Structures 1 Handbook 2018-19

Structures 1
BSc / BEng / MEng Civil Engineering and Civil & Architectural Engineering
Contents
Forward ................................................................................................................................................ iii
Module Requirements......................................................................................................................... v
Contents ............................................................................................................................................. vii
Study Plan ............................................................................................................................................ x
Assessment which contributes to learning .................................................................................................... x
Outline module timetable ............................................................................................................................ xi
Plagiarism ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Participation in learning ................................................................................................................................. 1
The inverted classroom .................................................................................................................................. 2
How to use this handbook ............................................................................................................................. 3
How to use Blackboard.................................................................................................................................. 4
How to use info4education.com ................................................................................................................... 6
The Summative Blackboard Tests .................................................................................................................. 7
1. Strength of Materials ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Material Properties.................................................................................................................................. 10
1.1.2 Young’s Modulus, E ......................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.3 Poisson’s Ratio, ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.1.4 Shear Modulus, G ............................................................................................................................ 12
1.1.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion, ............................................................................................... 12
1.2 Elastic Section Properties........................................................................................................................ 13
1.2.1 Centroid of Area ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.2 Second Moment of Area, Iyy and Izz ................................................................................................. 14
1.2.3 Theorem of the Parallel Axis ............................................................................................................ 15
1.2.4 First Moment of Area, Wel ................................................................................................................ 16
1.2.5 Polar Second Moment of Area, Ip .................................................................................................. 21
1.2.6 Radius of Gyration, iyy and izz ............................................................................................................ 21
1.2.7 Shear Centre ................................................................................................................................... 21
1.2.8 Modular Ratio.................................................................................................................................. 22
2. Rigid Body Statics .......................................................................................................................... 25
2.0.1 Mass and Force ............................................................................................................................... 25
2.0.2 Actions and Reactions .................................................................................................................... 25
2.1 The Four Forces ....................................................................................................................................... 26
2.1.1 Axial, N ............................................................................................................................................. 26
2.1.2 Shear, V............................................................................................................................................ 26
2.1.3 Bending, M....................................................................................................................................... 26
2.1.4 Torsion, T .......................................................................................................................................... 26
2.2 The Three Laws of Static Equilibrium ....................................................................................................... 26
2.2.1 Load intensity, shear force and bending moment ........................................................................ 35
2.2.2 Statical Determinacy ...................................................................................................................... 36
2.2.3 The Principle of Superposition ......................................................................................................... 37
2.2.4 How to draw a parabola ................................................................................................................ 38
3. Pin Jointed Frameworks ................................................................................................................ 43
3.1 Resolution at the Joints ...................................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Method of Sections ............................................................................................................................ 47
4. Buckling of Struts ........................................................................................................................... 55
4.0.1 Effective Length, LE ......................................................................................................................... 55
4.0.2 Slenderness, .................................................................................................................................. 56
4.0.3 Euler buckling capacity, PE ............................................................................................................. 57
4.0.4 Rankine buckling capacity, PR ....................................................................................................... 58
4.0.5 Imperfect struts ................................................................................................................................ 59
4.0.6 Perry-Robertson buckling capacity, Nc ........................................................................................... 59
5. Stress Analysis................................................................................................................................ 67
5.1 Direct and Shear Stress ...................................................................................................................... 67
5.1.1 Bending Stress, fm ............................................................................................................................. 67
5.1.2 The Equation of Simple Bending ..................................................................................................... 69
5.1.3 Axial Stress, fn ................................................................................................................................... 69
5.1.4 Combined Direct Stress................................................................................................................... 70
5.1.5 Plane Shear Stress, S ....................................................................................................................... 76
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page vii of 219

Structures 1
5.1.6 Torsional Stress, ............................................................................................................................ 78

5.1.7 Equation of Simple Torsion .............................................................................................................. 79
5.1.7 Combined Shear Stress ................................................................................................................... 80
5.2 Principal Stress......................................................................................................................................... 83
5.2.1 Mohr’s Circle ................................................................................................................................... 85
5.2.2 Factor of Safety ............................................................................................................................... 88
5.2.3 The middle third rule........................................................................................................................ 89
6. Deformation................................................................................................................................... 92
6.1 Torsion of Shafts ...................................................................................................................................... 93
6.2 Deflection of Pin-Jointed Frameworks ................................................................................................... 94
6.3 Deflection of Beams ............................................................................................................................. 100
7. Unsymmetrical Bending .............................................................................................................. 109
7.1 Product Second Moment of Area, Iyz .................................................................................................. 110
7.2 Principal Second Moment of Area, Unsymmetrical Sections, Ivv & Iuu ................................................. 110
7.3 Bending Stress in Unsymmetrical Sections............................................................................................ 111
8. The Eurocodes ............................................................................................................................. 116
8.1 Greek Alphabet ............................................................................................................................... 117
8.2 The Four Structural Elements ............................................................................................................ 117
8.2.1 Tie................................................................................................................................................... 117
8.2.2 Strut ................................................................................................................................................ 117
8.2.3 Beam ............................................................................................................................................. 118
8.2.4 Plates ............................................................................................................................................. 118
9. (EN1990) Eurocode 0 Basis of Design ......................................................................................... 119
9.1.1 Reliability........................................................................................................................................ 119
9.1.2 Limit States ..................................................................................................................................... 120
9.1.3 Combining Actions ....................................................................................................................... 121
10. (EN1991) Eurocode 1 Actions ................................................................................................... 125
10.1 Permanent actions ............................................................................................................................. 125
10.2 Variable actions ................................................................................................................................. 125
10.2.1 Floor imposed action .................................................................................................................. 125
10.2.2 Roof imposed action .................................................................................................................. 126
10.2.3 Roof snow action ........................................................................................................................ 126
10.2.4 Wind action ................................................................................................................................. 126
10.2.5 Reduction of Variable Actions.................................................................................................... 130
10.2.6 Accidental Actions ..................................................................................................................... 130
11. (EN 1993-1-1) Eurocode 3 Structural Steelwork ....................................................................... 139
11.0.1 Structural Steel Section Manufacture ......................................................................................... 139
11.0.2 Fire Protection ............................................................................................................................. 140
11.0.3 Corrosion Protection ................................................................................................................... 141
11.0.4 Guestimating Steelwork Sizes ...................................................................................................... 143
11.0.5 Steelwork Pricing ......................................................................................................................... 143
11.0.6 Section Classification .................................................................................................................. 144
11.0.7 Steel Grades ................................................................................................................................ 145
11.0.8 Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 146
11.0.9 Material Safety Factor................................................................................................................. 146
11.1 Beams ................................................................................................................................................. 147
11.1.1 Shear Capacity, Vc,Rd ................................................................................................................... 147
11.1.2 Bending Capacity, Mc,Rd (full plastic moment capacity) ........................................................... 148
11.1.3 Bending Capacity, Mb,Rd (buckling moment capacity) ............................................................. 148
11.1.4 Moment Gradient ....................................................................................................................... 151
11.1.5 Deflection Calculations (serviceability limit state) ..................................................................... 152
11.1.6 Moment Interaction .................................................................................................................... 152
11.2 Columns .............................................................................................................................................. 157
11.2.1 Compression Capacity, Nc,Rd (squash load) ............................................................................... 158
11.2.2 Axial Flexural Buckling Compression Capacity, Nb,Rd (strut capacity) ........................................ 158
11.2.3 Bending and Compression Capacity (interaction check) ........................................................ 159
11.4 Bracing ................................................................................................................................................ 165
11.4.1 Floor Diaphragms ........................................................................................................................ 165
11.4.2 Tension Capacity ........................................................................................................................ 166
11.5 Roof Trusses ......................................................................................................................................... 170
11.5.1 Gravity condition ........................................................................................................................ 171
11.5.2 Uplift condition ............................................................................................................................ 171
11.6 Simple Connections............................................................................................................................ 178
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page viii of 219

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11.6.1 Ordinary Bolt Capacity ............................................................................................................... 178

11.6.2 Weld Capacity ............................................................................................................................ 180
11.6.3 Flexible End Plates ....................................................................................................................... 182
11.6.4 Simple Base Plates ....................................................................................................................... 182
11.6.5 Web Buckling and Bearing, Fw,Rd ................................................................................................. 184
Hot Rolled Steel Section Properties ............................................................................................................ 190
Universal Beams ..................................................................................................................................... 190
Universal Columns.................................................................................................................................. 192
Angles .................................................................................................................................................... 194
Parallel Flange Channels ....................................................................................................................... 195
Circular Hollow Sections ........................................................................................................................ 196
General Arrangement Drawings ............................................................................................................... 197
Fabrication Detail Drawings....................................................................................................................... 199
The National Structural Steelwork Specification........................................................................................ 201
Units and Conversion ................................................................................................................................. 202
Values of Common Material Properties .................................................................................................... 202
Latin commonly used in Civil Engineering ................................................................................................. 203
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 204
Structural Mechanics Text Books ........................................................................................................... 204
Structural Design Manuals and Books ................................................................................................... 204
Electronic Data Sources ........................................................................................................................ 205
Structural Mechanics Formula Sheet ............................................................................................. 206
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page ix of 219

Structures 1
Structural analysis might be defined as ‘a means of estimating the forces within,

and deformation of, a structure to assist in making engineering judgements’.
An Introduction to Structural Analysis
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 9 of 219

Structures 1
1. Strength of Materials
This section will introduce elastic materials and their use in engineering structures. Students will
learn to calculate elastic material properties and elastic section properties, which are
subsequently used in calculation of deflections and stresses in all structural elements.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 3. Material Properties.ppt , 4. Section Properties.ppt , 4a. Section
Properties Tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Buckle, I.G. The elements of structure. Urry, S.A & Turner, P.J. Solving
Problems in Solid Mechanics, Volume 1.
1.1 Material Properties

In 1679 Robert Hooke published some observations about springs which are now known as
Hookes Law. Put simplistically, ‘when an elastic body is subject to a force, the extension is
proportional to the force’. Although this is of limited use to engineers his work was expanded by
other scientists and in 1807 Thomas Young lectured on the subject of elasticity and observed a
constant relationship for each material, which linked stress and strain. He called it the Modulus
of Elasticity but it is commonly known as Young’s Modulus.
1.1.2 Young’s Modulus, E

If we take an elastic material such as mild steel, which will obey Hookes Law, and form a ‘dog
bone’ shaped test piece which is stretched to destruction, we may plot a graph of stress
against strain which would look like the figure below.
The slope of the initial linear region is the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, which will be a constant
value for each material (at any given temperature and pressure) regardless of whether the
applied force is tension, compression or bending. The initial linear section of the graph indicates
elastic behaviour, where the specimen would return to its original length if unloaded. The stress
at which the material stops behaving elastically is called the yield stress and locates the limit of
proportionality. Loading beyond this point results in a permanent set (or plastic deflection).
F failure point
stress, f
A limit of
proportionality
Test piece before loading

yield stress
fy
F F strain hardening
L e
f F e FL
slope, E e
A L Ae strain,
Test piece after failure L
elastic region plastic region
Stress may generally be defined as force divided by area. It is worth noting that stress is not
real, it is merely a convenient concept used by engineers to assess strength.

Structures 1
Strain may generally be defined as extension divided by original length. It is worth noting that
strain is real, we can measure dimensions and use them to derive stress.
Materials which exhibit a long plastic region (like mild steel) are said to be ductile. Ductility, or
an ability to sustain large strains before failure, is a very useful property because there will be
visible changes in the section of structural elements which warn of impending failure and
therefore aid safety. Materials which are not ductile are said to be brittle, and would typically
suffer strains of less than 5% at failure.
As materials approach failure (at large strains), they often display apparent increases in
strength. This is called strain hardening and results from the reduction in area as the specimen
necks. Usually materials which strain harden will also display reduced ductility.
Structural elements subject to repetitive stress cycling (loading and unloading) often fail at
stress levels below yield stress. This is due to fatigue cracking which develops at changes in
geometry such as notches, holes and sudden changes in thickness.
It is useful to consider these material properties for a variety of construction materials.
600
high tensile steel
500
mild steel
Stress, f (N/mm2)
400
300
aluminium
200
100
glass
timber
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Strain, (%)
1.1.3 Poisson’s Ratio,

When a material is strained longitudinally, it will also strain laterally. This F
phenomena was first observed by S.D Poisson who named this material
constant after himself. The value of Poisson’s Ratio ranges from 0.13 for stiff
materials like concrete, up to 0.5 for flexible materials like rubber.
e b
Longitudinal strain, long e
L
B b
Lateral strain, lateral
B B
L
lateral
Poisson’s ratio,
long

Structures 1
1.1.4 Shear Modulus, G

Although the shear modulus will be explored further in the stress analysis section, it is worth
defining this material property. Like the modulus of elasticity, the shear modulus is a constant
value for any particular elastic material.
Shear is a force which distorts shape; in a rectangular structural

element subject to shear, the distorted shape is a parallelogram.
The resulting shear stresses would cause the element to rotate so there
must be complementary shear stresses which balance the forces.
The shear modulus relates the distortion angle to the shear stress .
The shear modulus, G (units N/mm2)
The relationship between modulus of elasticity and shear modulus is;

E
G
21
1.1.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion,

All materials change size when subject to temperature change. Engineers accommodate this
in different ways but it is important to be able to calculate the amount of expansion (or
contraction) which requires the coefficient of thermal expansion.
L e
To obtain the change in length or width, e L T

where e is the change in size, L is the length of the structure in the direction being considered,
is the coefficient of thermal expansion and T is the change in temperature.
A table of common material properties is included at the end of the section on Writing
Laboratory Reports.
Thermal expansion becomes a hot topic when differing materials are attached together, as
exposure to normal temperature changes can cause intolerable stresses to be developed in
the structural connectors. Alternatively, night/day thermal change can set up fatigue stresses
withn the same material. In steel frame buildings, movement joints are required to releive these
internal expansion stresses every 100m in low-rise industrial buildings, or every 50m in multi-storey
commercial buildings.
Summary table of material properties is presented here:
Elastic Poisson’s ratio Shear modulus Modular ratio

modulus (see later)
Symbol E ν G m
Units kN/mm2 none kN/mm2 None
Equation E=σ ν = Lateral ε G=τ G= E . m = Esteel
ε Long. ε γ 2 (1 + ν) Econcrete

Structures 1
1.2 Elastic Section Properties

In order to investigate the strength and stiffness of structural elements we will need to know
some special properties of the geometrical shapes used in construction.
1.2.1 Centroid of Area

The term centre of gravity is commonly used to describe the point in a general section where
all mass may be assumed to act. When two-dimensional structures are considered we adopt
the term centroid of area to mean the same thing.
To calculate the location of the centroid of area, we take moments about the top (or right)
edge, but rather than using force we take moments of area.
The general term for centroid of area is Ay An yn which means, the sum of moments of
area of the parts is equal to the equivalent moment of area of the total area about the
centroid, or, AT y A1 y1 A2 y2 ...... An yn
where AT is the total area of the section, y is the distance to the centroid, An is the area of a
part and yn is the distance to the centroid of that part. An example will clarify the calculation
procedure.
The position of the centroid of a section will be defined about two axes, necessitating the
calculation of y and z . First consider z - the distance along the Z-Z axis to the centroid,
Z
z 25
Y Y
This denotes the
position of the centroid 125 We will begin by
measuring
distances down
from this line
y
10
100
Z
We know that the centre of gravity of a rectangle is half way along each side, so we can
conveniently chop this angle section into two rectangular parts.
Measuring distances downward from the top O O

12.5
edge, to calculate z
AT z A1 z1 A2 z 2 75
(100x25 + 100x10) z = (100x25x12.5)+(100x10x75)
z =30.4 mm
this is the distance to the centroid of the whole
section from the top surface datum. Area No 1 - 100 x 25
Area No 2 – 100 x 10

Structures 1
Measuring distances left from the right hand edge, to

calculate y
AT y A1 y1 A2 y 2
(100x25 + 100x10) y = (100x25x50)+(100x10x95)
y =62.9 mm
this is the distance to the centroid of the whole section
from the far right surface datum. 50
95
O
This process of dividing a section into simple shapes and taking moments of area may be
applied to more complicated shapes. To help avoid error when doing this, it is helpful to
tabulate the calculation. to recalculate z as an example,
Element breadth depth area distance A.z

2
No b (mm) d (mm) A (mm ) z (mm) (mm3)
1 100 25 2500 12.5 31250
A. z
2 10 100 1000 75 75000 z 30.4 mm
A= 3500 A.z = 106250 A
Tabulation often means that calculation errors can be eliminated or identified more easily,
particularly if sections composed of many elements are being analysed.
If we wish to be able to calculate the position of the centroid for a section which is not formed
from rectangles then we may use the standard values in the next figure.
1.2.2 Second Moment of Area, Iyy and Izz

The physical response of a structural section to loading (deflection) is governed by the material
type (Young’s modulus of elasticity) and a function of geometry.
0
z 2 .dA is called the Second Moment of Area (Iyy) about the neutral axis. This function is not
A
easy to visualise in a practical manner, however evaluating it is not difficult. Let us consider the
most common shape - a rectangle;
In this arrangement, bending will be about the y-y

axis,
d d d
z3 bd 3
2 2 2
2 2
I yy z .dA z b.dz b
d
2
d
2
3 d
12
2
Y 3
db
Y similarly, I zz
12
In this way standard relationships for basic shapes
may be derived and combined to evaluate I for
more complex shapes.
If we wish to calculate I for built-up sections, the process is very simple when the axis of bending
coincides with the centroid of area,

Structures 1
Z if we consider the annular (tube) section

shown,
D4
for the solid outer circle I yy I zz
Y 64
d D d4
Y for the circular void I yy I zz
64
the net value for the hatched tube may be

Z centroid of circle calculated as,
coincides with y-y
D4 d4 D4 d 4
and z-z axes I yy I zz
64 64 64
Z
When the centroid of the elements which

make up the section do not coincide with
Y Y the axis of bending we need to account for
the distance between the neutral axis and
centroid of
the element centroids. To do this we must
individual
centroid use the Theorem of the Parallel Axis.
element
of whole
section
Z
1.2.3 Theorem of the Parallel Axis
The second moment of area of a compound section (one built up from standard shapes)
about the neutral axis is the sum of I for the individual elements plus the product of the element
areas and their centroidal distance from the section neutral axis, or
I N.A I Ah 2
The is best demonstrated by an example, let us consider the angle section examined earlier to
locate the centroidal axis.
First consider y-y bending:
for area 1 (100x25), the distance from its
Z zero datum
Area 1 centroid to the compound section centroid is
h1 = 18mm
z 30 bd 3 100 25 3
h1 =18 I 130208mm 4
Y Y 12 12
h2 =45 Ah 100 25 18 2
2
810000mm 4
Area 2

centroid to the compound section centroid is
h2 = 45mm
bd 3 10 100 3
I 833333mm 4
Z 12 12
Ah 100 10 45 2
2
2025000mm 4
I yyN . A I Ah 2 130208 810000 833333 2025000 3,798,541mm 4

Structures 1
Z Now consider z-z bending:

Area 1 for area 1 (100x25), the distance from its
k1 = 13mm
Y Y db 3 25 100 3
I 2083333mm 4
12 12
Ah 100 25 13 2
2
422500mm 4
Area 2
k1 = 13
zero datum
k2 = 32mm
k2 = 32 y 63 db 3 100 10 3
I 8333mm 4
12 12
Z Ah 100 10 32 2 1024000mm 4
2
I zzN. A I Ah 2 2083333 422500 8333 1024000 3,538,166mm 4
This process is also best undertaken in tabulated form, to reduce and identify calculation errors.
Element breadth depth area distance A.z h= z-z Ah 2 bd 3 / 12

No b (mm) d (mm) A (mm ) z (mm)
2
(mm3) (mm) (mm4) (mm4)
1 100 25 2500 12.5 31250 18.0 810000 130208
2 10 100 1000 75 75000 -45.0 2025000 833333
A= 3500 A.z = 106250 2835000 963542
A. z bd3 4
z 30.4 mm I yyN. A. Ah2 3798542 mm
A 12
1.2.4 First Moment of Area, Wel

The first moment of area is a section property which is used to obtain bending stress values. It
may be derived as the product of area and its distance from the centroidal axis. However,
since we are likely to also require the second moment of area (to obtain deflections) then it is
I
often simpler to calculate Wel from I, since Wel .
z
Calculate Wel for a tube. Distance to the centroid from Z

the outer edge of the tube is
z 89 44.5mm 4.45cm
2 Y 77 89
D4 d 4 89 4 77 4 1,354,282 Y
I N . A. 1354cm 4
64 64 10 3
I N . A 1354
Wel 304cm 3
z 4.45
Z
So, we have just calculated I for the angle section in the previous section, let us now calculate
Wel about the y-y axis.

