line AB in P-V diagram.

Compression Stroke: During this stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both inlet and
exhaust valves are in closed position. As the piston moves upwards, the air-petrol mixture in the
cylinder is compressed adiabatically, due to which the pressure and temperature of the mixture
(air and petrol) increases and is shown by the curve BC on P-V diagram. When the piston
reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites the charge. The combustion of the fuel takes place at
constant volume and is shown by a line CD in the P-V diagram.

Power stroke: During this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valves will remain closed. As the
combustion of fuel takes place, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston
causing it to move rapidly from TDC to BDC. The power is transmitted to the crankshaft through
the connecting rod. As a result the crankshaft rotates at high speeds. The crankshaft transmits the
power to road wheels through transmission system. The expansion is adiabatic in nature and
shown by the curve DE in P-V diagram.

Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the exhaust valve is in opened and inlet valve is in closed
position. The piston moves from BDC to TDC. The energy required to perform this stroke is
supplied by the flywheel from the energy absorbed by it during the previous stroke. As the piston
moves upward the burnt gases are expelled out of the cylinder at atmospheric pressure. This
process is represented by the horizontal line BA in P-V diagram

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Figure: 3.5 Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

Figure: 3.6 P-V diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

(a) Suction stroke:
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from TDC.
to BDC. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. The downward movement of
the piston creates suction in the cylinder and as a result, fresh air is drawn into the cylinder
through the inlet valve. When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke completes and this
is represented by the line AB on P-V diagram as shown in the figure.3.6.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

(b) Compression stroke

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke piston moves from BDC to
TDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, air in the
cylinder is compressed to a high pressure and temperature. The compression process is adiabatic
in nature and is shown by the curve BC in P-V diagram. At the end of the stroke, the fuel
(diesel) is sprayed into the cylinder by fuel injector. As the fuel comes in contact with the hot
compressed air, it gets ignited and undergoes combustion at constant pressure. This process is
shown by the line CD on PV diagram. At the point D fuel supply is cutoff. The compression
ratio ranges from 16:1 to 20:1

.
(c) Power stroke / Expansion stroke/ Working stroke
At the beginning of this stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from TDC
to BDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valve remain closed. As combustion of fuel takes place, the
burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston. Due to this, piston is pushed from TDC
the BDC. The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through
the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus, work is obtained in
this stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P- V
diagram. When the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of burnt gases
escapes through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to self-expansion. The drop-in pressure
at constant volume is shown by the line EB on P- V diagram.

(d) Exhaust stroke

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during this stroke, piston moves from BDC
to TDC. The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. As the piston moves upward,
it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This is shown
by the line BA on P- V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC the exhaust valve closes. This
completes the cycle.

In the next cycle the piston which is at the TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh air to
enter into the cylinder and the process continues.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

TWO STROKE ENGINES

In a 2-stroke engine, ports are present in the cylinder in place of valves. The ports are the
openings in the cylinder opened and closed by the movement of piston within the cylinder. There
are three ports, namely
1.Inlet port: Through which admitting of charge into the crankcase takes place.
2.Transfer port: Through which the charge is transferred from the crankcase to the cylinder.
3.Exhaust port: Through which the burnt gases are discharged out of the cylinder.

In a 2 - stroke engine, piston performs two different strokes or crankshaft completes one
revolution to complete all the operations of the working cycle.

In these engines there are no suction and exhaust strokes, instead they are performed while the
compression and power strokes are in progress. Based on the type of fuel used, 2-stroke engines
are classified as 2-stroke petrol engine and 2-stroke diesel engine.

2-Stroke Petrol Engine:

2-Stroke petrol engine works on the principle of theoretical Otto cycle. The two different strokes
performed are first stroke (downward stroke) and second stroke (upward stroke).

The details regarding the working of each stroke is shown in the figure.2.18 are discussed as
below.

Note: The table below shows an opening and closing of the different ports with respect to the
position of the piston within the cylinder.

Position of the piston Inlet port Exhaust Port Transfer Port

In TDC Open Close Close
In BDC Close Open Open

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Figure: 3.7 Working of 2-Stroke Petrol Engine

1. FIRST STROKE (DOWNWARD STROKE)

At the beginning of this stroke, the piston is in the TDC as shown in the figure (a). At this position, inlet port is
opened and hence fresh air petrol mixture enters into the crank case. At this position, compressed air-petrol
mixture present in the cylinder in the previous cycle is ignited by the spark generated by the spark plug. The
combustion of fuel releases hot gases which increases the pressure in the cylinder. The high-pressure gases exert a
pressure on the piston and hence the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Thus, piston performs power stroke. The
power impulse is transmitted from the piston to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. This causes the
crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus, work is obtained in this stroke.

As the piston moves downwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and hence burnt gases escape out of the cylinder as
shown in the figure (b). As piston moves downwards further, opens the transfer port and the charge in the crank
case is compressed by the underside of the piston as shown in figure. (b). The compressed charge from the
crankcase rushes into the cylinder through the transfer port as shown in figure. (c). The charge entering the
cylinder drives away the remaining exhaust gases through the exhaust port.
The process of removing the exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known as scavenging. The piston is
provided with a projection at its top known as 'deflector'. The purpose of providing a deflector is to deflect the
fresh charge coming through the transfer port to move towards the top end of the cylinder. By doing this, the fresh
charge will be able to drive the entire burnt gases out of the cylinder.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

2.SECOND STROKE (UPWARD STROKE)

At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in BDC and it covers the inlet port as shown in the figure (c) and stops
the flow of fresh charge into the crankcase. During the stroke, piston

ascends and move towards TDC. As the piston moves upwards, it closes the transfer port, there by stopping the
flow of fresh charge into the cylinder as shown in figure (d).