Structures 1
As the section is not symmetrical there are two Z

possible values of z,
For the section above the N.A 25
I yyN . A 3,798,541mm 4 , z 30mm z
Y Y
I yyN . A 3798541 126681
Wel , y 126,681mm 3 3
126.7cm 3 125
z 30 10
For the section below the N.A
I yyN . A 3,798,541mm4 , h - z 125 30 95mm
I yyN . A 3798541 39985
Wel , y 39,985mm3 40cm 3
z 95 103 y
10
100
Z
The first moment of area is also known as the Section Modulus. Section property tables will
often quote Elastic Section Modulus (traditionally represented by Z) and Plastic Section Modulus
(traditionally represented by S)

Structures 1
Z
175
20 A.z
z
A
8
350
Y Y
I yyN . A I Ah 2
30
250
Z
Element b d A=bd z A.z h z z I bd 3 12 Ah2
No (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm) (mm4) (mm4)
125 A.z
Y Y z
A
600
I yyN . A I Ah 2
250 250 175 250 250
Element b d A z A.z h z z I Ah2


Structures 1
Z
4mm thick mild steel
75
A.z
z
A
Y Y
230
I yyN . A I Ah 2
75
98
100 100
Z
Element b d A=bd z A.z h z z I bd 3 12 Ah2
600 x 300 concrete beam

Econc = 32 kN/mm2
A.z
z
I 3
bd 12 A
Y Y EI yyN . A EI Ah 2
Five 25mm diameter steel
reinforcing bars
25 Esteel = 210 kN/mm2
I d 4 64
Z
Element A z A.z h z z I Ah2 E(I+Ah2)
No (mm2 ) (mm) (mm3 ) (mm) (mm4 ) (mm4 ) (x106 Nmm2)

Structures 1
26
PFC Y-Y
A.z
z
Y-Y Y-Y A
UB Y-Y
I yyN . A I Ah 2
230
Crane beam manufactured from :
457x191x82 UB and 300x90x41 PFC
Z
Element A z A.z h z z I Ah2
No (cm2) (cm) (cm3) (cm) (cm4) (cm4)
1 104 37100
2 52.7 404
75 x 75 timber flange
Etimber = 10 kN/mm2 A.z
z
A
Y Y
600 x 12 plywood web
Etimber = 25 kN/mm2
I yyN . A I Ah 2
100 x 75 timber flange

Etimber = 10 kN/mm2
Z
Element b d A z A.z h z z I Ah2 E(I+Ah2)
No (mm) (mm) (mm2 ) (mm) (mm3 ) (mm) (x106 mm4) (x106 mm4) (x106 Nmm2)

Structures 1
1.2.5 Polar Second Moment of Area, Ip

The polar second moment of area is used in torsion calculations (twisting of the x-x axis) which
can become very complicated. This text will only deal with simple torsion of shafts, for which
the Ip may be evaluated using the following formulae.
D4
For solid shafts I p
32 D
4 4 d D
D d
For annular shafts I p
32
For general sections where the centroids of the compound section and elements coincide
then, Ip = Iyy + Izz
1.2.6 Radius of Gyration, iyy and izz

This section property is used in the analysis of struts. It is a measure of axial flexibility, and gives
the maximum distance from the centroid which the mass could be assumed to act without
changing the I value.
2
I yy I zz
So, Ai I or, rearranging, i yy and izz
A A
1.2.7 Shear Centre

In any section, a transverse load will result in twisting of the section if the point of application is
not at the shear centre. The shear centre must lie on the principal axes, so in doubly symmetric
sections such as UB and hollow sections the shear centre coincides with the centroid. In singly
symmetric sections such as channels the shear centre does not coincide with the centroid, this
will induce twisting, so torsion and warping stresses will result. This uses up some of the available
stress capacity and results in reduced bending and shear capacities.
To locate the shear centre it is first necessary to evaluate the shear stress distribution due to the
transverse action (see the section on Plane Shear Stress S). Then the shear force in the flange
may be evaluated and equilibrium applied to obtain the eccentricity of the shear centre
F1
Shear stress distribution
S1
V Shear force distribution
S2
tf
F2
y-y axis
s h
2
e b F3
VA' z
If the section is of uniform thickness, S1 S2 and F1 S1 tf b 0.5
bI y
Vertical equilibrium, V 0, F2 V
Horizontal equilibrium, H 0, F1 F3
h F1 h
Moments about shear centre, M 0, F2 e 2 F1 , so e may be calculated, e
2 F2

Structures 1
1.2.8 Modular Ratio

Structures are often formed by joining together elements of differing materials, called
composites. As we have already seen, we may simply calculate a flexural rigidity EI
for such compound elements. However, it may be necessary to obtain a single
stiffness value for analysis and design purposes, which requires a modular ratio.
steel-timber steel-concrete steel-masonry

flitched beam composite beam Quetta bond retaining wall
Most civil engineering composites contain steel because it is one of the few materials
which performs well in tension, and has a high modulus of elasticity.
The modular ratio of a composite is the ratio of the two Young’s moduli. So for the
flitched timber beam,
Esteel 210,000
m 21 which means steel is 21 times stiffer than timber, and if we
Etimber 10,000
wished to obtain a single second moment of area of the composite section,
I timber
I composite I steel to give an answer in units of steel.
m
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 3. Material Properties.ppt , 4. Section Properties.ppt
, 4a. Section Properties Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will
suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Strength of Materials Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Strength of Materials – Self Assessment Exercise
1. sketch the stress-strain relationship you would expect to obtain from a tensile test on
a mild steel specimen. Indicate the following on your graph:
the elastic region
the limit of proportionality
the yield stress
Define the relationship which is attributed to the slope of the graph in the elastic
region.
2. Explain the following terms:

strain hardening
ductility
elastic material
fatigue
3. A beam is formed by nailing two pieces of

timber together. The modulus of elasticity for both Y Y
pieces of timber is the same. Locate the centroid,
and calculate the second moment of area for
major axis bending.
4. A crane girder is manufactured by welding together a Universal Beam and a Parallel

Flanged Channel. Locate the centroid and calculate the second moment of area for
major axis bending. Cy is the distance to the PFC centroid.
PFC UB
Cy=2.64cm Iyy=47520cm4
tw
Izz=265cm4 A=105cm2
tw=8.9mm
265mm
A=37.9cm2
5. An aircraft wing is formed from 2mm thick aluminium sheets and 3mm thick mild
steel zed-sections. Obtain the flexural rigidity (EI) of a 1.00m wide section for major axis
bending. Take Esteel = 210 kN/mm2 and Ealuminium = 70 kN/mm2
N.A Y Y
For an individual zed-section calculate the Product Second Moment of Area.

Structures 1
6. A plyweb beam is formed from two solid timber

flanges and two plywood webs. Calculate the flexural
rigidity (EI) given that Etimber = 9000N/mm2 and Eplywood =
12000N/mm2
Y Y
7. A column is built-up by bracing three, 10mm

thick, mild steel tubes together. The tube external
diameter is 150mm. Y Y
Calculate Iyy , A and iyy
8. A lifting beam is made from a UB and a top Z

flange plate. The plate is 250mmx10mm and the UB
has Iyy=18600cm4 and A=68cm2 and an overall depth
h=460mm. Calculate the second moment of area
Y Y
for major axis bending.
9. An asymmetric beam has the dimension

given adjacent. For major axis bending,
calculate:
the position of the centroid, z
the second moment of area,
the first moment of area,
the radius of gyration

Structures 1
2. Rigid Body Statics
This section will introduce the analysis of rigid bodies such as beams. Students will learn to
calculate global elastic forces in a structure subject to external loading, and represent them in
diagramatic form.
lectures on Blackboard: 5. Analysis of Beams.ppt , 5a. Analysis of Beams Tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Kaufman, H.F. A Structures Primer. Hanaor, A. Principles of Structures.
2.0.1 Mass and Force
All objects have mass, which is the same at all points in the universe. It is the measure of how
much material the object contains. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
According to Newton’s second law, a mass is subject to a force dependant upon the
gravitational acceleration (g) exerted upon it. On Earth, g = 9.81 m/s2
and, Force = Mass x g
2.0.2 Actions and Reactions
Year 1 structural mechanics deals with structures which can be analysed using Newtonian
Mechanics.
Newton’s third laws states that all actions have equal and opposite reactions. Actions are the
forces applied to structures. Taking a beam as an example of a structure which spans between
supports:
actions may be of any intensity but we will only consider point
and uniformly distributed actions.
The beam is assumed to be isotropic (unchanging cross section)
and homogenous (unchanging material throughout).
Various support conditions are possible, depending upon the
amount of restraint.
A point action (force). The arrow denotes direction and the

number denotes the magnitude. Units are important, kN =
kiloNewton = 1000 Newtons.
A uniformly distributed action is similar to a point action but

evenly spread out, in this case the total action is 10kN/m x 4.0m
= 40kN
Beam supports are drawn in many ways but all depictions are intended to signify the number
and direction of the support reactions. Reactions are the forces exerted by foundations to
support the structure. There are three types of reaction:

Structures 1
Simple support (or pin)

The end of the beam is held in position but
permitted to rotate.
Roller support
The end of the beam is permitted to rotate
and roll horizontally but not displace
vertically.
Fixed support (or built-in or encastre)

The end of the beam is not permitted to
rotate or displace horizontally or vertically.
2.1 The Four Forces

When a beam is loaded, it must displace. This displacement generates internal forces
which resist the external loading. There are only four types of internal force.
2.1.1 Axial, N
N N Axial force is applied along the longitudinal
axis of the beam. If the beam shortens, the
force is compressive. If the beam lengthens,
V the force is tensile.
2.1.2 Shear, V
A shear force acts perpendicular to the
V longitudinal axis of the beam, and attempts to
sever the beam.
2.1.3 Bending, M
M M
A bending moment is a twist applied in the
plane of the beam. Usually, bending moments
are a result of forces acting at a lever arm but
a couple is a special case of an in-plane twist
applied to a beam.
T
T 2.1.4 Torsion, T
A pure torque is a twist applied along the
longitudinal axis of the beam

Structures 1
2.2 The Three Laws of Static Equilibrium

There are three laws of equilibrium which describe the total force in static structures.
1. The sum of horizontal forces must equal zero, H 0

or, the horizontal forces going left = the horizontal forces going right.
2. The sum of vertical forces must equal zero, V 0
or, the vertical forces going up = the vertical forces going down.
3. The sum of moments at any point must equal zero, M 0
or, at any point the clockwise moments = the anticlockwise moments.
If any of these laws are not met the structure will move, and therefore not be static.
It is worthwhile defining a moment. In the context of F

equilibrium. The moment about a point is equivalent to:
La
Moment = Force x perpendicular lever arm
M = F x La
The lever arm must be the perpendicular distance between

the force and the point at which the moment is taken. M
Horizontal equilibrium Vertical equilibrium Moment equilibrium
The sum of the applied horizontal forces The sum of the applied vertical forces is The sum of the applied moment forces is zero
is zero zero ΣM=0
ΣH=0 ΣV=0 2m 4m
3 kN 3 kN 1kN
1kN 0.5kN
1kN Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Forces to the left = Forces to the right Upwards forces = Downwards forces 1 kN x 2m = 0.5kN x 4m
3kN = 3kN 1kN = 1kN 2kNm = 2kNm
The system is (horizontally) static The system is (vertically) static The system is static
Horizontal equilibrium Vertical equilibrium Moment equilibrium
The sum of the applied horizontal forces The sum of the applied vertical forces is The sum of the applied moment forces is zero
is zero zero
ΣM=0
ΣH=0 ΣV=0
The anticlockwise = The clockwise moment

Wind load to = Ability of building The downwards = The upwards moment caused by caused by the support
Right to provide reaction to vertical self-weight vertical reaction the swimmer (about of the diving board
Left of the steel beam from the wall the support)
The building doesn’t moveHaynes

© Jonathan when wind The wall can support the3.3
version self-weight of The rotational moment generated
Page 27 ofby
219the
blows – if the reaction equals the the steel beam – if the wall reaction swimmer can be withstood – if the rotational
applied force equals the applied force reaction at the support is enough
Structures 1
We are now equipped to analyse some simple beams.

P This beam supports one vertical action, and has
two supports. The left support will sustain a
A B horizontal and vertical reaction, the right support
HA will sustain only a vertical reaction.
VA VB Calculate the reactions

a b
L Taking moments about A, M 0
actions rotating anticlockwise around A, VB L
VA actions rotating clockwise around A, P a
0 0
Pa
1. start at reaction equating, VB L P a , VB
A, go up the value L
of VA
applying vertical equilibrium, V 0
Pa a Pb
0
P
0 V A VB P, V A P P1
2. move horizontally until L L L
reaching the next vertical force,
go down the value of P
we may now plot a graph of forces which act
perpendicular to the beam axis (like P and VA) which is
0 0 called a Shear Force Diagram.
3. move horizontally until VB
reaching the next vertical
forces, go up the value of VB
Pa
L
Diagram (kN)
Shear Force
0 0 4. To finish the shear force diagram, hatch the area between the zero
axis and the line we have just constructed.
Pb
L
B Calculate the bending moments

Mmax cut the beam at midspan and construct a free body
b diagram for the section to the right,
clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments, M 0
compression bulge VB
M max VB b
It is worth noting that the hatched part of the

bending moment diagram is drawn on the tension
side of the beam. To identify the tension side we
tension cracks must imagine the deflected shape of the beam.
The bending moment will rotate around the zero
Bending Moment
axis pointing at the tension side.

Diagram (kNm)
Mmax
VB b
Let us now look at an example with multiple point loads and numerical values:

Structures 1
Reaction calculations
A B C D E F G
Applying equations of statics.
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m ΣH = 0. External horizontal forces are not applied to the beam; therefore
horizontal reactions are not required.
ΣV = 0.
Upwards forces = Downwards forces
10kN 5kN 20kN VA + VG = 10kN + 5kN + 20kN
VA + VG = 35kN……………..…………….……….(1)
C ΣM = 0. Taking moments about G
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
VA (6m) = 10kN(5m) + 5kN(3m) + 20kN(1m)
VA (6m) = 50kNm + 15kNm + 20kNm
VA (6m) = 85kNm
VA = 85kNm = 14.167kN
VA VG 6m
Substitute VA into equation (1)
14.167kN + VG = 35kN
VG = 35kN – 14.167kN = 20.833kN
Shear force diagram calculations
Shear force diagram @A There is nothing to the left of A. Therefore shear = 0. But if we move a small amount to the right of A
(say 2mm) there is a 14.167kN upward force to the left of the point we are considering. This effect is
represented by drawing a line up from our starting base line, and we go up 14.167kN
@B There is only one force to the left of B. This is the 14.167kN reaction force at A. Therefore shear @ B
= + 14.167kN. But if we move a very small amount to the right of B (say 2mm) there is now a
+14.167kN force @A acting upward and a -10kN force acting downward. The shear at this point =
14.167 – 10 = +4.167kN. This value is plotted and a line drawn between this and the previous point at
B.
@C There are two forces to the left of C. @A there is a 14.167kN (upwards) force and a -10kN force acting
(downwards) at B. Shear @ C = +14.167 – 10 = +4.167kN. This value is plotted and a line drawn
between this and the previous point at B + 2mm.
@D Shear @D = 14.167 – 10 = +4.167kN But if we move a very small amount to the right of D (say 2mm)
0 0 there is now a +14.167kN force @A acting upward, a - 10kN force acting downward @B, and a - 5kN
downward force @D. The shear at this point = 14.167 – 10 – 5 = – 0.833kN. This value is plotted and
a line drawn between this and the previous point at D.
@E Shear @E = 14.167 – 10 - 5 = – 0.833kN. This value is plotted and a line drawn between
this and the previous point at D + 2mm.
@F She @F Shear @F = 14.167 – 10 - 5 = – 0.833kN. If we move a very small amount to the right of F (say 2mm)
there is now a +14.167kN force @A acting upward, a - 10kN force acting downward @C, a - 5kN
downward force @D, and a – 10kN force acting downwards @F. The shear at this point = 14.167 – 10
– 5 – 20= – 20.833kN. This value is plotted and a line drawn between this and the previous point at F.
@G Shear @G = 17.5 – 10 – 5 – 20= – 20.833kN. If we move a very small amount to the right of G (say
2mm) there is now a +14.167kN force @A acting upward, a - 10kN force acting downward @C, a -
5kN downward force @D, a – 20kN force acting downwards @F, and a + 20.833kN force acting @G.
The shear at this point = 14.167 – 10 – 5 – 20 + 20.833 = 0kN. This value is plotted and a line drawn
between this and the previous point at G.
The shear force diagram should start at the zero shear baseline and finish at the zero shear
baseline. If it doesn’t you have done something wrong!!!!
Bending moment diagram calculations
Bending Moment diagram
@A There is nothing to the left of A. Therefore B.M. = 0kNm
@B There is only one force to the left of B, this is 14.167kN. The distance from B to that force is 1m.
Therefore B.M. @B = + 14.167kN x 1m = + 14.167kNm. We plot this value and draw a line from the
previous point at A.
@C There are two forces to the left of C. This is the 14.167kN upwards reaction force at A. The distance
from C to that force is 2m. There is also a 10kN downwards force acting at B, this is 1m from C
Therefore B.M. @C = (14.167kN x 2m) – (10kN x 1m) = +18.334kNm. This value is plotted
0 0 and a line drawn between this and the previous point at B.
@D There are two forces that we have to consider. The 14.167kN force at support A, which causes a
clockwise moment and a 10kN force at B, which causes an anticlockwise moment. The distance
of point D to the 14.167kN force is 3m. The distance of point D to the 10kN force is 2m. Therefore
the B.M. @D = + [14.167kN x 3m] – ‘[10kN x 2m] = +22.501kNm. This value is plotted and a line
drawn between this and the previous point at C
@E There are three forces that we have to consider. The 14.167kN force at support A, which causes a
clockwise moment and a 10kN force at B, which causes an anticlockwise moment, and a 5kN
force at D which causes an anticlockwise moment. The distance of point E to the 14.167kN force is
4m. The distance of point E to the 10kN force is 3m, and the distance of point E to the 5kN force
is 1m. Therefore the B.M. @E = + [17.5kN x 4m] – ‘[10kN x 3m] – [5kN x 1m] = +21.668kNm. This
value is plotted and a line drawn between this and the previous point at D.
@F There are three forces that we have to consider. The 14.167kN force at support A, which causes a
clockwise moment and a 10kN force at B, which causes an anticlockwise moment, and a 5kN
force at D which causes an anticlockwise moment. The distance of point F to the 14.167kN force is
5m. The distance of point F to the 10kN force is 4m, and the distance of point F to the 5kN force
is 2m. Therefore the B.M. @F = + [14.167kN x 5m] – ‘[10kN x 4m] – [5kN x 2m] = +20.835kNm. This
value is plotted and a line drawn between this and the previous point at E.
@G There are four forces that we have to consider. The 14.167kN force at support A, which causes a
clockwise moment, and a 10kN force at B, which causes an anticlockwise moment, and a 5kN
force at D, which causes an anticlockwise moment, and a 20kN force at F which causes an
anticlockwise moment. The distance of point G to the 14.167kN force is 6m. The distance of point
G to the 10kN force is 5m, and the distance of point G to the 5kN force is 3m and the distance of
the 20kN force is 1m. Therefore the B.M. @D = + [14.167kN x 6m] – ‘[10kN x 5m] – [5kN x 3m] –
[20kN x 1m] = 0kNm. This value is plotted and a line drawn between this and the previous point
at F.
Structures 1
And now an example with numerical values and a uniformly distributed action.
Taking moments about A, M 0
30 kN 12 kN/m
5
10VB 30 2 12 5 3 2 , VB 51kN
2
HA A B vertical equilibrium, V 0
VA VB 30 12 5 , VA 39kN
VA VB
horizontal equilibrium, H 0
2 3m 5m
HA 0kN
10 m
Now plot the shear force diagram.
39
Shear Force Diagram (kN)
2. go down 30kN The point where the shear force diagram cuts the zero
1. go up 39kN
9 axis is significant because it coincides with the

location of the maximum bending moment.
3. go down
12kN/m x 5m
-51 We may locate the point of zero shear by using similar
4. go up 51kN
triangles:
9 51
9 5-x ,x 0.75m
x 5 x
x
Therefore zero shear occurs 4.25m from B.
51
To draw the bending moment diagram with all values, we must calculate the bending
moment at three points:
At the 30kN point action
A cut a free body diagram, M 0
M30 2VA M 30 , M 30 2 39 78kNm
VA 12 kN/m
2m
At the left end of the uniform action
cut a free body diagram, M 0
B
Mudl 5
5VB M udl 12 5 , M udl 5 51 150 105kNm
5m 2
VB
12 kN/m
At the point of zero shear
B
Mmax 4.25
4.25VB M max 12 4.25
4.25 m 2
VB M max 4.25 51 150 108kNm
Bending Moment
Now plot the bending moment diagram.

Diagram (kNm)
78
105
108 this part will be a parabola
hung from the dotted line

Structures 1
RULES FOR PLOTTING SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAMS.

1. under a uniform load the line is inclined
2. under a point load the line is vertical
3. where there is no load the line is horizontal
4. values are obtained by summing forces perpendicular to the beam axis, along the
beam
RULES FOR PLOTTING BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS.

1. under a uniform load the shape is parabolic
2. under point loads the shape is triangular
3. values are obtained by applying moment equilibrium to free body diagrams, along
the beam
And now an example which involves a cantilever.

15 kN/m 10 kN Taking moments about A, M 0
3
5VB 10 7 15 3 2 , VB 45.5kN
100 kN 2
HA A D B C
vertical equilibrium, V 0
VA VB VA VB 10 15 3 , VA 9.5kN
2m 3m 2m horizontal equilibrium, H 0
7m HA 100kN
2. plot reaction -100 1. plot 100 kN Now plot the axial force diagram using forces parallel
100 to the beam.
Diagram (kN)
Axial Force
0 0
1. go up 3.5 kN
4. go down 10kN
10 Now plot the shear force diagram using forces
9.5 perpendicular to the beam.
0 0
3. go up 45.5kN Locate the point of maximum bending using similar
triangles:
2. go down 9.5 35.5
15kN/m x 3m -35.5 , x 0.633m
x 3 x
9.5 3-x
Therefore zero shear occurs 2.633m from A.
x
35.5
To draw the bending moment diagram with are interested in the maximum values of
bending moment in the span and on the cantilever:
A At point D
MD cut a free body diagram, M 0
VA 2VA MD, MD 2 9.5 19kNm
2m

Structures 1
10kN
At point B (cantilever support)
MB
15 kN/m B
10 2 M B , M B 20kNm
A 2m
D At the point of max bending
Mmax cut a free body diagram, M 0
0.633
VA 0.633
2.633 m m 2.633V A M max 15 0.633
2
20
M max 22kNm
Bending Moment
Diagram (kNm)
0
Now plot the bending moment diagram.
0
19
this part will be a parabola
22 hung from the dotted line
40 kN 20 kN
An example of a cantilever beam: 70 kN
3.00 m 2.00 m
The deflected shape can be seen by
clamping a ruler at the edge of a desk
and pushing the free edge downwards. 40 kN 20 kN
A
HA
The only support is at the fixed end. 70 kN
There must be a horizontal reaction (HA), a MA B C
vertical reaction (VA)and a moment
reaction (MA) – which acts anti-clockwise VA no rotation at the
fixed support
deflected
to push the ruler back to its unloaded

shape
position.
70
AFD
horizontal equilibrium, H 0 0 0
HA 70kN
60
SFD
20
vertical equilibrium, V 0 0 0
VA 40 20 220
BMD
VA 60kN 40
0 0
To obtain bending moment at B, 20 kN

MB
Taking moments about B, M 0
MA 40 3 20 5 B
free body diagrams
MA 220kNm 2m
To obtain bending moment at A, 40 kN 20 kN

MA
MA 40 3 20 5 A
MA 220kNm 3m 2m

Structures 1
An example of a simply supported beam: 40 kN 30 kN 10 kN/m
The support at A can resist both horizontal (HA)

and vertical reactions (VA), whereas support E
can only resist a vertical reaction (VC).
1.50 m 2.50 m 1.00 m 3.00 m
Taking moments about A, M 0 10 kN/m

40 kN 30 kN
8 VE 40 1.5 30 4 10 3 6.5
VE 46.9kN HA B C D
VA 46.9 40 30 10 3 VA VE
deflected
shape
VA 53.1kN
point of zero shear =

point of max moment
53.1
The maximum bending moment will be at
SFD
13.1
point C (the point of zero shear) 0 0
16.9
46.9
0 0
BMD
79.7
95.7
112.4
Taking moments to right of B, M 0
MB 1.5 53.1 1.50 m
MB 79.7kNm
MB
53.1
Taking moments to left of C, M 0 40 kN
MC 4.0 53.1 2.50 40
free body diagrams
M C 112.4kNm
53.1
MC
Taking moments to left of D, M 0 1.50 m 2.50 m

10 kN/m
2
3
MD 10 3 46.9
2
MD 46.9
MD 95.7kNm 3.00 m

Structures 1
An example of a three pin beam: 35 kN 100 kN
This beam has a pin in the right hand span

(where the bending moment must be zero).
The support at A can resist both horizontal (HA)
and vertical reactions (VA), whereas supports C 2.00 m 3.00 m 1.5 m 2.00 m 1.00 m
and F can only resist vertical reactions (VC and
VF). 35 kN 100 kN
HA D
Taking moments to right of D, M 0
B E
3 VF 100 2
VA VC VF
VF 66.7kN no deflection
deflected
at supports
shape
5 VC 9.5 VF 35 2 100 8.5
5VC 9.5 66.7 70 850 33.2
10.9
VC 57.3kN
SFD
0 0
VA 57.3 66.7 35 100 24.1
66.7
VA 10.9kN
50.5
horizontal equilibrium, H 0
BMD
HA 0kN 0 0
21.8
point of contraflexure = 66.7

zero bending moment =
Taking moments to right of E, M 0 change in slope direction
1.00 m
ME 1 66.7
ME 66.7kNm ME
66.7
2.00 m
Taking moments to left of B, M 0
free body diagrams
MB 2 10.9
MB
10.9
MB 21.8kNm
35 kN
Taking moments to left of C, M 0
MC 5 10.9 3 35 MC
10.9
MC 50.5kNm 2.00 m 3.00 m
Check that the bending moment at D is

zero by drawing a free body diagram and
applying moment equilibrium.

Structures 1
2.2.1 Load intensity, shear force and bending moment
There is a relationship between loading, shear and bending moment which may be
investigated at this point, and explains why the maximum bending moment occurs at zero
shear force.
Consider a beam subject to any uniform loading, w (kN/m). If we extract a small element of
length x then the uniform load may be considered constant over its length.
The shear force change over its length is given by,
VB VA w. x
sin ce, V B VA v
x x then, V A v VA w. x initial slope final slope
w. x v 0 -ive +ive
MA
and if the elemental dimension x is very small and tends to
MB=MA+ M zero, then
dv
VA x VB=VA+ V w which may be interpreted as;
dx
the rate of change of shear force at a section = minus the load intensity
taking moments about point A,

x
MA M V A v x w x. MA 0
2
this may be simplified by removing the insignificant second order terms to give,
M v x 0
and if the elemental dimension z is very small and tends to zero, then
dM
V which may be interpreted as;
dx
the slope of the bending moment diagram = the shear force at that section or
the maximum bending moment is located at zero shear force
If this expression is integrated between any two points on the beam,

z 2 dM z2 z2
.dx V .dx then, M 2 M 1 V .dx which may be interpreted as;
z1 dx z1 z1
the change in bending moment between two points = the area of the shear force diagram
between the same two points
in summary, we have a relationship between three fundamental parameters,

dV d 2 M
w
dx dx 2

Structures 1
2.2.2 Statical Determinacy

The structures analysed in this text must all be statically determinate (they can be analysed
using Equilibrium only). It is useful to know when a structure is not statically determinate (and
we must therefore apply techniques which will be addressed in year 2).
A simple equation may be applied.

For statically determinate structures, (m r) 2 j 0
For statically indeterminate structures, (m r ) 2 j 0
For unstable structures, (m r ) 2 j 0
where, m = the number of members

r = the number of reactions
j = the number of joints
m 9
r 3
j 6
(9 3) 2 6 0
statically determinate
m 1
r 3
j 2
(1 3) 2 2 0
m 10
r 3
j 6
(10 3) 2 6 1
statically indeterminate
m 1
r 3
j 2
(1 3) 2 2 0
The term statically indeterminate is also known as indeterminate or hyperstatic.

Structures 1
2.2.3 The Principle of Superposition

When a complex loading arrangement can be broken down into standard cases, we may use
the Principle of Superposition to simplify the analysis.
If all points in a structure are linearly elastic, then the effect of a number of forces acting
simultaneously is the sum of the forces applied individually.
This is best demonstrated by an example. A beam is loaded with a central point action and a
uniform action
30 kN 12 kN/m Taking moments about A, M 0

10
10VB 30 5 12 10
2
A B
VB 75kN
5m 5m vertical equilibrium, V 0
10 V A VB 30 12 10
m VA 75kN
12 kN/m cut a free body diagram at the centre and taking
moments, M 0
B 5
Mmax 5VB M max 12 5
2
5m
M max 225kNm
VB
Now consider the two loadings separately, taking the equations for shear and moment from
the Standard Cases at the end of the text.
30 kN 12 kN/m
P wL
15 60
2 2
Shear Force
Diagrams (kN)
Bending Moment
Diagrams (kNm)
PL
75
4
this shape is a
parabola
wL2
150
8
Clearly the central ordinate of the bending moment diagram is 75kNm + 150kNm = 225kNm, as
calculated above. The Principal of Superposition works.

Structures 1
2.2.4 How to draw a parabola

half length of action
It is often useful to draw a bending moment
diagram to scale, which is simple for point actions
but tricky for uniformly distributed actions. The 5
graphical procedure to draw a parabola is as
follows:
divide this into n equal

4
1. Plot the maximum bending moment and
3
length of loading to scale.
wL2
2. Divide both axes into an equal number of
8 2
intervals.
intervals
3. Join corresponding ordinates with straight
lines. 1
4. Join the intersection points to form a
smooth parabola.
1 2 3 4 5
divide this into n

equal intervals
We may also construct a parabola using estimates of the ordinates since we know that the
wL2
maximum bending moment is M 0.125wL2 where w is the uniformly distributed action on
8
the full length of a beam of span L.
5 equal divisions of 0.1L
0.045wL2
0.08wL2
0.105wL2
0.12wL2
0.125wL2
Plot of half parabolic bending

moment diagram
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 5. Analysis of Beams.ppt , 5a. Analysis of Beams
Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Rigid Body Statics Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Rigid Body Statics – Self Assessment Exercise
1. A force of 55kN acts through point A at 60

degrees to the horizontal. A couple of 80kNm is
also applied at the same point. Show that the
magnitude and direction of the resultant are
130.5kN at 12.2 degrees to the vertical. 1.00m
2. A ten storey building is 36m high and 10m

wide. The overall mass of the building is
101937kg and the lateral wind action is 250kN. 250kN
Show that the building is not likely to overturn m
under wind loading.
3. A mobile crane has a cab weight of 30kN and

a jib weight of 6kN. Determine :
6kN 30kN
the weight which may be safely lifted when :
the jib reach is 10m,
W
the maximum reach if 6kN must be lifted.
reach = 10m 2m 1m
4. A beam is subjected to two actions, 30kN

vertically and 60kN inclined at 45 degrees.
Resolve the inclined force and sketch an axial
force diagram.
Use the principal of superposition to construct
shear force and bending moment diagrams.
5. A cantilever beam is subject to uniformly

distributed action over its full length.
For the section to the right of B, construct a free
body diagram and calculate the bending
moment at B.
Calculate the reactions.
Sketch the shear force diagram and calculate
the maximum bending moment in span AB.
Sketch the deflected shape.

Structures 1
6. For the beam subject to a part u.d.l and point

action, calculate :
The reactions.
The distance to the point of zero shear from A.
A
The maximum bending moment.
7. For the double cantilever beam, calculate:

The reactions.
75kN
The cantilever bending moments.
Obtain the position of zero shear and the
maximum bending moment.
Using the graphical method of constructing a

parabola, scale off the position of zero shear
and the maximum bending moment. Compare
these to the calculated values.
8. A simply supported beam is subject to a
45kN/m
downward triangular uniformly distributed action
and an upward point action.
Locate the centroid of the triangular action and
calculate the total action.
Calculate the reactions.
Sketch the shear force diagram.
Calculate the maximum bending moment.
9. A two span simply supported beam has three supports and contains a pin within the
first span.
Calculate the reactions by taking moments about points E and A (where the moment
must equal zero), then solve for VA, VC and VE.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
12 kN/m 90 kN
B D
A C E
3m 3m 2m 2m
6m 4m

Structures 1
10. Sketch deflected shapes, axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the following beam and loading arrangements.
12 kN/m 30 kN 30 kN
12 kN/m
75 kN 85 kN
2.00 m 4.00 m 3.00 m 2.00 m 4.00 m 3.00 m

deflected
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
10 kN
5 kN/m
70 kN 90 kN
6.00 m 4.00 m 2.00 m

deflected
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD

Structures 1
10. Cont’d.
50 kN/m
100 kN 125 kN 60 kN 50 kN/m
75 kN 85 kN
2.00 m 5.00 m 4.00 m 1.50 m 3.00 m 1.00 m

deflected
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
65 kN -15 kN
75 kN 10 kN/m
25 kN 40 kN
1.00 2.00 m 3.00 m 3.00 m 2.00 m 3.00 m

deflected
deflected
m
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD

Structures 1
3. Pin Jointed Frameworks

This section will introduce the application of rigid body statics to pin-jointed frameworks (or
trusses). Students will learn to calculate global elastic forces in a truss subject to external
loading, and represent them in diagramatic form.
lectures on Blackboard: 12. Analysis of Trusses.ppt , 12a. Analysis of Trusses Tutorial.ppt , 12b.
Analysis of Trusses – Method of Sections.ppt
Principal References: Brohn, D. Understanding Structural Analysis. Seward, D. Understanding
Structures.
So far the analysis of beams has have considered but for long spans this will often produce very
heavy structures. An alternative is the pin-jointed framework, which has a high strength to
weight ratio for long span structures.
Efficient beams use an I-section. This is because the majority of the material is located the
maximum distance from the centroidal axis – in the flanges. The web largely resists shear
stresses which are less significant than bending stresses in simply supported beams. If we
extend this to its logical extreme, we may remove parts of the web material to form a
lightweight perforated structure called a pin-jointed framework.
compression
shear
tension
an I section
Pin-jointed frameworks are more commonly called trusses, and may span vertically or
horizontally. A truss is manufactured from discrete elements, connected together at joints.
Although we idealise the joints as pins (no moment is transmitted) in reality this is never
achieved.
We shall consider the analysis of two dimensional trusses only.
top chord in
compression (strut)
pin joint
bottom chord in
tension (tie)
Assumptions must be made to permit simple analysis:
The elements are straight, weightless and inextensible,
All actions are applied at joints,
The truss is statically determinate.
The truss is split into triangular panels.
Like the simply supported beam, the pin-jointed framework will experience compression in the
top chord and tension in the bottom chord. The force in the internals may be either tension or
compression. So, although the framework is resisting bending moment, the elements of the
framework experience only axial force (and some shear). Axial forces will be minimised if
elements intersect at 450, although this may produce a deep framework.
It is important to use a consistent sign convention when analysing a pin-jointed framework.

Structures 1
T C
Note that the
internal element
force opposes the
+ive external force in -ive
magnitude and
direction
T C
Element in tension, force positive Element in compression, force negative
There are three common methods to obtain forces in frameworks:
1. The graphical method (using Bow’s notation).
2. The method of resolution at the joints.
3. The method of sections (most commonly used when only a selection of forces are
required).
3.1 Resolution at the Joints

Actions on structures are frequently more complex than shown so far. In order to deal with this,
multiple forces may be combined and resolved into vertical and horizontal components using
vectors. Remember, a force has magnitude and direction so it is a vector quantity.
If we consider a framework element which is subject

to a tension of 5kN. We may resolve the 5kN
inclined force into horizontal and vertical
components, and since we know the geometry is a 5 kN
4 kN
3-4-5 right angle triangle we also know the forces
must be in the same proportion (3kN-4kN-5kN).
This may be generalised to deal with forces of any

magnitude.
4.000 m
5.000 m
3 kN
F
3.000 m
V
y
The vertical component is, V .F
z
x
The horizontal component is, H .F
z z
y
H The dimensions of the framework will always be

known, since we choose the physical
arrangement of the framework.
x
Like beams, we begin the analysis by calculating the reactions. We may then consider vertical
and horizontal equilibrium at each joint, working in from the reactions.
Consider a point where two inclined forces act. In this case, 75kN inclined at 37o (3-4-5 triangle)
and 50kN inclined at 45 o (1-1-√2 triangle). Firstly, we may resolve each force into two
orthogonal components (at right angles).

Structures 1
4 75 kN 50 kN
H 75 75 60kN 60 35
5
for the 75kN force, 45 35
3 3 5 √2 1
V75 75 45kN
5 4 1
1
H 50 50 35kN +R
2 +V
for the 50kN force,
1
V50 50 35kN
2 +H
We may now algebraically sum the components to obtain the resultant force (a single
equivalent force which replaces the two inclined forces).
H 60 ( 35) 25kN
V 45 35 80kN
R H2 V2 252 802 83.8kN
Consider a pin jointed framework supporting a 50kN vertical action.

50 kN
A C
B
2m
D
3m 5m
8m
Calculate the vertical reactions.

Moments about A, clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
8Vc 50 3 Vc 18.7kN
V 0 Va 50 18.7 31.3kN
H 0 Ha 0
Calculate the internal forces in the framework members, and determine whether each is in
tension or compression.
A FAB
at joint A resolve vertically
2 3.606
FAD 31.3 2.0
3.605 3.0
FAD 56.4kN (T ) FAD
31.3 kN
vertical reaction (↑) equals vertical component of AD (↓)
50 kN
at joint A resolve horizontally
3
FAD FAB
3.605 47kN
FAB 47kN (C ) FBC
horizontal component of AD (→) equals AB (←)
B
at joint B resolve vertically

FBD
Structures 1
FBD 50kN(C )
vertical action (↓) equals BD (↑)
at joint C resolve vertically

FCB C
2
FCD 18.7
5.385 5.385
2.0
FCD 50.4kN (T ) 5.0
vertical reaction (↑) equals vertical component of CD (↓) FCD
at joint C resolve horizontally
18.7 kN
5
FCD FCB
5.385
FCB 46.8kN (C )
horizontal component of CD (←) equals CB (→)
50 kN
The sense and magnitude of the
forces may now be summarised;
47 47
T
56.4 50.4
50
31.4
18.7
+ive
47 47
Sign Convention VA = 31.3kN VC = 18.7kN
T
Let us consider a framework subject to lateral loading.

B C
Consider the vertical bracing (pin-jointed) 200 kN
framework shown. Given that the
reactions are:
3.000 m
Moments about A, M 0
4VD 3 200 VD 150kN
H 0, H A 200kN
V 0, V A 150kN A D
4.000 m
4
FAC 200
5 FAC
FAB
FAC 250kN (T )
5.0
horizontal reaction (←) equals horizontal component of AC (→) 3.0
4.0
at joint A resolve vertically 200 kN A
3
FAB FAC 150kN, FAB 0 kN
5
vertical reaction (↓) equals vertical component of AC (↑) 150 kN

Structures 1
at joint D resolve vertically

FDC 200kN(C )
B C
vertical action (↑) equals BD (↓) 200 kN -200
at joint B resolve horizontally

FBC 200kN(C )
3.000 m
horizontal action (→) equals BC (←) +250 -150
0 150
The summary of forces is: 200
T
A D
200
+ive 4.000 m
Sign Convention 150 150

T
3.2 Method of Sections

The method of sections also uses static equilibrium to obtain element forces. This is
done by cutting the framework at strategic points to form free body diagrams,
combined with the fact that the sum of moments at a pin must equal zero.
Consider a pin jointed framework supporting a series of point actions. If we wish to
know the forces in DE, KJ and KE only, then the method of joints would be time
consuming. Let us cut a section and use the method of sections:
10 kN 20 kN 30 kN 40 kN 50 kN 60 kN 70 kN
C E
A B G
D F
3m
M L K J H
6 panels @ 4 m = 24m
calculate the reactions:

moments about A, M 0
10 0 20 4 30 8 40 12 50 16 60 20 70 24 24VG
VG 186.7kN
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 VG VA
VA 93.3kN
to obtain forces in chords DE and KJ, cut through framework and take moments using
the portion to right, assume all cut elements are in tension:
Moments about E, M 0

Structures 1
60 4 70 8 3 FKJ 186.7 8 50 kN 60 kN 70 kN
FKJ 231.2kN (Tension)
FDE E
Moments about K, M 0 F G
50 4 60 8 70 12 3 FDE186.7 12 3m
FDE 240.1kN (Compression) FKE
lever arm (L) for force FKE about FKJ 186.7 kN

point J is obtained from trigonometry, K J H
4 L
Tan , 53.13 4m
3
L
Sin , L 3 Sin53.13 2.4m
3
Moments about J, M 0
60 4 70 8 186.7 8 3 FDE FKE 2.4
FKE 11.1kN (Tension)
Determine the sense and magnitude of the unknown forces in the following framework
elements:
20 kN
25 kN 15 kN
25 kN F HK
F BG 30 kN
3m 25 kN
15 kN
3m F HJ 6m
10 kN
8m
F AB
F PS
50 kN T
39 kN F AC
3m
2m +ive
1m 4m
F PQ
30 1.732m
Sign Convention
(Best attacked by resolving components of the 10kN action) T
FBG= -17.7 kN, FAC= +15 kN, FAB= -40 kN, FHK= +10 kN, FHJ= -35 kN, FPQ= -8.7 kN, FPS= -34 kN
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 12. Analysis of Trusses.ppt , 12a. Analysis of Trusses
reading.
2. Attempt the Pin-jointed Frameworks Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm
on Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Pin-jointed Frameworks – Self Assessment Exercise

50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
1. A pin-jointed
framework is to support B F
C D E
three water tanks, each
3m
weighs 50kN. Given that
framework and actions K H
A G
are symmetrical
J
calculate the axial
forces in all the elements
using resolution at the
joints.
B C D
2. Using the method of
sections, calculate the axial
4m
forces in elements CD, CF and
FG only. G F E
A
E
40 kN 25 kN
3. For the framework in question 1:

Which chord (top or bottom) is in tension ?
Are the diagonal or vertical elements in tension ?
Is there a general trend in the magnitude of element forces ?
4. For the framework shown in question 2:

Sketch the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram for the bottom chord,
assuming it is a simply supported beam.
Moment
For the central element GF, calculate the axial force from and compare
Truss depth
the value to that obtained in question 2.
5. A steel framed building is five storeys high and

is stabilised by a vertical triangulated bracing
system. If the wind loading is 10kN/m calculate
the element axial forces using resolution at the
joints. Note that joint A will sustain both vertical
and horizontal reactions and joint H will only
sustain a vertical reaction.

Structures 1
6. A steel tower crane is formed from triangulated pin-jointed bars. It has a permanent
counterbalance of 100kN.
If an action of 100kN is lifted at the maximum jib length, obtain forces DE, CE and CF.
If the yield stress is 325N/mm 2 calculate the cross-section area of bar DE to achieve a
factor of safety = 1.00
Sketch the deflected shape of the tower crane.
Confirm the sense and magnitude of forces in these pin-jointed framework are correct
using resolution at the joints or the method of sections. State your sign convention.
7. 60 kN 90 kN
A B D
C
3.00 m
60 kN 90 kN
F E 93 93 106
4.00 m 4.00 m 4.00 m 117 16 133

60
80
10
70
80
93 13
106
VA = 70kN VD = 80kN
106
5
3
4

Structures 1
8.
C
HC = 66.7kN
83.4
50
VC = 50 kN
3m
67
A B HA = 66.7kN
67
50 kN 50 kN
4m
9. 100 kN
A B C 6.00 m
D
8.00 m 8.00 m
100 kN
66.7 66.7
HA = 0 kN
100
83.3 83.3
50
VC = 50 kN 67 VC = 50 kN
10.
C
100 kN 100 kN
141
4.00 m
100
100
100
100
B D
160
5.00 m
125
100 225
100
A E HA = 100 kN
4.00 m
VC = 225 kN VC = 225 kN

Structures 1
11.
G 333
F
5.0m 3.0m 333
250
417
250
250
4.0m 417
250 kN 250 kN
E 333 333
167
D
208
125
500
125
208
167
HA = 0kN
167 167
B
VA = 125kN VC = 375kN
Tension +ive
12. (resolve the applied force into horizontal and vertical components)
C D E 400 400
500 kN 400 500
300
300
300
300
500
400
B
G F 400
400
5.0m
300
3.0m 300
300
500
4.0m
HA = 400kN
VA = 0kN VH = 300kN
13.
B C B 115 C
2.60m
115 115
6.0m 115
50
115
50
57.7 E 57.7
E HA = 0 kN
57.7 57.7
100 kN 100 kN
VA = 50 kN VD = 50 kN

Structures 1
Use a scale rule and vectors to draw the forces on the pin-jointed frame below.
10 kN
4.000 m
20 kN
4.000 m
3.000 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Force Scale (kN)

Structures 1
Use a scale rule and vectors to draw the reactions for the arches below. Scale off the
horizontal and vertical components of the reactions.
2 kN/m
2 kN/m
20.000 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Force Scale (kN)
Structures 1
4. Buckling of Struts
This section will introduce the phenomena of buckling action in compressed structural elements.
Students will learn to understand and predict this problematic behaviour and calculate the
axial capacities of structural elements.
lectures on Blackboard: 18. Struct Buckling.ppt , 18a. Struct Buckling tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers.
A strut is a structural element subject to compression. Short (or stocky) struts may be
compressed until yield stress is reached, this is called the Squash Load and is largely
independent of cross-sectional shape. However, useful struts are relatively long in comparison
to their cross-sectional area and suffer buckling before achieving yield stress. Buckling is a
phenomenon caused by lateral displacement of an axially loaded strut. Long, or slender, strut
buckling capacity is highly dependant upon length and cross-sectional shape.
long strut suffering

flexural buckling
short strut suffering
local buckling
Struts are also known by many other names;

vertical struts in buildings are usually referred to as columns.
Stone struts are known as pillars,
masonry (brick) struts are known as piers,
steel struts were historically known as stanchions,
4.0.1 Effective Length, LE

Effective length may be defined as the distance between points of contraflexure. We have
already defined contraflexure (in the beams section) as the point where slope changes
direction, this also applies to buckling struts.
It is usual to evaluate effective length as a proportion, or factor of actual strut length.
Pinned supports constitute a point of contraflexure, thus a strut which is pinned at both ends
has a point of contraflexure at both ends and therefore has an effective length equal to the
strut length.
There are only four possible combinations of end (support) restraint for struts. Supports may be
idealised as pinned or fixed, however in reality it is impossible to achieve either as connections
cannot be perfectly pinned (there is always some friction) or perfectly fixed (there will always
be some rotation).