Further upward movement of the piston closes the exhaust port and actual compression of the charge begins. In
the meantime, the inlet port is opened and the upward movement of piston creates suction in the crankcase. Fresh
charge enters into the crankcase through the inlet port as shown in figure (a). The compression of the charge in
the cylinder continues till the piston reaches the TDC. This completes the cycle.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

Petrol Engine (SI Engine) Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

Draws a mixture of petrol and air during suction Draws only air during suction stroke.
stroke
The carburetor is employed to mix air and petrol in The injector is employed to inject the Diesel fuel at
the required proportion and to supply it to the the end of compression stroke.
engine during suction stroke.
Compression ratio ranges from 7: 1 to Compression ratio ranges from 18:1 to
12: 1 22:1
The charge (petrol and air mixture) is ignited with The ignition of the diesel is accomplished by the
the help of spark plug. This type of ignition is compressed air which will have been heated due to
called spark ignition. high compression ratio, to the temperature higher
than the ignition temperature of the diesel. This
type of ignition is called compression ignition
The combustion of fuel takes place approximately The combustion of fuel takes place approximately
at constant volume. at constant pressure.
Works on theoretical Otto Cycle Works on theoretical Diesel Cycle

Power developed is less. Power developed is more.

Thermal efficiency is low. It is up to about 26% Thermal efficiency is high. It is up to about 40%.

These are high speed engines These are low speed engines.

The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.

The running cost is high because of the higher The running cost is low because of lower cost of
cost of petrol. diesel
Lighter and cheaper because of low compression Heavier and costlier because of high compression
ratio ratio.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

COMPARISON BETWEEN 2-STROKE AND 4-STROKE I.C. ENGINES.

2-Stroke Engine 4-Stroke Engine

Requires two separate strokes to complete one cycle Requires four separate strokes to complete one cycle
of operation of operation
Power is developed in every revolution of the Power is developed in every two revolution of the
crankshaft crankshaft
The inlet, transfer and exhaust ports are opened and The inlet and exhaust are opened and closed by the
closed by the movement of piston itself valves
The charge is first admitted into the crankcase and The charge is directly admitted in to the engine
then transferred to the engine cylinder. cylinder during the suction stroke.
Thermal efficiency is low Thermal efficiency is high

Requires greater lubricant and coolant. Requires lesser lubricant and coolant

Fuel consumption is more. Fuel consumption is less.

Initial cost is less. Initial cost is high

For the same power developed the engine is heavy For the same power developed the Engine is light
and bulky and compact

The exhaust gases will be expelled out of the The exhaust gases are driven out through the
cylinder by scavenging operation by the incoming outlet by the piston during the exhaust stroke
fresh charge
The rate of cooling must be very high since the The cooling can be made more effective since the
combustion takes place in every revolution of the combustion takes place in alternate revolution of
crankshaft the crankshaft

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

PERFORMANCE OF IC ENGINES

Mean effective pressure (MEP): Pm- The mean effective is defined as mean or average pressure
acting on a piston throughout the power stroke. It is also the average pressure developed inside the
5
engine cylinder of an IC engine. It is expressed in Bar. (1 Bar = 10 N/m2)

The mean effective pressure of an engine is obtained indicator diagram. The indicator diagram is the
p–v diagram for one cycle at that load, drawn with the help of an indicator fitted on the engine.
The indicated mean effective pressure is then calculated using the equation:

Indicated Power: Indicated power is defined as the total power developed inside the engine cylinder
due to combustion of fuel. It denoted by IP and is expressed in kW.

IP = nPmLANK(10 /6) in Kilo watts

Where n= number of cylinders
Pm = indicated mean effective pressure in bar
L = length of stroke in m
A = cross-sectional area of the cylinder in m2
2
A = 𝜋𝑑 /4 where d= diameter of cylinder or bore in m
N = engine speed in rpm
K = factor used for easy simplification
K = 1/2 for four stroke engine
K = 1 for two stroke engine

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Brake Power: The net power available at the crank shaft of the engine for performing useful work is
called brake power. It is denoted by BP and expressed in kW.

Where
N = Speed of the engine in rpm

Torque is measured by using either belt or rope brake dynamometer.

W = Net load acting on the brake drum, kg

R = Radius of the brake drum, m
T = Torque in N – m

Friction Power: The amount of power lost due to friction of the various moving parts is called friction
power. It is the difference between indicated power and brake power

Friction power = Indicated power – Brake power.

FP = IP - BP

Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech): It is defined as the ratio of the brake power and the indicated power.

It is expressed in percentage.

Thermal Efficiency ( ηthermal ): It is defined as the ratio of power output to the heat supplied by
the fuel. It is expressed in percentage.

Where Heat supplied = mf x CV

mf = Mass of the fuel in kg/sec
CV = Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (18ME15) Module-III

Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ɳi Thermal): Indicated thermal efficiency can be defined
as the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.

ɳi Thermal = IP*100 / (mf x CV)

η
Brake Thermal Efficiency ( b Thermal): Brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio

of brake power to the heat supplied by the burning fuel.

ɳb Thermal = BP*100 / (mf x CV)

Specific fuel consumption: It measures the amount of fuel required to provide a given power for a
given period. It is expressed in kg/kW - hr.

SFC = Mass of fuel consumed / Power developed

Unit: kg/Kw-hr

SFC based on IP is termed indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) and is given by

ISFC = Mass of fuel consumed / IP

Unit: kg/Kw-hr

SFC based on BP is termed indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) and is given by

ISFC = Mass of fuel consumed / BP

Unit: kg/Kw-hr

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