Structures 1
P P P P
E E E E
LE=0.7L
L LE=1.0L LE=0.5L
LE=2L
pinned virtual pin at fixed

support point of support
contraflexure
End restraint
Pin-pin Pin-fix Fix-fix Free-fix
conditions
2 2 2 2
Euler buckling EI 2 EI 4 EI EI
capacity, PE L2 2
L 2
L 4L2
Theoretical LE 1.0L 0.70L 0.50L 2.0L
Design LE 1.0L 0.85L 0.70L 2.0L
The pin-pin strut is used for elements of pin-jointed frameworks.

The pin-fix strut is often used for multi-storey building columns as there will be some continuity at
floor levels.
The fix-fix strut is rarely used.
The free-fix strut is used for cantilevers (beams or columns).
In the table above it should be noted that there are two effective length factors – a theoretical
value which has no real use, and a design value.
The design values for pin-fix and fix-fix end restraint conditions are larger than the respective
theoretical values because it is not possible to ensure fixed supports will not rotate (which would
be unsafe), so effective lengths will actually be slightly longer.
The design values for pin-pin and free-fix end restraint conditions are unchanged because a
pinned end which actually has some fixity will induce a smaller effective length (which will be
safe).
4.0.2 Slenderness,
Slenderness is a measure of a structural element’s propensity to buckle (or displace sideways).
It may be defined mathematically as the quotient of effective length and radius of Z gyration, or
LE
i tf
Since struts may be made of non-symmetrical sections, the effective
length and radius of gyration may be different about the principal h
Y Y
axes (y-y and z-z). It is usually necessary to calculate slenderness tw
about each axis and select the largest slenderness ratio for design.
A strut buckles about the axis which has the largest slenderness ratio. Z
b

Structures 1
column displaces laterally

when buckling P
PE
PE
3m
LEz = 3m
4m
LEy = 4m
LEz = 4m
an I-section two storey

column, restrained against
lateral displacement on the
minor axis at first floor level.
if z> y then minor axis if y> z then major axis
buckling will happen first buckling will happen first
It is important to identify the buckled length of the strut about each axis, and to use the most
onerous effective length factor. Generally, the most onerous effective length factor is 1.0L
since only sway frames will have effective length factors greater than this.
4.0.3 Euler buckling capacity, PE

When a slender structural element is compressed, it will fail at a stress level less than yield. The
more slender the strut, the lower the failure stress. 18th century Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler was the first person to produce a useful solution to the strut capacity problem. He applied
the differential equation of flexure to a pin ended compressed beam which is about to buckle;
d 2z d 2z d 2z PE z
EI M and for an axially loaded strut EI PE z or rearranging 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 EI
PE d 2z
defining k
2
we have 2
k 2 z 0 and the general solution is z A cos kx B sin kx
EI dx
dz
differentiating, Ak sin kx Bk cos kx
dx
Considering the boundary conditions at supports (and taking the origin at midheight),
dz
when x 0, 0 giving 0 0 Bk , B 0
dx
L L L
when x , z 0 giving 0 A cos k 0, A 0 or cos k 0 but if A=0 then z is zero
2 2 2
L
for all values of x, which implies no buckling, so cos k 0 . The lowest value of
2
L L
cos k 0 is at k hence,
2 2 2
2
PE
k so k 2 2
this may be rearranged to give the Euler buckling load
L L EI
2
EI
PE for a pin ended strut.
L2
Structures 1
The same analysis may be applied to the other three end restraint conditions to obtain the
equations listed in the effective length section.
I
We know that the radius of gyration is i or I Ai 2
A
2 2
EAi 2 LE PE E
then PE and a pin ended strut has so, f E
L2 i A 2
If the buckling stress is plotted against slenderness

Stress, fE (N/mm2)
ratio, the graph is exponential in form. However, the

Euler solution predicts buckling stresses greater than
yield stress for slenderness ratios less than
approximately 85. For this reason, Euler buckling
capacity is limited to that which correlates to yield
yield Stress stress.
fy
- short - - intermediate - - long -

85 120 Slenderness ,
4.0.4 Rankine buckling capacity, PR
Rankine produced a significant body of work used by civil engineers, most notably in the
solution of retaining wall earth pressure problems. He also developed a practical theory for
short and intermediate struts ( 120 ) based upon Euler’s solution.
1 1 1
where PR is the Rankine buckling capacity, PE is the Euler buckling capacity (for
PR PE PC
high ) and PC is the squash load (for low ).
1 PE PC PE PC
also , and PE PC PR PE PC , PR
PR PE PC PE PC
2
E
but PC f y A and PE 2
so,
LE
i
PE f y A fyA fyA fyA
PR
PE fyA fyA fy LE
2
1 fyA 1
PE 2
1 2
E i
EAi 2
L2E
fy
we may remove 2
from the equation as it will be a material constant for each strut. This
E
material constant is usually denoted by a (and must be obtained by experimentation but 0.0001
is common) giving,
fyA fyA
PR 2 2
L 1 a
1 a E
i
The Rankine buckling capacity is a significant improvement upon the Euler buckling capacity
for short struts, and a slight improvement for intermediate struts.

Structures 1
4.0.5 Imperfect struts

Euler made a number of assumptions to produce his buckling capacity solution:
1. The strut is perfectly straight, this is practically impossible to achieve.
2. The applied action is purely axial, this is rarely true but can easily be dealt with in design
by accounting for eccentricity moments.
3. The material is homogeneous and isotropic, although most materials are close to being
homogeneous (same material throughout) they are rarely isotropic (same cross-section
throughout).
In reality however, struts are imperfect – they often have an initial displacement (or curvature)
due to manufacturing tolerances, mishandling or previous overload. Consider a pin ended
strut with an initial general displacement of y0 and a displacement under loading of y.
d 2z d 2z d 2z P y0 y
EI M and for this case EI P y0 y or rearranging 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 EI
x
x d 2 z P sin L
y
defining y 0 sin we have 0 and the general solution is
L dx 2 EI
k2 x
y A cos kx B sin kx 2
sin
L
2
k2
L
Considering the boundary conditions at supports (and taking the origin at the top),
L
when x and sin 1 then y c
2 2 PE
1
P
so we may obtain the final lateral deflection (yc) of a strut from the Euler buckling capacity, the
initial midheight displacement ( )and the anticipated axial load.
yc
If a strut which has an initial curvature is loaded,
the relationship between load and central
deflection can be used to estimate the initial
yc curvature, as shown in the adjacent graph.
P
4.0.6 Perry-Robertson buckling capacity, Nc

Modern design codes use the buckling strut solution produced by Perry, who considered the
stress in a laterally displacing strut:
P Mz P PE z P PE Az
f max PA 2
and if f , fE ,
A I A PE P Ai A A i2
then f max fE f f fE f f E and the solution of this gives,
1 1 2
f fy fE 1 fy fE 1 f y f E this is the Perry formula.
2 4
This solution required the additional work of Robertson who produced solutions for and we
now use this formula in a modified form to accurately predict the stress in struts of any
1 1 2
slenderness. f c fy f cr 1 fy f cr 1 f y f cr
2 4
2
E
where, fc is the strut stress, fy is the material yield stress, f cr 2
(the critical buckling stress) and
0.003 .

Structures 1
The Perry-Robertson buckling capacity is given by, N c fc A
Strut Buckling Curves

350
The three buckling
300 curves shown are for a
fy mild steel section,
Rankine constant =
250 Euler curve
Stress f (N/mm2)
0.0001 and Robertson

constant = 0.003.
200
Note that the Euler
150 solution diverges
Rankine significantly from reality
100 for < 120 and must be
curve
limited to yield stress for
50 Perry-Robertson < 85
curve
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Slenderness
A 203x203x52 Universal Column section forms part of

a steelwork building structure. It is 7.00m long and its
section properties are given below. The section is
manufactured from S275 (strength) mild steel of
3.000 m
elastic modulus = 210 kN/mm2. It is restrained in

position but not rotation at the top and bottom,
about both axes. A minor axis positional restraint is
also included at the intermediate level.
Calculate the Euler, Rankine and Perry-Robertson

buckling capacities.
Iyy (cm4) 5260
4.000 m
4
Izz (cm ) 1770
Z iyy (cm) 8.91
izz (cm) 5.18
Y A (cm2) 66.3
Y
Z
To interpret the information in the question, the words ‘restrained in position’ means pinned and
‘restrained in position and rotation’ means fixed.
The deflected shapes for buckling about both axes will be as shown below.

Structures 1
z z
y y
Calculate the effective lengths and slenderness ratio’s about both axes.
Minor axis buckling Major axis buckling
LEz 1.0L 4.000m (bottom storey) LEy 1.0L 7.000m
LEz 1.0 L 400 LEy 1.0 L 700
zz 77 yy 79
i zz i zz 5.18 i yy i yy 8.91
Since 79>77 only calculate Euler buckling capacity for major axis (y-y has maximum )
2
EI yy 2
210 10 3 5260 10 4
PEy 2224890 N 2225kN
L2Ey 7000 2
Since slenderness <85 this capacity is unlikely to be an acceptable value.
PE 2224890
The Euler buckling stress may be obtained from, f E 2
336 N / mm 2 which
A 6603 10
exceeds the yield stress and is impossible for elastic design.
Calculate the axial load capacity using the Rankine equation.
Firstly, we must make an estimate of the constant a, which is commonly taken to be a 0.0001 .
2
Also, f y 275N / mm
PR fy 275
fR 2 2
169 N / mm 2
A 1 a 1 0.0001 79
The Rankine axial capacity is given by,
169 66.3 10 2
PR fR A 1120kN
10 3
Calculate the axial load capacity using the Perry-Robertson equation.
2 2
E 210000
f cr 2
332 N / mm 2 and f y 275N / mm2
yy
79 2
1 1 2
fc fy 1 0.003 yy f cr fy 1 0.003 yy f cr f y f cr
2 4
1 1 2
fc 275 1 0.003 79 332 275 1 0.003 79 332 275 332
2 4
1 685 2
fc 685 91300 342.5 161.3 181N / mm 2
2 4
Perry-Robertson axial capacity given by,

Structures 1
181 66.3 10 2
N cy fc A 1200kN
10 3
Clearly, at the relatively low slenderness ratio of 97, the Euler buckling capacity equation is
unsafe and should not be used. The Rankine and Perry-Robertson capacity predictions are
close (within 7%).
A hollow tube strut forms part of a tower crane structure. It is 2.0m long and its cross sectional
dimensions are 30mm outside diameter and 20mm internal diameter. The tube is formed from
mild steel of elastic modulus = 210x106 kN/m2. One end of the tube is fixed against rotation, the
other end is not.
The strut is examined and found to be curved, such that the mid-length is displaced laterally by
5mm. If the strut is to be subject to a compressive load of 10kN, calculate the compressive
capacity of the strut accounting for this imperfection.
Firstly, calculate the Euler buckling load, assuming the tube is perfectly straight.
D2 d 2 302 202
Cross-sectional area, A 393mm4
4 4
D4 d 4 304 204
Second moment of area, I 31907mm4
64 64
I 31907
Radius of gyration, i 9.0mm
A 393
For a strut pinned at one end and fixed at the other LE=0.85L
LE 0.85 2000
Slenderness, 189 >120 so Euler theory will apply
i 9
2 2
EI 200 106 319.07 10 6
PE 2 2
21.8kN for a perfect strut.
LE 0.85 2
5 5
The final deflection is given by, y c 5 5 4.2 9.2mm
PE 21.8 1.18
1 1
P 10
Calculate the maximum stress at mid-height with a final deflection of 9.2mm

D 30
z 15mm
2 2
M P 10,000 9.2 92,000 Nmm
The axial stress is given by:
P 10 10 3
fn 25.4 N / mm 2
A 393
The bending stress is given by:
Mz 92 10 3 15
fm 43.3N / mm 2
I 31907
Therefore, the maximum combined stress is given by:
fn fm 25.4 43.4 68.7 N / mm2
The required axial capacity to achieve this stress is:

Pc A fn fm 393 68.7 27kN
Since this required capacity is greater than the Euler buckling capacity, the strut is unlikely to be
able to withstand 10kN with an initial 5mm curvature.

Structures 1
A perfectly straight tube has cross P

sectional dimensions of 32mm outside
diameter and 26mm inside diameter. It
is aluminium of elastic modulus equal to A B C
70 kN/mm2, and is used to form the struts
in a simple pin-jointed framework. Points
A, B, C & D may be assumed to be 1m
laterally restrained.
D
2m 2m
Calculate the maximum value of P which the framework may carry using Euler theory. Check
that Euler theory will be applicable.
D2 d 2 322 262
A 273mm2
4 4
D d4
4
32 264
4
I 29040mm4
64 64
all elements have effective length of LE=1.0L so assess element AB (longest strut)
2 2
EI 70 103 29040
PE AB 2
5015 N 5kN
LE 20002
P
Analyse forces in framework,
Vertical reaction = 0.5P
Vertical equilibrium at joint A,
P P
1 5
FAD 0.5P, FAD P
5 2 √5
P 1
Horizontal equilibrium at joint A, 0.5P
2 2
FAD FAB , FAB P 0.5P
5
Vertical equilibrium at joint B,
FBD = P
Therefore, P = 5 kN
LE LE 2000
For top chord member, 194 >120, LONG
i I 29040
A 273
LE LE 1000
For vertical strut member, 97 >85, INTERMEDIATE
i I 29040
A 273
No strut members are SHORT, therefore Euler theory is applicable.

Structures 1
The top chord of a truss is loaded with three identical forces, it is restrained in position but not
direction at quarter points and at the supports. If the top chord is a 203x203x52UC S275,
calculate the maximum value of W if the strut capacity is calculated using the Rankine formula.
W
W
W
4.0 m
3.0 m
3.0 m
3.0 m 12.0 m
Calculate the effective lengths and slenderness ratio’s about both axes.
Minor axis buckling Major axis buckling
LEz 1.0L 12.000m LEy 1.0L 3.000m
LEz 1.0 L 1200 LEy 1.0 L 300
zz 232 yy 34
i zz i zz 5.18 i yy i yy 8.91
Since 34<232 only calculate buckling capacity for minor axis (z-z has maximum )
Assume a 0.0001 and f y 275N / mm2
PR fy 275
fR 2
43N / mm2
A 1 a 1 0.0001 232 2
The Rankine axial capacity is given by,
43 66.3 10 2
PR fR A 286kN
103
Analysing the truss, end reaction = 1.5W and the force in the top chord FAD
4 5 1.5
FAD 1.5W , FAD W 1.875W
5 4
3 3
FAD 286kN, 1.875W 286, W 254kN
5 5
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 18. Strut Buckling.ppt , 18a. Strut Buckling
reading.
2. Attempt the Struts Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Struts – Self Assessment Exercise
1. A mild steel scaffold tube strut (circular hollow section) is 32mm outside diameter
and 3mm thick. Assuming the strut is perfect and a family car is of mass 1500kg, how
long may the tube be if it is required to support one family car. Assume pinned end
restraint at top and bottom.
2. A one metre long aluminium bar is 15mmx 5mm and has a yield stress of 270N/mm 2.
If the bar is axially loaded until it buckles, calculate the central deflection at the onset
of buckling. Assume pinned end connections.
If the action is now removed and the maximum lateral deflection remains as an initial
deformation, what will the final deflection be if 75N is then applied to the strut.
3. During a laboratory strut test the following readings were taken:

Force (kN) 0 1 2 3 4
Deflection (mm) 0 0.53 1.43 3.33 10
Estimate the Euler buckling capacity and the initial central deflection.
4. A 305x165x40 Universal Beam section forms a

gable post in a steelwork building structure. It is
6.00m long and its section properties are given
below. The section is manufactured from S275
(strength) mild steel of Young’s modulus = 210
kN/mm2. It is restrained in position but not
rotation at the top, about both axes (pinned). It
is restrained in position and direction at the base
(fixed), about both axes. Sheeting rails (zed-
sections) provide minor axis positional restraint
every two metres.
2.000 m
6.000 m
Calculate the Euler, Rankine and Perry-

Robertson buckling capacities.
Iyy (cm4) 8520
Izz (cm4) 763
Z
2.000 m
iyy (cm) 12.9

izz (cm) 3.86 Y
A (cm2) 51.3
Y
Z

Structures 1
5. Draw the shape of the displaced struts shown below.

Add the virtual pins and show the effective length factor.
Calculate the Euler (PE) or Rankine (PR) buckling capacity as shown.
PE PE PR
PR
4.000 m
139.7CHS6.3 152UC23 219.1CHS10 305UC97

S355 S275 S355 S275
Remember, the strut must buckle into a smooth curve so there .

must be no kinks in the shapes you draw .
PE PR
PR PR
3.750 m
4.000 m
88.9CHS6.3
4.500 m
S355
305UC97 152UC23 254UC73

S275 S275 S275

Structures 1
5. Stress Analysis
This section will address the calculation of local stresses within elastic engineering structures.
Students will learn to calculate direct and shear stresses used in the design of structural
elements. The concept of principal stress and elastic failure will also be introduced.
lectures on Blackboard: 20. Stress.ppt , 20b. Principal Stress.ppt
We have studied the calculation of global internal forces (axial, shear, torsion and bending)
which exist in the structure. When we examine the local distribution of force at a point in a
structure we must use stress and strain.
5.1 Direct and Shear Stress

There are only two types of stress - direct and shear.
Direct stresses act parallel to the longitudinal

axis of the element, and may be due to
bending or axial.
The structural element distorts in length but

not shape.
Shear stresses act perpendicular to the

longitudinal axis of the element, and may be
due to plane shear or torsion.
The structural element distorts in shape but

not length.
Stress is used in the assessment of structural

element strength.
5.1.1 Bending Stress, fm

Before exploring the calculation of bending stress we must first introduce some new concepts.
The section shapes shown below are commonly used in construction but the orientation is very
important in determining stress and deflection. For the orientations shown (and vertical
loading) the sections would be strongest (deflect least) and so the y-y axis is referred to as the
major axis of bending, and the z-z axis is referred to as the minor axis.
z z z z
z
y y
y y y y y
y y y
z z z z
z
I-section Rectangular Channel Tee Zed section
Doubly Symmetrical Singly symmetrical Unsymmetrical
The following text will only deal with bending stress in doubly or singly symmetrical sections
(special equations apply to unsymmetrical sections). Place a mirror on the axis, and if the
reflection shows an unchanged section the section is symmetric.

Structures 1
If a beam is subject to pure bending, the resulting geometry will be a beam curved to a
circular arc, as shown below.
If the material is linearly elastic and homogeneous then as it deforms under load the top
surface will shorten in length (being compressed) and the bottom surface will stretch (being in
tension). Clearly there must be point where the fibres are being neither stretched or
compressed, where there is zero bending stress. This is called the neutral axis.
For a beam subject to a bending moment M and bent to a circular arc of radius R, the small
element A-B is of length x which is an arc length of R.
When the element is subject to tension the change in length is given by;
e R z x R z R z.
e z. z
the direct strain is given by
L R. R
f z
and since the beam is linearly elastic we know that E , or rearrangin g f E E
R
since the stress block for bending moment shows
compression forces in opposite directions, to ensure equilibrium
the resultant normal force over the whole section
must be zero, H 0
0
z
f .dA 0, substituting E 0, taking out constants
R
A
tension 0 0
Neutral Axis (N.A) E E
z.dA 0, since cannot equal zero then z.dA 0
R R
A A
0
z.dA is called the First Moment of Area (Wel) about the neutral axis.
A
Moment equilibrium of the whole stress block must also be ensured, M 0
0 0 0
E z 2 .dA is called the Second Moment of Area (Iyy)
M f .z.dA, and M z 2 .dA 0 of which
R
A A A
about the neutral axis.
E
The last equation may therefore be rewritten, M . I and if we include the equation for
R
direct strain we have the Engineers equation of simple bending;

Structures 1
5.1.2 The Equation of Simple Bending

M f E
or the Most Important Formula You’ll Ever Remember (z was y before the beam
I z R
axes were rotated for Eurocodes)
Simple bending theory is based upon a number of (debatable) assumptions:
the material remains elastic and is homogeneous and isotropic
plane sections remain plane, during and after bending
the section is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid, parallel to the plane of
bending.
There are some important elements of this equation;
EI is a constant for any given beam and is known as the Flexural Rigidity, which is required for
deflection calculations of structural elements subject to bending.
I
The first moment of area, Wel where z is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
z
fibre.
30 kN 12 kN/m If we take the analysis of an example from the
Rigid Body Statics section, we may calculate
the bending stress in a rectangular glulam
timber beam.
HA A B
The beam is a rectangle so the centroid will be
VA VB at midheight,
d 400
2 3m 5m z 200mm
2 2
10 m bd 3 100 4003
I 533 106 mm4
Bending Moment
12 12
using Simple Bending, at the point of maximum
Diagram (kNm)
bending moment,
78 M f E
,
105
108
I z R
Mz 108 10 6 200
fm 41N / mm 2
I 533 10 6
100 We may now plot the stress block,
Section dimensions
0 Note: the sign convention

-41
used here is - when plotting
the stress block, compression
is plotted to the right of the
400 Neutral Axis zero datum and tension is
plotted to the left. Tension is
positive.
41 0
Bending Stress (N/mm2)

5.1.3 Axial Stress, fn
The most conceptually simplistic of all stresses is axial. A force applied along the longitudinal
axis of a structural element will induce an axial tension or axial compression. When the force is
applied at the element centroid, the stress will be uniformly distributed across the cross-
sectional area.
N
fn where N is the axial force and A is the cross sectional area.
A

Structures 1
For axial tension forces this calculation will deal with all circumstances. However, when the
force is compressive this approach is only adequate for very stocky elements. Reference
should be made to the Struts section in this text, as axial compression in slender elements
requires more consideration.
30 kN 12 kN/m
If we extend the analysis of the previous
example from the Rigid Body Statics section by
adding an axial compression force of 400kN,
400 kN we may calculate the axial stress.
HA A
B
The axial force will compress the beam from
VA VB
end B to end A, where the horizontal reaction
2 HA will resist movement.
3m 5m
10 m A b.d 100 400 40000mm2
Diagram (kN)
N 400 103
Axial Force
fn 10 N / mm2
A 40000
We may now plot the stress block,

400
100
0
Section dimensions
Note: the sign convention

-10 used here is - when plotting
the stress block, compression
is plotted to the right of the
400 zero datum and tension is
plotted to the left. Tension is
positive.
0
Axial Stress (N/mm2)
5.1.4 Combined Direct Stress

Both bending stress and axial stress act longitudinally, along the X-X axis of structural elements.
Their effects may therefore be summed algebraically to obtain a combined direct stress. An
example will demonstrate the process,
Continuing with the glulam timber beam, we have calculated the bending and axial stresses
and plotted the individual stress blocks.
0 0 0
-41 -10 -51
Neutral
Axis + =
41 0 0 31 0
Bending Stress (N/mm2) Axial Stress (N/mm2) Combined Stress (N/mm2)
At the point of maximum bending, the combined stress may be calculated as follows,
the top surface is in bending compression and axial compression,
f top f m f n 41 ( 10) 51N / mm2 (compression)
the bottom surface is in bending tension and axial compression,
fbottom f m f n 41 ( 10) 31N / mm2 (tension)

Structures 1
An asymmetrical section is to be used as a simply

supported beam, with all bending about the Y-Y 45 kN
axis. It is subject to a central point load of 45kN, A B
and an axial force of 500kN applied at midheight HA 500 kN
of the section. The overall length of the beam is
5m.
VA VB
100 2.5 m 2.5 m
5.0 m
1 18
22.5
S.F.D. (kN)
z
22.5
275
2
A.F.D. (kN) B.M.D. (kNm)

Y Y
56
3 12
96 8
450
200
Calculate the vertical reactions, moments about left support,

45 2.5 5VB VB 22.5kN and VA 22.5kN
Moments at midspan (due to vertical loading),

M bending 22.5 2.5 56.3kNm
Second moment of area about the y-y axis, taking datum from top surface:
Element breadth depth area distance A.z h = z - .z Ah 2 bd 2 / 12
No b (mm) d (mm) A (mm ) z (mm)
2
(mm ) 3
(mm) (mm4) (mm4)
1 100 18 1800 9 16200 143 36962132 48600
2 8 245 1960 141 276360 11 250215 9804083
3 200 12 2400 269 645600 -117 32686063 28800
A= 6160 A.z = 938160 69898410 9881483
A. z bd3 4
z 152 mm I yyN. A. Ah2 79779894 mm
A 12
Axial Stress,
P 500 103
fn 81N / mm2 (compression)
A 6160
The axial compression of 500kN is applied at the mid-height of the section, creating an eccentricity
moment. Moment at centre span due to axial load eccentricity (downward)
7300000
M azial P e 500 103 (275 152) 7.3kNm
2 106

Structures 1
an axial compression above the neutral axis will

force the top surface into compression and the
138 bottom surface into tension
152
500 kN
e
Neutral Axis
123
Bending Stress,
the maximum bending stress will occur at the position of maximum moment,
6
the total bending moment, M M bend M axial 56.3 7.3 10 63.6kNm
Mz 63.6 10 6 152
the top surface bending stress, f mt 121N / mm 2
I yyN . A. 79779894
but the bottom surface is not the same distance from the neutral axis so it will be at a different
stress,
M h z 63.6 10 6 275 152
the bottom surface bending stress, f mb 98 N / mm 2
I yyN . A. 79779894
Combined direct stress,
f top f mt f n 81 ( 121) 202 N / mm 2 (compression)

f bottom f mb f n 81 ( 98) 17 N / mm 2 (tension)
-81 -121 -202
+ =
98 +17
cross section axial stress bending stress combined direct stress
Pre-stressed concrete uses eccentric axial compression to ensure the concrete is always in
compression (concrete has poor tensile strength), so let us examine a pre-tensioned concrete
floor plank and determine the axial compression required to eliminate tension and avoid the
need for steel reinforcement. The axial compression is applied by casting a steel tendon into
the plank and stretching it after the concrete has cured.

Structures 1
A 6.0m span rectangular concrete plank (beam)

is manufactured in 600mm wide sections and will 5 kN/m
support a uniformly distributed action of 5kN/m. A B
N
Determine the tendon force required to prevent HA
tension developing at midspan.
the steel tendons are at an VA VB
eccentricity to the neutral axis.
6.0 m
z 15
Y Y 150
S.F.D. (kN)
e
600
15
Cross section at midspan
B.M.D. (kNm)
Calculate the vertical reactions, moments about left
support,
6
5 6 6VB VB 15kN and VA 15kN
2 22.5
Moments at midspan (due to vertical loading),
A.F.D. (kN)
3
M bending 5 3 15 3 M bending 22.5kNm
2
N
For a rectangle (standard case);
d 150
z 75mm
2 2
bd 3 600 150 3
I yy 168.75 10 6 mm 4
12 12
Since the tendons are below the neutral axis, the compressive force will bend the beam
upwards (against the vertical action bending moment). Start by calculating the bending stress
due to vertical action alone;
Bending Stress,
the maximum bending stress will occur at the position of maximum moment,
Mz 22.5 106 75
bending stress, f m 10 N / mm2
I yy 168.75 106
As we have three 20mm diameter tendons in this plank, using high tensile steel for the tendon,
2
the yield stress is f y 450 N / mm . It is normal practice to place tendons eccentrically
because this provides upwards bending (or pre-camber) which allows floors to be horizontal
when construction is completed; it also reduces the amount of force which needs to be
applied to the concrete.
2 450 20 2
The force carried by a round tendon will be, N fy D 3 424115 N
4 4
To cancel out the bottom surface tension (final combined stress = 0), we need an axial stress to
equal the final bending stress,
N 424115
fn 4.71N / mm 2 (compression)
b d 600 150
The upward moment due to axial pre-stressing,

Structures 1
424115 e
M axial P e 0.424e kNm
10 6
the total bending moment, M M bend M axial 22.5 0.424e
Mz 22.5 0.424e 10 6 75
bending stress, f m 4.71 e 28mm
I yy 168.75 10 6
The upward moment due to axial pre-stressing,

424115 28
M axial P e 11.9kNm
10 6
the total bending moment, M M bend M axial 22.5 11.9 10.6kNm
6
Mz 10.6 10 75
bending stress, f m 4.7 N / mm 2
I yy 168.75 10 6
Combined direct stress,

f top f m f n 4.71 ( 4.7) 9.41N / mm2 (compression)

f bottom f m f n 4.71 (4.7) 0.01N / mm2 (compression)
-4.71 -4.7 -9.41
+ =
+4.7 -0.01
axial stress bending stress combined direct stress

Structures 1
A 4.0m span flitched beam is manufactured from w kN/m

a solid rectangular timber section and two steel A B
plates. Determine the maximum uniformly
distributed action which can be supported by
the timber section alone and when the steel VA VB
plates act compositely. 4.0 m
Timber permissible bending stress, fm = 7.5 N/mm2
Steel permissible stress, fy = 275 N/mm2
Timber Young’s modulus of Elasticity, Et = 10000 N/mm2
Steel Young’s modulus of Elasticity, Es = 210000 N/mm2
75 8
7.5
95
4.5
250
150
75
125
Cross section thro’ beam Timber bending stress Steel bending stress
Es 210000
Modular ratio, m 21
Et 10000
To calculate maximum load capacity, use maximum permissible timber stress.
b d2 75 250 2
For timber alone, moment capacity, M t f m Wel fm 7.5 5.8kNm
6 6 10 6
75 75
Maximum steel stress, f s 7.5 21 95 N / mm 2
fm m
125 125
2 b d2 2 8 150 2
For steel alone, moment capacity, M s f s Wel f s 95 5.7kNm
6 6 10 6
For steel and timber composite, moment capacity, M comp M s M tl 5.8 5.7 11.5kNm
Therefore, the timber moment capacity is doubled by adding two steel plates. To force
composite action to occur the timber and steel plates must be bolted together to prevent
longitudinal slip.
Calculate the uniform loading which relates to the moment capacities,

wL2 8M 8 5.8
For timber alone M t w 2.9kN / m
8 L2 42
wL2 8M 8 11.5
For composite action M comp w 5.8kN / m
8 L2 42

Structures 1
5.1.5 Plane Shear Stress, S

The concept of shear stress and complementary shear stress was introduced in the discussion of
shear modulus. In reality shear stress is much more complex than force divided by area so we
must address a phenomena called shear flow in doubly symmetric thick sections. Consider a
section of beam subject to shear but no torsion;
centroid of Z x
V section
Y Y
A’ z X
Y
centroid of
area, A’ shear stress
complementary
x
shear stress x x
x
direct bending stress
If is the average shear stress and comp is the associated complementary shear stress, then at an
element A’ there will be an associated direct bending stress x, and over a length of beam x
x
the bending stress will rise to x x
x
0 0
x
for equilibrium, .b. x x dA' x dx dA' 0
A' A
x
0
x dM Vz
which simplifies to, .b dA' and V so, .b dA'
A
x dx Iy
0
VA' z
Since, z.dA' is the first moment of area of A’ about Y-Y, then
A'
bI y
This may be specifically applied to rectangular and I-section beams as follows;
this is termed the top

hat stress distribution
Some examples of plane shear stress calculation follow.

Structures 1
A doubly-symmetric steel I-section is subject to a vertical shear force of 100kN. The dimensions
of the I-section and a plot of the vertical shear flow are shown below.
150
1
2
65 65
30
Y Y 450
30
Calculate the second moment of area, Iyy.

BD 3 bd 3 150 4503 65 3903
I yy 2 2 496.44 106 mm4
12 12 12 12
shear stress through an I-section is described by the equation of shear flow, in the case
of 1 the values are;
shear force, V 100kN 100 103 N
area of top flange, A 150 30 450mm2 (A is the area above the section being
breadth of flange, b 150mm considered).
h
30 450
from symmetry, z 15 210mm
22 2
VAz 100 103 450 210
1 6
0.13N / mm2
I yy b1 496.44 10 150
At point 2 the only difference is the width of the section, so
b 20mm
VAz 100 103 450 210
2 0.95 N / mm2
I yy b2 496.44 106 20
It is therefore evident that the shear stress is often numerically less significant than direct stress.
If the top hat stress distribution is approximated to rectangles the shear in the web and flanges
may be determined as
2 dtw 0.95 20 390 7.42kN
2 1bt f 2 0.13 150 30 1.17kN
7.42
so the proportion carried by the web is 86% which justifies the assumption that
7.42 1.17
shear is resisted by web elements only.

Structures 1
5.1.6 Torsional Stress,

A structural element subject to longitudinal twisting is said to be in torsion. There are many
engineering applications in which torsion occurs, such as shafts connecting motors and pulleys,
aircraft wings, eccentrically loaded beams and bridge decks. These notes will only deal with
the simple case of pure torsion in circular shafts (all other cases also generate more complex
warping stresses).
The distribution of torque along a structural element is obtained in the same manner as shear
force:
The torque at a section of a beam is the sum of all the torques to one side of that
section.
An example:
For a cantilever the support must be fixed and there
will be a torsion reaction at the support.
Starting at the free end (C)

TC = +20 kNm
Move left 2m to point B

TB = +20 – 10 = +10 kNm
If we examine a simply supported beam subject to torsion we will see that the load intensity-
shear-moment relationship holds for load intensity-torsion also.
TA
2 kNm/m uniformly distributed The beam is subject to a point torsion at midspan (10
torsion kNm) and a uniformly distributed torsion (2 kNm/m).
All applied torques are anti-clockwise. Both reaction
torques are therefore clockwise.
From symmetry,
2kNm / m 4m 10kNm
TA TC 9kNm
2
TBA 9 2 2 5kNm
TBC 5 10 5kNm
TC 5 2 2 9kNm
Torsion Diagram (kNm)
We can now look at torsional stress analysis.
Torsion is one of the forces which induces shear stress in structural elements. Just as shear forces
changes the shape of structural elements, torsion also attempts to change the shape of shafts.

Structures 1
5.1.7 Equation of Simple Torsion
A circular shaft which is subject to a pure torsion will rotate through an angle , along the
longitudinal axis, the shaft will rotate through an angle which is the shear strain.
The rotation of the shaft surface is equal on both axes, thus for small rotations,
R
for 0, tan (this means, as the small angle tends to zero, so too does Tan
L
tend to measured in radians)
R
we already know that .G so
G L
If we now cut a section through the shaft and examine the shear
stresses due to torsion, an annular element will show tangential
stresses.
Shear on an element r wide and s long will be . r. s
and its moment about the centre (torsion), T = . r. s. r
2 r
If we sum all the torsion on this annulus, T r.rds 2 r2 r
0
R R
G
The total torque in the bar is obtained by summing all annuli, T 2 r 2 dr 2 r3 dr
0 0
L
R
G
Taking out constants gives, T 2 r 3 dr
L 0
R
The polar second moment of area (Ip) 2 r 3 dr
0
GI p T G
So, T or which is known as the equation of Simple Torsion.
L Ip L R
Note the similarity to the equation of simple bending. The angle of twist must be in radians for
calculations to work correctly.
In a solid shaft subject to torsion the distribution of shear stress is largest

at the outer surface and smallest at the centre. It therefore seems
reasonable to reduce mass and expense by removing material from
the centre to make a hollow tube as material can be more efficiently
T used at the surface zone.

Structures 1
Shafts which carry identical torques with the

same maximum shear stress would be;
Reducing material content

Work done and power transmitted are measures of the energy developed in a system. They
are commonly used in machinery design which uses torsion.
Work Done = Force x Distance (units Nm)
In the case of shafts subject to torsion, the distance travelled is the angle rotated, and the force
is the applied torsion.
Work Done
Power (units Nm/s)
Time
It is common practice to quote the distance rotated in revolutions per minute (rpm).
2 radians per minute = 1 revolution per minute. The units of power are Nm/s and since 1 Nm =
1 Joule (J) and 1 Joule/second = 1 Watt then the units of power are quoted in Watts (W).
Here is an example of the use of Work;
A 15 kW electric motor rotates at 3000 rpm. If the ultimate shear stress is 70 N/mm 2 and the
factor of safety is 2.0, calculate the required shaft diameter.
70
The working shear stress, 35 N / mm2
2.0
Work Done Torque distance 60 15 103
Since Power T 47.7 103 Nmm
Time Time 3000 2
4
T D I p 35 D 32
R D 19mm
Ip R 2 T 47.7 103
5.1.7 Combined Shear Stress

There are few situations in civil engineering where shear stress is developed without bending.
However, the process of combining plane and torsional shear merely requires algebraic
summation.
s t where is the combined shear stress, s is the plane shear stress and t is the
torsional shear stress. To ensure that shear stresses are summated algebraically it is important to
visualise the actual distortion of the structural element.
comp comp comp
s + t s+ t
=
s+ t
s t
comp comp comp
clockwise rotation of clockwise rotation of clockwise rotation of

plane shear is positive torsional shear is positive total shear is positive
comp comp comp
s t = s+ t
+
s t s+ t
comp comp comp
anti-clockwise clockwise rotation of If s > t anti-clockwise rotation

rotation of plane torsional shear is positive of total shear is negative
shear is negative
Structures 1
Here are some worked examples for bars subject to torsional shear.
A tubular shaft is subject to torsion, t = 5mm and D = 150mm. At B the torsion is 30 kNm anti-
clockwise and at C is 25 kNm clockwise.
thickness = t
A
outside 30 kNm
diameter
=D
3.0 m B 25 kNm
Polar second moment of area,
Ip D4 d4 1504 1404 11986158mm4 C
32 32 2.0 m
Torsion at support A, 5.0 m
denote clockwise torsion as positive
TA = +25 - 30 = -5 kNm
Torsional shear stress at support A, -5
T Ip G
equation of simple torsion
R L
150 25
5 106
2 31N / mm2 Torsion Diagram (kNm)
t
11986158
As only torsional forces are applied, there will be no plane shear stress.
A hollow circular shaft of constant section

(50mm outside diameter, 40mm inside A
diameter) cantilevers from a rigid support. It is 20 kN
cranked through a right-angle, and subject to a
point load of 20 kN at its free end. The material
has an elastic modulus of 210 kN/mm2 and a C
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. B
3m
Sketch the shear force and torsion diagrams for the section AB. 0.5 m

shear force is constant over full length = 20kN
torsion is constant over full length = 20x0.5 = 10kNm 0
20
Calculate the plane shear stress, assuming that it will be uniform across the section.
D2 d2
A 502 402 706.8mm2 Torsion Force Diagram (kNm)
4 4
3 0
V 20 10
s 28.3N / mm2
A 706.8 10
Calculate the torsional shear stress, using the equation of simple torsion.

Structures 1
T Ip G
R L
Ip D4 d4 504 404 362264mm4
32 32
50
10 106
2 690 N / mm2
t
362264
Calculate the maximum shear stress due to all forces. Combined shear stress
s t 28 690 718N / mm2
Calculate
L (the rate of twist) between points A and B,
E 210000
G 80769 N / mm2
2(1 ) 2(1 0.3)
T 10 106
0.179 radians 10.3 degrees
L G 80769 690

Structures 1
5.2 Principal Stress

So far we have examined methods for the determination of direct (axial and bending) and
shear (plane and torsion) stress in beams. We can also combine direct stresses together and
shear stresses together but this does not complete the picture. The ‘maximum’ stress at any
point in a beam will obviously be some combination of direct and shear stresses which we call
the principal stress. Unfortunately, direct and shear stresses do not act in the same plane, so
their combination into a principal stress is not simple.
Shear stresses act perpendicular

z to longitudinal (X-X) axis
x
Direct stresses act parallel to

y longitudinal (X-X) axis
If we look at the stresses induced in a beam subject to bending and axial actions, the stresses
just below the neutral axis near midspan are,
z
x is the tensile stress due to bending and axial tension,
xz
z is the bearing stress (vertical compressive stress) which
may be zero in this case,
x x
xz is the shear stress acting in the xz plane in the z direction.
This situation is quite complex but what we are interested in
xz
for design purposes is the maximum value. If we cut the
stress element at an angle and examine the resulting
z stresses, we have,
z
Where n is a normal direct stress and is a resultant shear stress.
Resolving forces on element ABC, perpendicular to AB xz

B
AB n x BC cos z AC sin xz BC sin xz AC cos now by AB
x x
BC AC BC AC
n x cos z sin xz sin cos A
AB AB AB AB
xz C
2 2
n x cos z sin xz sin 2
Resolving forces on element ABC, parallel to AB z
AB x BC sin z AC cos xz BC cos xz AC sin now by AB and simplify
x z
sin 2 xz co 2
2
n
The maximum values of the normal and shear stress occurs
x
d n d
when 0 and 0
d d
d n
2 x cos sin 2 z sin cos 2 xz cos 2 0 xz
d
x z sin 2 2 xz cos 2 0 z

Structures 1
2 xz
Tan 2
x z
There are two solutions to this equality, at and 90+ degrees, so there are two planes at 90
degrees to each other where maximum and minimum stresses occur, these planes correspond
to angles where = 0. The direct stresses on these planes are called principal stresses which
occur on principal planes.
We may depict the principal stresses and planes as follows,
z
Max shear
element The maximum Principal Stress
xz Stress element
x z 1 2 2
2
1 x z 4 xz
1 2 2
max The minimum Principal Stress
x z 1 2 2
x 2 x z 4 xz
45
x
2 2
2 xz
max 1 Tan 2
2 x z
The maximum shear stress
xz 1 2
max
zPrincipal 2
element
If we calculate the principal stresses at many locations in a rectangular beam and plot them,
we obtain the Principal Stress Trajectories, as shown below. As expected the principal stresses
are horizontal at midspan where direct stresses are high and shear stresses are low. Conversely
at the supports, direct stresses are low and shear stresses are high, so the principal stresses are
vertical.
Compressive principal stress
Tensile principal stress
Consideration of principal stress tells us

why engineers often see failure of
elastic materials at stress levels below
yield stress.
In this simple holed plate subject to

enlargement tensile stress there is a concentration of
longitudinal stress at the sides of the
hole but also a tangential tensile stress
which further increases the principal
stress to a much greater level than seen
in the body of the plate. This is called a
stress concentration.

Structures 1
5.2.1 Mohr’s Circle

To make a visual representation of principal stress we must study the work of Otto Mohr who
devised the principal stress plot (Mohr’s circle) in 1880. The procedure to plot the circle is
simple:
z
1. Calculate the direct and shear
xz
stresses, plot the stress element.
x x
xz
Shear stress
A x , xz)
2. Plot the values of coexistent
direct and shear stress at a
convenient scale using standard
Cartesian coordinates.
The centre of the circle is located at

Direct stress the average of the direct stresses.
Draw a circle centred at 0, which

x z passes through the known points, A
z , - xz) B 2 and B.
3. Draw a vertical line from point

A and a horizontal line from point
B, to locate point C
C
2 1
max
4. Join point C to points D and E

D E (where the circle cuts the axis).
0
The principal stresses act normal to
the planes CE and CD.
1
The maximum shear stress is the
2 C radius of the circle.

Structures 1
5. Plot the Principal stress element

1 using the rotation angle, remember
max
xz 0.
1
6. Plot the Shear stress element.
Maximum shear stress occurs at an
2 +45 angle of +45 degrees.
max
It may help to see some common cases of Mohr’s Circle.
Pure tension
Pure compression
Hydrostatic pressure (water has no

shear capacity)
Pure shear

Structures 1
Here is an example. -120 N/mm2

At a point in a beam, the direct stress element is
as shown adjacent. The maximum permissible xz
Principal stress ( 1 ) is 198 N/mm2.
Calculate the shear stress xz, by drawing Mohr’s 160 N/mm2 160 N/mm2
circle.
xz
-120 N/mm2
xz = 110 N/mm2
z= -120 1 = 198
O
x = 160
1. plot x and z on x axis
Radius, R = 145 N/mm2 2. plot point O midway between
3. project vertical lines at x and z
4. plot 1 on x axis
5. draw circle centred at O, through 1
6. scale xz from circle
Calculate the minimum principal stresses 2 .

x 1 z 2 2
2 x z 4 xz
2 2
160 120 1 2
2 160 120 4 1002 152 N / mm2
2 2
Calculate the maximum shear stress max . Max shear stress is the radius of the circle, or
198 152
max
1 2
175 N / mm 2 = -152 N/mm2
2 2 2
Draw the principal stress element, the angle of inclination is.

2 xy 2 110 1 = 198 N/mm2
Tan2 0.786
x y 160 120
2 38.1 = 19.1o
2
1 = 198 N/mm
19.1
2 = -152 N/mm2

Structures 1
5.2.2 Factor of Safety

Before ultimate limit state design was introduced, structural design was based upon permissible
stress concepts – a safe value of stress was defined by dividing the yield stress by a material
safety factor (often around 1.50).
Bending and shear stresses were checked against the permissible stress.
For a safe design, the calculated stress must be less than the permissible stress, or taking the
example of bending stress,
fm
If 1.0 then the design was acceptable for strength (this quotient was often called the
pm
stress ratio). Acceptable designs are demonstrated by a utilisation factor less than unity.
The term factor of safety (FoS) is in common use but in civil engineering it has specific meaning,
usually indicating an overall safety level of global stability. This is best demonstrated by
examples, using unfactored forces.
Consider three global failure mechanisms for a multi-storey building – sliding, overturning and
slip circle failure.
Sliding failure
F Disturbing force is wind
Restoring force is soil friction
C
FoS against sliding, 1.50
F
C
W Overturning failure
Disturbing force is wind moment
F Restoring force is self weight moment
h Wa
FoS against overturning, 1.50
Fh
a
W Slip Circle failure

Disturbing force is self weight
Restoring force is soil friction along slip circle
W
FoS against slip circle, 1.00
C
Eurocode 7 requires partial safety factors to be applied to forces and strengths to ensure an
adequate safety margin.

Structures 1
5.2.3 The middle third rule

The concepts used in assessment of combined direct stress are often applied to structures other
than beams. We have seen an example of a prestressed concrete floor plank, which is pre-
tensioned to avoid tension developing in the concrete after loading is applied; similar principles
are also applied to the design of simple foundations. All foundations sit on soil but tension
cannot exist between soil and foundation. The simplest model of soil-structure interaction is to
assume both soil and concrete are rigid (which is obviously rubbish !).
Ideally, we would place columns at the centroid of the foundation, then the pressure on the soil
is perfectly uniform. However, in reality setting out foundations and columns cannot be
perfect, so we must allow some tolerance on the column position. If the setting out is very poor
or site constraints require the column to be eccentrically placed we need to be able to
calculate the varying pressure on the soil so that it is not overstressed.
The rule of the middle third states that tension will not be developed until the action is place
outside the middle third of the section.
P
Centroid of action coincides with centroid of foundation.

No eccentricity.
P
f max
A
L
L
Centroid of action within middle third of foundation. Small e P
eccentricity. B is the breadth of the section into the paper. 6
P M P Pe P 6e
f max 1
A Wel BL BL2 BL L
6
P M P 6e
f min 1
A Wel BL L
L
e P
6
Centroid of action outside middle third of foundation. Large

eccentricity.
L
z e
2
2R
R f max
3Bz
z
f min 0
3z
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 20. Stress.ppt , 20a. Stress Tutorial.ppt on
Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the stress Analysis Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Stress Analysis – Self Assessment Exercise
1. Using diagrams, explain what a neutral axis is and where it would be found on a
rectangular section beam.
2. What is simple bending theory. List the assumptions upon which it is based and
discuss the validity of each.
3. Describe the difference between direct and shear stress.
4. A test piece is machined from an unknown material and subjected a tensile test.
The test piece is 6mm diameter and 200mm long. At the limit of proportionality, the
applied load is 97kN. After the test is complete the test piece is 209.7mm long.
Identify the material giving reasons for your deduction.
5. A 400mm deep mild steel I-section is subject to a point and uniformly distributed
action and an axial action.
Calculate the second moment of area of the section.
Calculate the maximum shear stresses 1, 2 and 3.
Calculate the proportion of shear carried by the web.
Calculate the combined direct stress due to bending and axial actions.
150
1
2
103 kN 20 kN/m 67 68
20
300 kN
3
A B 400
1 3m 4m
8m 20
6. A mild steel crane girder is manufactured by welding

a flat plate to the top flange of a universal beam section
(Iyy=47500cm4, A=105cm2). It must support two rolling point
actions, which create maximum shear force when the
wheels abut one reaction.
Calculate the shear stress in the welds.
y y

Structures 1
7. At a point in a beam there are direct stresses of 160 N/mm2 tension and 120 N/mm2
compression on mutually perpendicular planes. The principal stress must be limited to
200 N/mm2 tension.
Using a scale plot of Mohr’s circle, calculate the allowable shear stress at that point.
8. At a point in a column, the direct and shear stresses are

10
given by the stress element shown.
Calculate the principal stresses, 8
Draw the principal element showing the principal
plane, 20
20 N/mm2
Draw the maximum shear stress element and its
inclination.
8
10
0
9. The direct and shear stresses at a weld between two
tubes in a pin-jointed framework are shown below. 22
Draw the Mohr’s circle to scale,
Obtain the maximum shear stress, 57.9 57.9
N/mm2
Obtain the maximum and minimum principal stress,
Draw the principal stress element.
22
0
10. For the beam in question 5, calculate :
the maximum principal stress directly under the top flange at midspan,
the maximum shear stress directly above the bottom flange at a support.
11. A reinforced concrete foundation is

1500 kN
badly set out by a student on industrial
0.30 m
placement. The original design assumed
that the column would be located at the
centroid of the foundation, and the axial
stress on the soil (bearing pressure) would 0.40 m
be 135 kN/m2 uniformly distributed.
Calculate the maximum and minimum
stress on the soil if the column is displaced
300mm as shown.
3.00 m 4.00 m

Structures 1
6. Deformation
This section will deal with the deformations of simple elastic engineering structures such as
beams and trusses. Students will learn to calculate deflections of beams using material and
section properties (adressed in earlier sections). The acceptable limits of deformation will be
covered in later sections which deal with structural design.
lectures on Blackboard: 6. Deflections of beams.ppt , 13. Truss deflection.ppt
Principal References: Hulse, R. & Cain, J. Structural Mechanics.
All structures must be serviceable (they must not deform more than is acceptable under
working actions). To ensure structures meet this requirement, we must be able to calculate the
expected deformation.
Deformation is a term which includes deflection (linear movement) and rotation (angular
movement). This text will concentrate upon deflection.
Structural elements which are good at resisting deformation are said to be stiff. Superficially we
would expect a larger section to have higher stiffness but this is only half the picture since some
materials are inherently better at resisting deformation – a 100mm square steel bar would
deform less than a balsa wood bar of the same size. We would also expect a short beam to be
stiffer than a long beam. So stiffness is a function of geometry, section and material properties.
Since there are four forces, there are also four stiffnesses (a wire may be axially stiff against
tension but very weak against bending). The relationships for stiffness are:
Bending Shear Axial Torsion Where E is the modulus of
Rigidity EI GA EA GIp elasticity, G is the shear modulus,
A is the cross-sectional area, Ip is
EI GA EA GI p the polar second moment of
Stiffness area, I is the second moment of
L L L L area and L is the length.
These stiffnesses may be used to evaluate the amount of energy stored in a structural element
when it is deformed by an applied action.
f 2 AL
Axial stress, U
2E
2 2
a b
Shear stress, U
2G
L
M2
Bending stress, U dx
0
2 EI
L
T2
Torsion stress, U dx
0
2GI p
If we now consider the strain energy stored in a deforming
structure. Strain energy is the work done in distorting the W
element, and work is the product of force and deflection. So, if
we plot a graph of force against deflection for an axially
loaded bar it will look like a stress – strain graph (because stress is
force / area and strain is deflection / length).
Strain energy is therefore represented by the hatched area
W
under the linear graph, Strain energy, U
2

Structures 1
Since our structures are in static equilibrium, the work done by applied actions (external strain
energy) must equal the internal strain energy. We may therefore obtain for simple structural
problems.
6.1 Torsion of Shafts

Since this text deals with simple torsion in plane shafts only, the application of strain energy in
shafts is easily demonstrated by an example.
An equation is written for each section of the shaft where the torsion changes. These equations
may then be squared, integrated and summed to obtain the total strain energy. The
deformation (rotation( may then be determined by equating internal strain energy and
external work done.
A 3.5m long circular hollow section cantilevers from a wall, supporting hanging weights such
that there are torsion forces 2.5m and 3.5m from the fixed support. The torsion forces are T1 =
20Nm anti-clockwise and T2 = 40Nm clockwise. The circular hollow section is 2.0mm thick, 32mm
outside diameter and E = 210 kN/mm2.
Polar second moment of area,
Ip D4 d4 324 284 13560mm4

32 32
measure x from cantilever tip and write torsion
equations for each section of the shaft.
for the section at cantilever tip
0 x 1.0, T = 20Nm 40
for section at support
2.5m 20
1.0 x 3.5, T = -20Nm
the shear modulus,
E 210000
G 80769 N / mm2 1.0m
21 2 1 0.3
calculate the total strain, 3.5m
1.0 3.5
T2 1 2
U dx 20 20 2 dx
2GI p 2GI p 0 1.0
1
1.0 3.5
1 -20
1.0 3.5
U 400 400dx 400 x 0 400 x 1.0
2GI p 0 1.0
2GI p
1
U 400 1.0 0 400 3.5 400 1.0
2GI p
1 1400
U 400 1400 400
2GI p 2GI p
20
1400 1400
U 0.639 Nm 0.64 Joules
2 80769 1000 2 13560 2190
1000 4
calculate the twist at the cantilever tip
sum of all torsion = +20 - 40 = -20 Nm
T 2U 2 0.639 180
U 2.0, 0.063rads 0.063 3.67
2 T 20

Structures 1
6.2 Deflection of Pin-Jointed Frameworks

Pin-jointed frameworks are predominantly subject to axial forces, so deflection of these
structures is therefore largely dependant upon extension of elements due to tension or
compression. There are two simple methods available to determine the deflection of pin-
jointed frameworks.
Strain Energy Method
This method is very simple to use but restricted to cases where there
is only one action applied to the structure and the deflection
required is at the point and in the direction of action application. z
Consider a bar in tension, which elongates under self weight, W. Its
L
density is and an element z supports a bar length of z.
z
The strain energy stored in the bar is the work done in extending the bar, which is the product of
force (W) and deflection ( ). So, for a linear elastic material the force-deflection graph is
shown adjacent.
Strain energy is therefore represented by the hatched W
area under the linear graph,
Area, A
W
Strain energy, U W
2
W
f A WL
We already know that, E
AE
L
W WL W 2L
Substituting, into the strain energy equation, U
2 AE 2 AE
Let us use this to obtain the deflection of a truss,
To calculate the deflection at joint C,

B take moments about B, M 0
HB
L HC L W HC W
vertical equilibrium, V 0 , VB W
VB FAB
√2
horizontal equilibrium, H 0, HB HC W
1
1 Calculate element axial forces, at joint B resolve

C A vertically,
HC
FAC 1
FAB VB W
2
50 kN FAB 2W (Tension)
W 2L
internal strain energy in each element, U
2 AE
2
2W 2L
internal strain energy in element AB, U AB
2 AE
2
W L
internal strain energy in element AC, U AC
2 AE
W
external strain energy due to loading, U
2

Structures 1
2
W 2W 2L W 2L 2W 2 2 L W 2 L
equating internal and external strain, 2 2 AE 2 AE 2 AE
2WL
1 2
AE
And in numerical example;
B
HB = 50kN
70.7
VB = 50 kN
50
3m
50
C A HC = 50kN
50
50 kN 50 kN
3m
If both elements have cross sectional area of 20 cm2 and E = 210 kN/mm2.
2WL 2 50 3
1 2 1 2 1.72 10 3 m 1.72mm
AE 420,000
Virtual Work Method

The second method offers a more generally applicable technique for deflection of pin-jointed
frameworks. It is derived from the principal of virtual work;
Castigliano’s First Theorem (1873) states that ‘if the strain energy in a structure is partially
differentiated with respect to an applied load the result is equal to the displacement of that
load in its line of action’.
The stored strain energy in pin-jointed frameworks is predominantly due to axial forces, so for
linear elastic material,
U FL F
where W is the applied action and F is the internal forces.
W AE W
The integration process is normally undertaken by direct summation of the truss element
FL F
extensions and the notional extension due to a unit action.
AE W
The procedure is:
1. Analyse the framework for the external actions to obtain the real internal forces (F)
FL
2. Calculate the element extensions ( )
AE
3. Apply a unit (1.0 kN) action at the joint, and in the direction, where the deflection is required.
F
Obtain the imaginary internal forces ( )
W
FL F
4. Summate the deflection required,
AE W
A worked example will clarify the procedure.

Structures 1
125 kN
A statically determinate pin
jointed, triangulated framework is
subject to one point load. The B C D
elastic modulus is 210x106 kN/m2
for all elements. The area of the
top and bottom chords are each
3m
equal to 0.01m2, the remaining
elements have area equal to
0.005m2. A E
Using either the Method of Sections or F

Resolution at the Joints, we can obtain the
internal element forces for the real action 4m 4m
and for an imaginary unit action, applied
at joint F and in the vertical direction T
required. 125 kN
+ive
B -83.3 C -83.3 D
T Sign Convention
+104.1 -125 REAL FORCES (F)
-62.5
-62.5 +104.1 3m
These are the forces due to the
actions shown in the original
A E
question.
F
F
4m 4m VIRTUAL FORCES
-0.67 -0.67 W
B C D
These are the forces for the
original frame geometry but
+0.83 -0.5
-0.5 with the original action removed
+0.83
and a unit force applied at the
point and in the direction that
A E the deflection is required.
F
1.0 kN
If we consider element BC which is part of the top chord so cross-sectional area = 0.01m2,
length = 4.00m, the real force is -83.3kN, the imaginary force is -0.67kN. 83.3 4.0
Applying Castigliano’s Theorem in a tabular form, 6
0.000162
0.01 210 10
FL FL F
Length Area F e f
Element L A F AE AE W
W
(m)
2
(m ) (kN) (m) (m)
AB 3 0.005 -62.5 -0.50 -0.00018 0.00009
BC 4 0.01 -83.3 -0.67 -0.00016 0.00011
CD 4 0.01 -83.3 -0.67 -0.00016 0.00011
DE 3 0.005 -62.5 -0.50 -0.00018 0.00009
EF 4 0.01 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000
AF 4 0.01 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000
CF 3 0.005 -125 0.00 -0.00036 0.00000
BF 5 0.005 104.1 0.83 0.00050 0.00041
FD 5 0.005 104.1 0.83 0.00050 0.00041
0.001217045
vertical deflection at joint F, f 1.2 mm

Structures 1
Returning to a steel framework we analysed earlier. Let us obtain the horizontal deflection of joint C
- analyse the framework for a unit load applied horizontally at joint C.
B C B C
200 kN 200 kN -200
3.000 m
+250 -150
0 150
200
All elements
A A=50cm2 D A D
E=210kN/mm2 200
REAL FORCES (F) 150
150
4.000 m
Calculate the vertical reactions.
Moments about A,
B C 1.0 kN 4VD 1.0 3 VD 0.75kN
0
V 0 VA VD 0.75kN
H 0 HA 1.0kN
+1.25
0 0.75 -0.75 at joint D resolve vertically
FCD 0.75 (C)
1.0
at joint B resolve vertically

A D
1.0 FAB 0
IMAGINARY FORCES at joint B resolve horizontally
0.75 F 0.75 FBC 0
W T
4
+ive FAC 1.0 FAC 1.25kN (T )
5
Sign Convention horizontal component of AC (→) equals HA (←)
T
Now we have all the information to calculate the deflection,
Length Area FL FL F
F e
Element L A F C
W AE AE W
(m) (m )
2
(kN) (m) (m)
AB 3 0.005 0 0.00 0.00000 0
BC 4 0.005 -200 0.00 -0.00076 0
CD 3 0.005 -150 -0.75 -0.00043 0.0003214
AC 5 0.005 250 1.25 0.00119 0.0014881
0.001809524
horizontal deflection at joint C, C 1.8 mm

Structures 1
Calculate the horizontal deflection at joint C in the mild steel truss shown. T
AB and CD 152x152x23UC, BC 152x89x16UB, AC 60x60x6EA (RSA).
+ive
T Sign Convention
30 kN
B C B C
4.000 m
HA A D A D
VA VD
3.000 m
1.0 kN
B C B C
HA A D A D
VA VD
F F .L F (m)
Element F (kN) L (m) A (m2)
W A.E W
AB
BC
CD
AC

Structures 1
Calculate the vertical deflection at joint D in the mild steel truss shown. T
ABC 150x75x18PFC, BD 152x89x16UB, ADC 10mm diameter bar.
60 kN
+ive
A C
HA B
T Sign Convention
3.000 m
VA VC
D
4.000 m 4.000 m
A C
HA
B
VA VC
1.0 kN
F F .L F (m)
Element F (kN) L (m) A (m2)
W A.E W
AB
BC
CD
DA
BD

Structures 1
6.3 Deflection of Beams

We have already calculated the forces in beams, which may be bending, axial, shear or
torsion (civil engineers should avoid structural layouts which develop torsion). Beam deflection
is predominantly due to bending, so let us begin by considering the equation of simple
bending:
M f E 1 M 1
and rearranging to get where is the beam curvature and EI is the
I z R R EI R
flexural stiffness.
If we consider a symmetrical beam bent to a
circular arc, the concave shape of deflection is
designated as negative so,
1 M +x
R EI Z (deflection)
from the load intensity-shear-moment relationship

dV dM
we know z and V
dx dx
+z dz
1 d 2z
If we now introduce curvature as the differential of slope, so and dx
therefore
R dx 2
2
d z M
2
which is the Differential Equation of Flexure.
dx EI
Let us apply this relationship to a simple example.

A beam has flexural rigidity EI, span L, and a uniformly
distributed action w. Obtain an expression for the
maximum deflection (at midspan).
Moments about A, M 0
L wL
L.VB w.L. VB
max
2 2
z wL
Vertical equilibrium, V 0, VA
2
Horizontal equilibrium, H 0 , HA 0
Bending moment at any point (by cutting a free body diagram),
x wLx wx 2
M V A x wx M
2 2 2
d 2z wLx wx 2
Substitute into the differential equation of flexure, EI
dx 2 2 2
2
dz w Lx x3
Integrate once, EI A
dx 2 2 3
To find the value of A we must consider the boundary conditions (where we know what some
of the parameters in the equations will be).
L w L2 L3
At midspan x and the slope of the beam is zero, 0 A
2 2 8 24
wL3
A
24

Structures 1
dz w Lx 2 x3 wL3 w
therefore, EI 6 Lx 2 4x3 L3
dx 2 2 3 24 24
w
Integrate again, EIz 2 Lx 3 x4 L3 x B
24
At support A, x=0 and z=0 (the support does not deflect), B 0
w
Therefore the final deflection equation is, z 2 Lx 3 x4 L3 x
24 EI
The negative sign indicates deflection will be downwards (for the convention used here) and is
usually omitted from text books. As the beam and actions are symmetrical we know the
maximum deflection will be at midspan, so
3 4
w L L L w L4 L4 L4 5wL4
z max 2L L3
24 EI 2 2 2 24 EI 4 16 2 384 EI
This process can be repeated for each general case of restraint condition and actions to
produce tables of maximum deflection formulae for standard cases. Texts such as the Steel
Designer’s Manual contain pages of standard formulae, which may be combined together
using the Principle of Superposition to deal with non standard cases.
Clearly it would be tedious and time consuming to use this procedure for beams subject to
more complicated actions. A more generally applicable procedure was introduced by
Macauley in 1919, which uses singularity functions. Macauley’s method uses the differential
equation of flexure but simplifies the solution by using Macauley’s brackets which can only
have positive values;
x a is a Macauley’s bracket but
x a x a , if x a
x a 0 , if x a
RULES FOR USING MACAULEY’s METHOD.

1. Calculate the reactions using equilibrium, as normal.
2. When uniform actions are applied, they must extend up to the right support, this may
require the addition of dummy loads.
3. Pick a point just inside the right hand support of the beam ( ).
4. Dimension salient points on the beam (x) from section , using Macauley’s brackets.
5. Write a moment equation for the free body to the left of section .
6. Substitute the moment equation into the differential equation of flexure.
7. Integrate the equation twice, treating Macaulay’s brackets as single parameters.
8. Apply boundary conditions and solve for constants of integration.
9. Macauley’s bracket must have a positive value.
A numerical example will demonstrate the application of Macauley’s method.

25 kN/m 90 kN
A beam of flexural stiffness EI=500,000 kNm2 is subject to
a point action of 90kN and a partial uniformly
distributed action of 25kN/m. Plot the deflection profile.
A B
1. Calculate the reactions
take moments about A, M 0
VA 6m 2m 2m 6
10V A 25 6 2 2 90 2 , VA 123kN
2
10 m

Structures 1
25 kN/m 90 kN
2. Extend uniformly distributed actions through to
support B (the new u.d.l is also 25kN/m). This allows
Macaulay’s method to work but has now changed
the applied actions.
We therefore need to cancel out this extra uniform

25 kN/m 90 kN load by also applying an equal and opposite action
123 kN (the new u.d.l is -25kN/m upwards).
We now have the loading arrangement which will be

analysed using Macaulay’s method.
123 kN 25 kN/m 90 kN
3. Cut a section just inside support B and make the

distance from this section to the end of the beam x.
4. Use Macaulay’s brackets to dimension all the other

M important locations on the beam, as a function of x.
x 8
123 kN 5. Write a moment equilibrium equation
x 6 x 6 x
123x 25 x 6 M 25 x 90 x - 8
2 2
x
rearrange this to get
2
M 123x 12.5 x 6 12.5x 2 90 x - 8
2
differential equation of flexure is EI d y M and substituting for M
dx 2
d 2z 2
EI 2 123x 12.5 x 6 12.5 x 2 90 x - 8
dx
integrating once, (equation 1)
3 2
dz x2 x 6 x3 x -8 3 2
EI 123 12.5 12.5 90 A 61.5 x 2 4.17 x 6 4.17 x 3 45 x - 8 A
dx 2 3 3 2
integrating again, (equation 2)
4 3
x3 x 6 x4 x -8 4 3
EIz 61.5 4.17 4.17 45 Ax B 20.5x 3 1.04 x 6 1.04 x 4 15 x - 8 Ax B
3 4 4 3
applying boundary conditions at supports where (deflection) z = 0 :

at support B x = 0, z = 0. Substitute into equation 2
4 3
EI 0 20.5 03 1.04 0 6 1.04 04 15 0 - 8 A 0 B
and since x a 0 , if x a we have B = 0.
At support A x = 10m, z = 0.
4 3
EI 0 20.5 103 1.04 10 6 1.04 104 15 10 - 8 A 10 0
all of Macaulay’s brackets are >0 so we have A = -1024.6
the general deflection equation therefore being:

4 3
20.5 x 3 1.04 x 6 1.04 x 4 15 x - 8 1024.6 x
z
EI

Structures 1
to obtain a plot of the deflected shape of the beam we need only substitute values of x and
EI=500,000 kNm2. into this equation and graph the results against distance along the beam.
for example at midspan x=5m,

4 3
20.5 53 1.04 5 6 1.04 54 15 5 - 8 1024.6 5 20.5 53 1.04 54 1024.6 5
z
500,000 500,000
3210.6
z 6.42 10 3 m 6.4mm
500,000
4 3 z
20.5 x 3 1.04 x 6 1.04x 4 15 x 8 1204.6x
x (m) EIz (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 20.5 0.0 -1.0 0.0 -1024.6 -1005.1 -2.0
2 164.0 0.0 -16.6 0.0 -2049.2 -1901.8 -3.8
3 553.5 0.0 -84.2 0.0 -3073.8 -2604.5 -5.2
4 1312.0 0.0 -266.2 0.0 -4098.4 -3052.6 -6.1
5 2562.5 0.0 -650.0 0.0 -5123.0 -3210.5 -6.4
6 4428.0 0.0 -1347.8 0.0 -6147.6 -3067.4 -6.1
7 7031.5 1.0 -2497.0 0.0 -7172.2 -2636.7 -5.3
8 10496.0 16.6 -4259.8 0.0 -8196.8 -1944.0 -3.9
9 14944.5 84.2 -6823.4 -15.0 -9221.4 -1031.1 -2.1
10 20500.0 266.2 -10400.0 -120.0 -10246.0 0.2 0.0
Distance along beam (m)

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-1.0
Deflection (mm)
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
-7.0
We have now dealt with bending deflection but some sections are also susceptible to shear
deflection, for which we must again consider strain energy. We already know that shear strain
energy is given by,
2
U volume
2G
and that shear strain energy is the work done by the shear force deforming the beam, which
can be graphically represented as,
where the strain energy is the hatched area, so
V
2
V
volume
2 2G
we also know that shear stress will be uniform across the

cross-section, so we may introduce a form-factor which
allows the equation to be rewritten as,

Structures 1
2
V V
A. x where A. x is the volume of the beam
2 2G A P
L b
V
v .x
G0A d
If we now consider a cantilever beam loaded by a
single point action at the free end. The shear force is L
constant over the whole span. For rectangular cross-
sections the form-factor 6 so,
5 W
L L
6 W 6 Wx 6WL 0 0
V .dx
5G 0 b.d 5G b.d 0 5Gb.d
2
WL3 6WL WL3 3E d
The total bending and shear deflection is, M V 1
EI 5Gbd EI 10G L
3E 3 210 10 3
For a steel beam 0.75 so shear deflection is only significant if
10G 10 7900
2
d d
1.25 or 1.0 which only applies to very squat (or deep) beams. This is why we
L L
can justifiably ignore shear deflection in most steel beams, when designing timber however the
proportion of shear deflection is more significant and is therefore usually calculated.
125 kN 25 kN/m
A uniform isotropic beam is subject to a point
load and uniformly distributed load. The
elastic modulus is 210x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.002m4.
Use Macaulay’s method to determine the
deflection at mid-span.
4m 2m 4m
Calculate the reactions by taking moments
about B:
10 m
10VA = 6x125 + 25x4x2
VA = 95 kN 125 kN 25 kN/m
VB = 125+(25x4)-95 = 130kN
Distance x is measured from section (just

inside the right support) so re-dimension the
beam in terms of x.
An expression for the bending moment at x 6
section is;
x 6 x 4
M 95 x 125 x 4 25 x 6
2 x
differential equation of flexure is:
d 2z VA = 95 kN
EI 2 M and substituting for M
dx
d 2z
EI 2
95 x 125 x 4 12.5 x 6 2 .dx
dx
dz 2
integrating once, EI 47.5 x 2 62.5 x 4 4.17 x 6 3 A
dx

Structures 1
integrating again, EIz 15.83x 3 20.83 x 4 3 1.04 x 6 4 Ax B

applying boundary conditions:
at x = 0, z = 0. Hence B = 0
3 3 4
at x = L = 10m, z = 0. Hence, 0 15.83 10 20.83 10 4 1.04 10 6 10 A 0
and A = -1106.4
15.83x 3 20.83 x 4 3 1.04 x 6 4
1106.4 x
z
EI
at mid-span x = 5m, eliminating Macaulay brackets of value ≤ 0 and substituting into the general
deflection equation gives:
3 3
15.83 5 20.83 1 1106.4 5
z 0.0085m 8.5mm
210 106 0.002
25 kN/m 90 kN
A uniform isotropic beam is subject to a point
load and uniformly distributed load. The
elastic modulus is 70x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.001m4.
Use Macaulay’s method to determine the
cantilever tip deflection.
Left hand support designated A, taking 2m 6m 3m
moments about B:
9VA = 3x90 + 25x8x(3+8/2) 11 m
VA = 185.5 kN
VB = 90+(25x8)-185.5 = 104.5kN
Dummy udl’s of 25kN/m required to close
25 kN/m 90 kN
loading up to right hand support,
Distance x is measured from section (just
inside the right support) so re-dimension the
beam in terms of x.
An expression for the bending moment at
section is; 185 kN x 8
x x 8 x 2
M 185 x 2 90 x 8 25 x 25 x 8
2 2 x
differential equation of flexure is:
d 2z
EI 2 M and substituting for M
dx
d 2z x x 8
EI 2
185 x 2 90 x 8 25 x 25 x 8 .dx
dx 2 2
integrating once,
dz
EI 93 x 2 2 45 x 8 2 4.17 x 3 4.17 x 8 3 A
dx
integrating again,
EIz 30.92 x 2 3 15 x 8 3 1.04 x 4 1.04 x 8 4 Ax B
applying boundary conditions at supports where (deflection) z = 0 :
at x = 0, z = 0. Hence B = 0
3 3 4 4
at x = 9m, z = 0. Hence, 0 30.92 7 15 9 8 1.04 9 1.04 9 8 9A 0
and A = -418.7
30.92 x 2 3 15 x 8 3 1.04 x 4 1.04 x 8 4 418.7 x
z
EI

Structures 1
at cantilever tip x = 11m, eliminating Macaulay brackets of value ≤ 0 and substituting into the
general deflection equation gives:
30.92 9 3 15[3]3 1.04 11 4 1.04[3] 4 418.7 11 2387.5
z 0.0341m 34mm
70 10 6 0.001 70000
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 6. Deflections of beams.ppt , 13. Truss
deflection.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Deformation Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Deformation – Self Assessment Exercise
1. An asymmetrical beam is manufactured by welding three

mild steel plates together. The modulus of elasticity is 210x106
kN/m 2. It supports two partial uniformly distributed actions and
one point action.
Calculate the deflection at midspan.
Check your answer using the principal of superposition and
standard deflection formulae.
2. A mild steel footbridge is used to temporarily lift a

steam turbine in the valley below it.
All elements are 40mm thick plate.
Calculate the deflection at the locations of the two
point actions.
Check your answers using standard formulae.
15 kN/m 50 kN
3. For the beam shown, the modulus of
elasticity is 210x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.001m 4.
x
Show that the moment equation at section is:
x 4 x 11 4m
M 138 x 4 50 x 15 x 4 15 x 11 3m 7m
2 2
and that the general deflection equation is: 14 m
3 3 4 4
23 x 4 8.3 x 0.63 x 4 0.63 x 11 414.9 x
z
EI
Plot the deflection of the beam at 2m intervals (as below) and find the locations of the
maximum upward and downward deflections.
Determine the slope of the beam at the cantilever support.

Structures 1
2
E= 210000000 kN/m
4
I= 2.00 0.001 m
x y (mm)
0
Deflection (mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
1 0.00 0 -8.3 0 0 414.9 -406.6 -1.94
2 0 -66.4 0 0 829.8 -763.4 -3.64
3 00 2 -224.1 4 0 6 0 8 1244.710 -1020.612 -4.86 14
4 -2.00 0 -531.2 0 0 1659.6 -1128.4 -5.37
5 23 -1037.5 -0.63 0 2074.5 -1059.37 -5.04
6 184 -1792.8 -10.08 0 2489.4 -870.52 -4.15
7 -4.00 621 -2846.9 -51.03 0 2904.3 -627.37 -2.99
8 1472 -4249.6 -161.28 0 3319.2 -380.32 -1.81
9 2875 -6050.7 -393.75 0 3734.1 -164.65 -0.78
10 -6.00 4968 -8300 -816.48 0 4149 -0.52 0.00
11 7889 -11047.3 -1512.63 0 4563.9 107.03 0.51
12 11776 -14342.4 -2580.48
Distance along0.63 4978.8
beam (m) 167.45 0.80
13 16767 -18235.1 -4133.43 10.08 5393.7 197.75 0.94
4. For the trusses in Self Assessment – Pin-jointed Frameworks already analysed for real
forces, calculate:
The vertical deflection at joint J of question 1,
The vertical deflection at joint C of question 2,
The vertical deflection at joint C of question 7.

Assume the material is mild steel, the top and bottom chords have area of 0.01m 2 and
the internal elements have area 0.005m 2.
The horizontal deflection at joint E of question 5.

Assume all material is mild steel, the columns are 203x203x46UC, the beams are
305x165x40UB and the bracing is 200x15 flat plate.
5. Match the beam arrangements to the correct moment equation:

15 kN/m 25 kN/m
30 kN 50 kN 20 kN 80 kN 45 kN 65 kN
A x A x B A x
B B
2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0
d 2z 2 2
EI M 26.4 x 12.5 x 8 12.5 x 4.5 45 x 3 65 x 1
dx 2
d 2z 2
EI M 112.4 x 20 x 3 80 x 1 7.5 x 4.5
dx 2
d 2z
EI M 66.7 x 30 x 3 50 x 1
dx 2

Structures 1
7. Unsymmetrical Bending
This section will introduce the theory and application of stress analysis to section profiles which
do not deflect along principal axes. For civil engineering structures, this is usually limited to angle
and zed sections. Students will learn to calculate stresses and deflections in unsymmetrical
sections, which require the calculation of unique elastic section properties.
lectures on Blackboard: 21. Unsymmetrical bending.ppt
We have already established that the equation of simple bending only applies to sections
which are symmetrical about at least one axis. There are two commonly used steel sections
which are unsymmetrical about the Y-Y and Z-Z axes – the angle and zed section.
V Z Z
V
U U
Y Y Y Y
U U
Z V Z V
Simple bending theory is based upon a number of (debatable) assumptions:
the material remains elastic and is homogeneous and isotropic
plane sections remain plane, during and after bending
the section is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid, parallel to the plane of
bending.
We know that materials are never perfectly homogeneous and isotropic but for our purposes we
can sustain the inaccuracies this generates.
The second point cannot be true since we know that elements under compression and tension
will distort laterally according to the material Poisson’s ratio. The effect this has on the section
shape is called anticlastic bending but it is acceptable to ignore it as the effect on section
properties is usually not significant.
The third assumption is obviously contravened for unsymmetrical sections and requires the
derivation of section properties about some axes of symmetry. Although zed and angle
sections are not symmetrical about the usual principal axes (z-z and y-y) they do have an axis
of symmetry which is V-V, making this the unsymmetrical neutral axis. At right angles to this axis
is the U-U axis, along which the section will displace when loaded.

Structures 1
7.1 Product Second Moment of Area, Iyz

This section property is pertinent only to unsymmetrical sections (all symmetrical sections have
zero values for Iyz). It is used to calculate stress and deflection, and uses values which we have
already identified in the calculation of second moment of area. To demonstrate the process it
is best to redefine the major axes in the manner of a Cartesian graph, where h is the ordinate
and k is the abscissa.
+h
The sign attributed to areas is very important
+h and -k +h and +k
when calculating Iyz. For our angle section, the
centroid of area 1 is in the +h /+k quadrant,
-k +k whereas area 2 is in the -h /-k quadrant.
-h and -k -h and +k
-h
+h
To calculate Iyz we must simply summate the

Area 1 product of area and its distances from the
compound section centroid, or
h1 =18
z 30 0
-k +k I yz yz.dA A.h.k
h2 =45 A
Area 2
k1 = 13
Element area distance distance A.h.k

2
No A (mm ) h (mm) k (mm) (mm4)
k2 = 32 y 63 1 2500 18 13 585000
2 1000 -45 -32 1440000
A.h.k = 2025000 mm4
-h
7.2 Principal Second Moment of Area, Unsymmetrical Sections, Ivv & Iuu
The unsymmetrical second moments of area about the principal axes are calculated from Iyy ,
Izz and the angle through which the U-U axis is rotated from the horizontal.
I uu I yy cos 2 I yz sin 2 I zz sin 2

I vv I zz cos 2 I yz sin 2 I yy sin 2
2 I yz
where the inclination of the U-U axis is given by, Tan 2
I yy I zz
Once the section properties have been derived, deflection may be calculated in the same
manner is symmetrical sections.

Structures 1
7.3 Bending Stress in Unsymmetrical Sections

To calculate bending stresses we may use an extension of the simple bending equation;
M z I yy M y I yz M y I zz M z I yz
x 2
k 2
h
I yy I zz I yz I yy I zz I yz
where x is the bending stress at a point in the section located at coordinates (k , h) and Mz and
My are the components of bending moment about the respective axes.
Unsymmetrical sections are invariably of open form (there are unrestrained outstand elements)
which suffer local buckling. Further, their shear and torsion capacities are difficult to calculate
and complicated by the development of warping stresses as well as shear stresses. These
topics are contained in more advanced texts.
A worked example will demonstrate the calculation process.
V Z A 6m span, simply supported roof purlin is formed from

69 2mm thick mild steel. The cross-section is
unsymmetrical. It is subject to uniformly distributed
snow loading of 0.9kN/m along its full length, applied in
25
the plane of the Z-Z axis (vertically). Given that Iyy =

7934352 mm4, Izz = 863616 mm4 and E = 200 kN/mm2,
U calculate the stress profile and deflection at midspan.
w (per metre)
250
Y Y 5wL4
max
384 EI
L
U
L
25
w
2
69
Z V
w 0.9kN / m
L 6m
wL2 0.9 62
M yy 4.1kNm
8 8
M zz 0kNm wL2
8
Calculate the Product Second Moment of Area, Iyz
Major axis second moment of area, z measured from top surface

element b d A z Az bd 3 /12 k=z bar -z Ak 2
top lip 2 25 50 12.5 625 2604 112.5 632813
top flange 66 2 132 1 132 44 124 2029632
web 2 250 500 125 62500 2604167 0 0
bottom flange 66 2 132 249 32868 44 -124 2029632
bottom lip 2 25 50 237.5 11875 2604 -112.5 632813
864 108000 2609463 5324889
z bar = 125 mm I yy = 7934352 mm4

Structures 1
Minor axis second moment of area, y measured from right edge

element b d A y Ay db 3 /12 h=y bar -y Ah 2
top lip 2 25 50 137 6850 17 -68 231200
top flange 66 2 132 103 13596 47916 -34 152592
web 2 250 500 69 34500 167 0 0
bottom flange 66 2 132 35 4620 47916 34 152592
bottom lip 2 25 50 1 50 17 68 231200
864 59616 96032 767584
y bar = 69 mm I zz = 863616 mm4
Product second moment of area
A h k A.h.k
element (mm2) (mm) (mm) (mm4)
top lip 50 -68 112.5 -382500
top Fl 132 -34 124 -556512
web 500 0 0 0
btm Fl 132 34 -124 -556512
btm lip 50 68 -112.5 -382500
Calculate the angle between the y-y and u-u axes, .

2 I yz 2 1878024 Tan 1 0.548
Tan2 0.548, 14.4
I yy I zz 7934352 863616 2
Calculate the displacement of the section along the u-u and v-v axes.
I uu I yy cos 2 I yz sin 2 I zz sin 2
I uu 7.93 10 6 cos 2 14.4 1.87 10 6 sin 28.8 0.864 10 6 sin 2 14.4 8.394 10 6 mm 4
I vv I zz cos 2 I yz sin 2 I yy sin 2
I vv 0.864 10 6 cos 2 14.4 1.87 10 6 sin 28.8 7.93 10 6 sin 2 14.4 0.400 10 6 mm 4
split Myy (and w) into two components on u-u and v-v axes
8M uu 8 3.97
M uu M yy cos 4.1 cos14.4 3.97kNm, wuu 0.88kN / m
L2 36
8M vv 8 1.02
M vv M yy sin 4.1 sin 14.4 1.02kNm, wvv 0.23kN / m
L2 36
deflection of a simply supported beam subject to uniformly distributed load,
5wuu L4 5 0.88 6000 4
uu 8.4mm
384 EI uu 384 210 10 3 8.394 10 6
5wvv L4 5 0.23 6000 4 V
vv 46.2mm
384 EI vv 384 210 10 3 0.400 10 6
the displaced section profile is: U

deflected position
46
8
Muu
Myy
U
Mvv
V

Structures 1
The stress profile may be obtained from the general equation

M z I yy M y I yz M y I zz M z I yz
x 2
k 2
h
I yy I zz I yz I yy I zz I yz
0 4.1 10 6 1.87 10 6 4.1 10 6 0.864 10 6 0

x k h
6 6 6 2 6 6 2
7.93 10 0.864 10 1.87 10 7.93 10 0.864 10 1.87 10 6
7.667 1012 3.542 1012
x k h 2.286k 0.947h 2
3.355 1012 3.355 1012 +h
where h and k are coordinates of points on the section, 3
Point k h x
(mm) (mm) (N/mm2)

1
1 -69 100 -63 4
2 -69 125 -39 +k
3 1 125 121
4 1 0 2
5 -1 -125 -121
6 69 -125 39 63
7 69 -100 63 121
8 -1 0 -2 121 39
Note, this stress profile is plotted to a convention of compression (-ive) above the profile
centreline and tension (+ive) below the centreline. It helps to imagine the zed profile flattened
to a horizontal line to plot the stress values.
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 21. Unsymmetrical bending.ppt on Blackboard. The
last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Unsymmetrical Bending Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm
on Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Unsymmetrical Bending – Self Assessment Exercise
1. Explain why Simple Bending Theory may not be used to assess unsymmetrical
sections.
2. A 3m span angle section forms a simply supported floor beam. It is subject to single
midspan point load of 2.0kN, applied in the plane of the Z-Z axis (vertically).
Z
25
Y Y
125
10
100
Z
i) Calculate the Product Second Moment of Area, Iyz.

ii) Calculate the angle between the Y-Y and U-U axis, .
iii) Calculate the displacement of the section along the U-U and V-V axes and sketch
the displaced section profile.
iv) Calculate the bending stresses and plot the stress profile.

Structures 1
Structural design might be defined as ‘a mixture of artistic flare and

engineering judgement used to arrive at a safe physical structure’.
An Introduction to Structural Design

Structures 1
8. The Eurocodes
British Standards for structural design are due to be phased out before 2010, therefore students
of structural design must be conversant with the relevant design rules when they enter industry.
The philosophy and style of presentation of structural Eurocodes are different to British
Standards. The Eurocodes are a self contained collection of design advice, often not giving
complete rules for design. They are split by structural material, so generic rules for loading and
design philosophy are contained in separate codes. It is often therefore necessary to use many
codes to design a structure.
A Eurocode may contain several parts, usually a main text with formative and normative
annexes. Finally there will be a national annexe which details values of variables specific to a
particular country. Thus, if a UK engineer wishes to design a structure in another European
country, they need only obtain the relevant national annexe as the main design rules are the
same across Europe.
A selection of the relevant Eurocodes are listed below:
Eurocode 0 Basis of Design
Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures
EN1991-1.1 Densities, self weight and imposed loads
EN1991-1.2 Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN1991-1.3 Snow loads
EN1991-1.4 Wind loads
EN1991-1.5 Thermal actions
EN1991-1.6 Actions during excavation
EN1991-1.7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions
EN1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges
EN1991-3 Actions induced by cranes and machinery
EN1991-4 Actions in silos and tanks
Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures
EN1992-1.1 Common rules for buildings and civil engineering structures
EN1992-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1992-2 Bridges
EN1992-3 Liquid retaining and containment structures
Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures
EN1993-1.1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN1993-1.3 Cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
EN1993-1.4 Structures in stainless steel
EN1993-1.5 Plated structural alelements
EN1993-1.6 Strength and stability of shell elemenets
EN1993-1.7 Strength and stability of planar structures transversely loaded
EN1993-1.8 Design of joints
EN1993-1.9 Fatigue strength of steel structures
EN1993-1.10 Selection of steel for fracture toughness and through thickness properties
EN1993-1.11 Design of structures with tension components made of steel
EN1993-1.12 Supplementary design rules for high strength steel (S460-S690)
EN1993-2 Bridges
EN1993-3 Towers masts and chimneys
EN1993-4 Silos tanks and pipelines
EN1993-5 Piling
EN1993-6 Crane supporting structures
Eurocode 4 Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
EN1994-1.1 General - Common rules
EN1994-2 Bridges

Structures 1
EN1994-3 Buildings
Eurocode 5 Design of Timber Structures
EN1995-1.1 Common rules and rules for buildings
EN1992-2 Bridges
Eurocode 6 Design of Masonry Structures
EN1996-1.1 Rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry
EN1996-1.3 Detailed rules on lateral loading
EN1996-2 Selection and execution of masonry
EN1996-3 Simplified calculation methods and simple rules for masonry structures
Eurocode 7 Geotechnical Design
EN1997-1 General rules
EN1997-2 Design assisted by laboratory testing
EN1997-3 Design assisted by field testing
Eurocode 8 Design Provision for Earthquake Resistant Structures
EN1998-1 Common rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
EN1998-2 Bridges
EN1998-3 Strengthening and repair of buildings
EN1998-4 Silos, tanks and pipelines
EN1998-5 Foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects
EN1998-6 Towers, masts and chimneys
Eurocode 9 Design of Aluminium Structures
EN1999-1.1 Common rules
EN1999-2 Structures susceptible to fatigue
This document will offer a simplified introduction to using Structural Eurocodes. Many of the
equations quoted herein do not appear in the code clauses (as the codes often offer only
theory) but provide a means of completing design checks.
8.1 Greek Alphabet

Eurocodes make extensive use of the Greek letter set:
Alpha, Beta, Chi, Delta, Epsilon, Phi, Gamma, Eta, Iota,
Phi, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Nu, Omicron, Pi, Theta, Rho, Sigma,
Tau, Upsilon, Omega, Xi, Psi, Zeta
8.2 The Four Structural Elements

All structures may be formed by assembling the four possible structural elements.
8.2.1 Tie
A tension-only element, which means that the external force
always acts to stretch and straighten (hence avoid buckling
of any kind). Elements may therefore by very slender. The
material will usually reach yield stress (or its equivalent) and
maximum efficiency is obtained.
8.2.2 Strut
An element subject to compression which will suffer lateral
buckling, often sized to limit slenderness and hence will
rarely reach yield stress due to axial load alone. Struts make
less efficient use of material than ties.
Ties and struts resist axial forces only.

Structures 1
8.2.3 Beam
An element which transfers in-plane force by bending and
shear; this usually results in a tension face (which is laterally
stable) and a compression face which will buckle laterally,
like a strut, if unrestrained. Beams make less efficient use of
material than struts.
Beams must resist bending moments and shear forces but
may also resist axial forces and very occasionally torsion.
8.2.4 Plates
An element which transfers out-of-plane forces by bending
and shear, in a similar manner to beams but on two axes
rather than one. Plate thickness is small in comparison to the
other dimensions and large deflections occur, resulting in a
general need for more complex analysis (non-linear
geometry). Very thin plates are referred to as shells, and
their action is dominated by in-plane forces. Plates are a
topic which is not addressed at level 4.
Plates must resist bending moments and shear forces but
may also resist axial forces and often torsion. Continuous or
multi-bay plates will also develop internal axial forces
(tension and compression membrane action) which can
make them surprisingly strong.
These four elements can be assembled in 2D and 3D arrangements but the resulting structure
can always be reduced to simple elements for analysis and design purposes.

Structures 1
9. (EN1990) Eurocode 0 Basis of Design

This half of the handbook will address design of simple structures. It is important that students
understand what the four structural elements are and the options for arranging them into stable
structures. You should read the next section of the handbook in conjunction with the following
Powerpoint lectures on Blackboard: 2. Structural Form.ppt , 8b. Philosophy
Principal References: Hunt, A. Tony Hunt’s structures notebook. Millais, M. Building Structures – a
Conceptual Approach. Mainstone, R.J. Developments in structural form. Ching, F.D.K et al
Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, systems and design. Allen, E. et al Form and Forces.
Engel, H. Structure Systems.
IStructE. Manual for the design of building structures to Eurocode 1 and Basis of Structural
Design.
Structures must be designed, executed (constructed) and maintained such that, with
appropriate degrees of reliability they will:
Perform adequately under all expected actions
Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs
Not be damaged disproportionately by exceptional hazards such as fire, explosion and
impact.
Reliability is a complex subject in itself but is dealt with using limit state philosophy.
In Eurocode terminology a direct ACTION is a force applied directly to a structure such as
dead, imposed or wind loading, an indirect ACTION is a constrained deformation or imposed
acceleration, such as temperature change or earthquake motion.
Eurocode 0 specifies ways in which actions are combined to give design loads for ultimate and
serviceability limit states.
Independent or single actions are split into three groups:
Permanent actions (e.g. self weight and dead loads) G
Variable actions (imposed and wind loads) Q
Accidental actions (earthquake, blast and impact loads) A
All of these loadings are stochastic (time dependant), so when combining them together we
may take advantage of the reducing probability that all actions act together simultaneously.
This is done using action partial safety factors and probability sensitivity factors.
9.1.1 Reliability
Ultimate limit state design codes are based upon probabilistic models of actions and strengths.
These are derived from safety requirements and reliability theory. Reliability theory relies heavily
upon the Gaussian distribution, which mathematicians ‘normalise’ to produce the Normal
Distribution, which is tabulated and widely taught in statistics.
In order to ensure public safety, structural engineers take a cautious approach to design by:
using a 95th percentile action (a force which will rarely be exceeded),
using a 5th percentile strength (a resistance which will usually be exceeded).
These design points are called characteristics.
In order to produce a safe design, the engineer seeks to make the characteristic resistance (Rk)
exceed the characteristic action (Ek), this is shown as the safety margin. The spread of the
distribution (standard deviation) will depend upon how reliable the manufacture of the
material is, or how accurately predictable the action is. This is reflected by reducing the
resistance by an appropriate factor ( m) and increasing the action by an appropriate factor
( f), these are known as design values (Rd and Ed). The factored design action has only a 0.5%
chance of being exceeded during the structures return period.

Structures 1
design action
95% of actions 95% of resistances

less than Rk greater than
characteristic Ek characteristic
f
m
Ed Rd
E Ek Safety Rk R
Margin
Figure 9.1 The safety margin.
Rk
The general design equality to satisfy is, f Ek
m
Rd
The safety margin is, 1.0
Ed
Some material manufacture is more predictable than others. Steel is manufactured in a
controlled environment (factory) and each ingot is tested before being sold, hence m = 1.00,
but concrete is subject to variability in site workmanship and is not tested until after it has set,
hence m = 1.50, or concrete is a less reliable material than steel.
A characteristic action has only a 5% chance of being exceeded during the structures design
return period, this is denoted using the suffix k e.g. Qk. When combining different variable loads,
three time dependant versions of each action are possible.
A combination action Qk
A frequent action Qk increasing probability of occurring
A quasi-permanent action Qk
9.1.2 Limit States

Two limit states must be considered:
Serviceability limit state (SLS) is concerned with the everyday operability of a structure.
Generally this is limited to checking deflections are within a tolerable level. Some structures will
require checks on vibration. There is no specific guidance in Eurocodes regarding the limits to
be applied so existing (British Standard) limits may be used. It would seem reasonable to use
frequent actions when calculating deflections of combined variable actions.
For long-term considerations such as creep or concrete crack width, quasi-permanent actions
should be used.
Accidental load considerations should use frequent action combinations.
Ultimate limit state is concerned with the failure of members or whole frames. Members are
generally checked at ULS for bending, shear, axial (tension or compression) and torsion.
It is easier to conceptualise the probability sensitivity factor by considering the varying force
experienced by a floor during a working day. The characteristic action may be exceeded for
only a short period of time, however, other levels of action will be exceeded for longer periods
of time and it is the factor which determines the magnitude of the more probable action.

Structures 1
30 < 5% t
25 Fk characteristic
20 0Fk combination ULS
1Fk frequent SLS

Force
15
10
2Fk quasi-permanent
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time
Figure 9.2 The stochastic nature of actions.
9.1.3 Combining Actions

To ensure the design takes account of all conceivable actions, it is necessary to consider all
loadings on each element at once, factors account for the reducing probability of all actions
occurring at once.
Five equations are available to calculate ULS combination actions, however only the most
simple and conservative will be quoted here:
For persistent or transient actions (equation 6.10)
G Gk Q Qk1 Q 0, 2 Qk 2 Q ...
secondary imposed action x sensitivity factor x safety factor
leading imposed action x safety factor
dead action x safety factor
Three equations are available to calculate SLS combination actions, however only the most
simple and conservative will be quoted here:
For frequent combination (equation 6.15b)
Gk Qk1
1,1 2, 2 Qk 2 2, 3 ...
secondary imposed action x probability reduction factor
leading imposed action
dead action

Structures 1
Table 9.1 UK values of variable action sensitivity factors, .

combination frequent quasi-permanent
category specific use
0 1 2
A domestic and residential 0.7 0.5 0.3

B Office 0.7 0.5 0.3
C areas for congregation 0.7 0.7 0.6
D shopping 0.7 0.7 0.6
E Storage 1.0 0.9 0.8
F traffic < 30 kN vehicle 0.7 0.7 0.6
G traffic < 160 kN vehicle 0.7 0.5 0.3
H Roofs 0.7 0 0
snow, altitude < 1000 m 0.5 0.2 0
Wind 0.5 0.2 0
When undertaking general structural design checks (STR) for strength and deformation, EC1
specifies action partial safety factors (see table D0.2). These combinations also cover
geotechnical design (GEO) of foundations and other soil structures.
When considering the overall equilibrium of structures it has been customary to make
conservative estimates of the restoring effect of self weight and dead loads. This is embodied
in EC1 in the equilibrium limit state (EQU). This constitutes a set of reduced partial safety factors
for permanent actions.
Table 9.2 UK values of action partial safety factors, STR and GEO limit states, .
Favourable Unfavourable
Action
Permanent (dead, earth) 1.00 1.35

Variable (imposed, wind) 0 1.50
Accidental (earthquake, blast, impact) 1.00 1.00
Table 9.3 UK values of action partial safety factors, EQU limit state, .
Favourable Unfavourable
Action
Permanent (dead, earth) 0.90 1.10

Variable (imposed, wind) 0 1.50
Accidental (earthquake, blast, impact) 1.00 1.00
Design Example 1 : Combination of Actions - STR

The roof of an industrial building (from examples 4 and 5) has been assessed to be subject to the
following permanent and variable actions:
Action Combination Frequent Quasi-permanent
Loadcase f
(kN/m2) 0 1 2
Dead 0.39 1.35 - - -

Imposed 0.60 1.50 0.50 0.20 0
Wind -0.33 1.50 0.60 0.20 0
Determine the combination actions (ULS and SLS) for steelwork design.
ULS combination G Gk QQk1 Q 0, 2Qk 2 Q ...
imposed as leading action :

(1.35 0.39) (1.5 0.60) (1.50 0.6 0.33) 1.13kN / m2 but wind is favourable action
(1.35 0.39) (1.5 0.60) (0 0.6 0.33) 1.43kN / m2

Structures 1
wind as leading action :

(1.00 0.39) (1.5 0.33) (0 0.5 0.60) 0.11kN / m2 this is the maximum uplift
SLS combination Gk Qk1
1,1 2, 2 Qk 2 2, 3 ...
imposed as leading action : (1.00 0.39) (0.2 0.60) (0 0.33) 0.51kN / m2
wind as leading action : (1.00 0.39) (0.2 0.33) (0 0.60) 0.32kN / m2
Therefore, ULS design action is 1.43 kN/m2 and SLS design action is 0.51 kN/m2.
Design Example 2 : Combination of Actions - STR

A beam has self weight of 10kN/m and is subject to an occupancy floor imposed load of 40kN,
further the beam resists wind load in the form of a point load at the end of a cantilever section.
To obtain the most onerous design forces we must consider several combinations.
Gk = 10 kN/m Qk1 = 40 kN Qk2 = 25 kN
2.00 m 3.00 m 1.50 m

VA VB
The self weight is a permanent action, the imposed and wind are variable actions (each must, in
turn, be considered as the leading variable action).
Assuming this analysis is for structural design (STR limit state).
Combination 1: floor imposed as leading variable.
Since the floor imposed increases the span moment, the most onerous case occurs when the
cantilever dead and wind action are favourable.
f Gk = 1.35 x 10 f Qk1 = 1.5 x 40 o f Qk2 = 0.6 x 0 x 25
= 13.5 kN/m = 60 kN = 0 kN
f Gk = 1.0 x 10
= 10 kN/m
2.00 m 3.00 m 1.50 m

VA VB
Combination 2: wind as leading variable.
In order to generate the most onerous cantilever moment, it is necessary to maximise the dead
and wind action at the cantilever tip and minimise the span actions.
f Gk = 1.0 x 10 o f Qk1 = 0.7 x 0 x 40 f Qk2 = 1.5 x 25

= 10 kN/m = 0 kN = 37.5 kN
f Gk = 1.35 x 10
= 13.5 kN/m
2.00 m 3.00 m 1.50 m

VA VB
An observation tower relies upon self weight for stability. It is required to calculate the maximum
overturning moment at the tower base. As well as self weight the tower is subject to wind, roof
snow and floor imposed actions.

Structures 1
Design Example 3 : Combination of Actions - EQU
Consider wind as the leading variable action, G Gk Q Qk1 Q 0, 2 Qk 2 Q ...
Roof snow, q 02 Qk2
q 02 Qk3 ,Floor Imposed
g Gk
Wind, q Qk1
g Gk
Substituting values for action partial safety factors and probability sensitivity factors we have,
0.90 Qk2
Unfavourable load
factor for stabilising
self weight 1.05 Qk2
0.90 Gk
1.5 Qk1
1.10 Gk
Favourable load factor

for destabilising self
weight

Structures 1
10. (EN1991) Eurocode 1 Actions

This section will introduce the current European codes of practice for structural design. This
section will specifically deal with the estimation of applied loadings such as self weight, wind
loading and floor imposed loading.
lectures on Blackboard: 8. Actions.ppt
Principal References: Narayanan and Beeby, Introduction to Design for Civil Engineers.
British Standards Institute. Eurocode Abstracts for Students of Structural Design. ,
Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual. Working with Eurocodes.
In order to design any structure it is necessary to determine the values of the design actions.
10.1 Permanent actions are determined from knowledge of the construction to be
used - Section 4. Densities of Construction and Stored Materials indicates there are no changes
(from BS 648) in the densities of materials except that wet and reinforced concrete must now
be assessed as weighing 25 kN/m3, although unreinforced concrete remains at 24 kN/m3.
Table 10.1 Unit weights of common building materials.
material (kN/m3) material (kN/m3)
clay masonry facing brickwork 22 roof slates 29
medium density conc. blockwork 18 clay roof tiles 20
insulation board 3 water 10
soil (sand) 16-18 glass 25
soil (clay) 20-22 chipboard / plywood 7
steel 77 asphalt 22
softwood timber 5 plaster 17
hardwood timber 7 stone (medium density granite) 29
reinforced concrete 25 plastic 21
10.2 Variable actions, there are four common types of variable action.
10.2.1 Floor imposed action depends upon the use of the floor;
Table 10.2 Floor imposed actions.
qk
category specific use Floor action example
(kN/m2)
domestic individual dwellings, dormitories 1.5
A and hotels and hospital bedrooms 2.0
residential balconies 4.0
general 2.5
B office
ground floor or below 3.0
restaurant 2.0
reading rooms with no storage 2.5
classrooms, churches, narrow walkways 3.0
areas for assembly with fixed seating, museums, art galleries,
C 4.0
congregation hotel and hospital corridors and stairs
wide walkways, dance halls, gymnasiums, assembly
5.0
with no fixed seating
stages for public assembly, plant rooms 7.5
D shopping general retail, department stores 4.0
E storage areas for long term storage 7.5
F traffic and gross vehicle weight < 3T (30kN) 2.5
G parking 3T (30kN) > gross vehicle weight < 16T (160kN) 5.0

Structures 1
Roof actions depend upon the accessibility. Roofs put to specific uses detailed for categories A
to G shall be designed as a floor.
The roof action shall be the greater of imposed loading and snow load.
10.2.2 Roof imposed action depends upon the slope of the roof;
Table 10.3 Roof imposed actions.
Roof slope
< 30o 30 o ≤ < 60o ≥ 60o
60
qk (kN/m2) 0.6 0.6 0
30
10.2.3 Roof snow action is somewhat more complex, requiring the evaluation of
characteristic snow load on the ground;
A 100
sk 0.15 0.1z 0.05 where A is the site altitude (AOD), z is a zone number
525
given on Figure D1.1 (in which much of central England is zone 3).
Snow load on the roof shall be evaluated by multiplying the characteristic snow load on the
ground by a snow load shape coefficient.
s i ks (kN/m2)
Table 10.4 Roof snow actions.

Roof slope
i
0o ≤ ≤ 15o 15o < ≤ 30o 30o < < 60o ≥ 60o
60
0.8 0.8 0
30
uniform snow, monopitch
15 60
0.8 0.8 0.4 1.2 0
15 30
uniform snow, duopitch
The least value of:
h 2h
1
sk
b 2 2b3
b
b b1 b2
drifted snow, multispan 3 5
Coefficients for local drifting effects and exceptional snow drifts are given in Section 6 and
Annex B of EC1. Snow drift is an accidental load case.
The bulk density of snow is defined in Annex E, it should be noted that old or wet snow can
weigh up to 4 kN/m2.
10.2.4 Wind action is based upon characteristic values which have an annual probability of
exceedance of 0.02 (1 in 50 year return period) but this does not mean that the wind load will
only be exceeded every 50 years.
Wind pressure is the force due to the mass of moving air. Structures which project into the wind
must absorb the kinetic energy of moving air in the form of potential energy due to wind
pressure. Generally wind pressure increases with height and can be significantly affected by
ground roughness and interaction with surrounding structures.
Where air is forced around structures, vortices and eddies are formed at sharp corners. Air
which leaves contact with the structure surface will cause suction. This leads to the counter-
intuitive situation where the windward face of a structure experiences positive pressure and all
other surfaces experience suction.

Structures 1
The relationship between fluid velocity and pressure is

described by Bernoulli’s equation – energy is constant in a
closed system. Where air is forced to pass between
structures, funnelling occurs – wind speeds up in constricted
spaces to maintain the average wind velocity across a
structure.
Wind loading is based upon characteristic values which have an annual probability of
excedance of 0.02 (1 in 50 year return period). The code covers ‘static’ structures; flexible
structures such as chimneys, cables, masts and long span bridges require the additional
consideration of aeroelastic response.
Calculation of simplified wind pressure for insignificant orthography:
Vb Vb,0 cdir cseasoncalt c prob
Vb,0 is the characteristic 10 minute mean wind velocity (for category II terrain)
Vb is the basic 10 minute mean wind velocity (for category II terrain)
The probability factor, cprob
accounts for the increased chance of a strong wind as the life of a structure increases. Where
the return period to be designed for is not the standard 50 years,
1 0.2 ln ln 1 p Probability of Return period cprob
c prob exceedence, p (yrs)
1 0.2 ln ln 0.98 0.1 10 0.902
0.02 50 1.0
0.005 200 1.075
0.001 1000 1.16
If the structure is temporary and has a life span less than one year a reduction to the basic wind
speed may be made by applying the seasonal factor, cseason. For use with the six months of the
winter period, no reduction may be made but for the six months of the summer period, cseason =
0.84.
The altitude factor, calt may conservatively be taken as calt 1 0.001A for a building of any
height, where A is the site altitude (above Ordnance Datum). Where a building exceeds 10m
height, the altitude factor may be reduced to,
1
10 5
c alt 1 0.001A
z
The correction factors cdir and cseason may conservatively be taken as 1.0. Thus, Vb caltVb,0
Vb,0 may be taken from a wind-therm chart (see chart D1.2).
The site must be idealised in a Terrain Category which represents the surface roughness of the
ground leading up to the site. The terrain category may vary with wind direction.
Table 10.5 Values of Zmin.
Terrain Zmin
Description
Category (m)
0 Windward shoreline of the sea SEA 1
I Lakes and flat terrain 1
COUNTRY
II Rural areas with low vegetation 2
III Suburban areas with regular obstacles 5
TOWN
IV City centres and large towns 10

Structures 1
z is the height at which the wind speed is to be calculated, and is the air density (1.226
kg/m3).
2 2
The basic wind velocity pressure, qb Vb 0.613Vb
2
The peak velocity pressure, qp cece,T qb
ce is the Exposure factor taken from Chart D1.3, ce,T is the Exposure correction factor for Town
terrain taken from Chart D1.4. It is necessary to know the distance the wind blows from the
shoreline to the site, and if the site is in Town terrain – the distance the site is inside town terrain.
In Country terrain, hdis = 0 and ce,T = 1.0
In Town terrain,
If x 2zmin then hdis 0.8zmin 0.6h
or if 2 zmin x 6 zmin then hdis 1.2 zmin 0.2 x 0.6h
or if x 6zmin then hdis is zero. See figure D1.1 for parameter definitions.
z
wind direction z-hdis
h
zmin
hdis
2zmin
Figure 10.6 Calculation of hdis. x
6zmin
The reference height, ze indicates that the wind pressure profile increases with height, but this is
simplified into zones. The peak velocity pressure should be calculated in zones when the
building is taller than the wind face width (b). b
b qp h
b
h q p ze
b qp h
h ze
h qp h b qp b b qp b
h<b b < h < 2b h > 2b

Wind profile on wind face
Figure 10.7 Reference height, ze
The wind pressure on a surface is, w q p c p where cp is the pressure coefficient (external or
internal).
Simplified assessment of Internal Pressure Coefficients may be made in the same way as BS
6399; cpi may be taken as the most onerous of +0.2 or -0.3 if the surface permeability is unknown.

Structures 1
Simplified assessment of External Pressure Coefficients for WALLS

Table 10.8 Values of Cp,e for walls.
overall coefficients
h Cp,e
d h
Side Front back = 900
5 -0.8 +0.8 -0.7
= 00
1 -0.8 +0.8 -0.5 d
b b
0.25 -0.8 +0.7 -0.3 d
Simplified assessment of External Pressure Coefficients for MONOPITCH ROOFS

Table 10.9 Values of Cp,e for monopitch roofs.
overall coefficients Cp,e
Roof =00 =900

angle A B C A B C 0
=0
< 50 -1.2 -0.7 ±0.2 -1.2 -0.7 ±0.2 A B C b
0
15 -1.3 -0.9 -1.9 -0.8 -0.7
300 -1.8 -0.8 -1.5 -1.0 -0.8
450 -1.5 -0.7 -1.4 -1.0 -0.9
e/10
e is the smallest of b or 2h
b is the length of the windward face
h
Simplified assessment of External Pressure Coefficients for DUOPITCH ROOFS

Table 10.10 Values of Cp,e for duopitch roofs.
overall coefficients Cp,e
= 00
Roof =00 =900 A B C D
angle A B C D A B C D
50 0/-1.2 0/-0.6 +0.2/-0.6 -0.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.6
150 +0.2/-0.8 +0.2/-0.3 0/-1.0 0/-0.4 -1.3 -0.6 -0.5
300 +0.7/-0.5 -0.2 -0.5 0/-0.4 -1.4 -0.8 -0.5
e/10 e/10
450 +0.7/0 +0.6/0 0/-0.3 0/-0.2 -1.4 -0.9 -0.5
600 +0.7 +0.7 -0.3 -0.2 -1.2 -0.8 -0.5
h
The wind force on a surface is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA where A is the area of the surface, the
structural factor CsCd may be taken as 1.0 in most cases and COA accounts for the time lag
between wind blowing on the front and sucking off the back of a building.
h
where 5 , COA 1.0 (short in direction of wind)
d
h
where 1 , COA 0.85 (long in direction of wind)
d
thus, Fw w A COA
Frictional Drag, Ffr
Where the wind blows along a building and the cladding is sufficiently rough, frictional drag will
be generated. This may be significant in long buildings but need only be applied to the
cladding surface beyond the smaller of 2b or 4h.
Structures 1
Afr
F fr c fr q p A fr
h Ffr
Cladding surface cfr
Flat (steel, concrete, glass) 0.01 d
Rough 0.02 b
Corrugated (profiled sheeting) 0.04
2b 4h
10.2.5 Reduction of Variable Actions
6.2.2 (2) permits columns and walls loaded by several storeys of structure to be designed for a
reduced variable (imposed) action. Variable actions may be reduced in ONE of two ways:
n
storey reduction factor, n 1.1 for 5 storeys or less
10
n = 0.6 for 5 n 10 (n is the number of storeys)
n = 0.5 for more than 10 storeys
OR
A
area reduction factor, A 1 0.75 where A is the area of floor supported by a
1000
structural element.
10.2.6 Accidental Actions

EC1 contains generic advice on dealing with accidental loadings, including calculation of
simple impact actions. The methods are outlined:
a) specific design for a calculated accidental loading, which is suited to advanced analysis
methods.
b) limitation of localised failure of the structure, to avoid progressive collapse. This should limit
the extent of collapse to 70m2 or 15% of a floor area. This is undertaken by checking the
structure for removal of individual storeys of each column or wall, and where likely collapse
would exceed the limit such elements are design as key elements (to resist an accidental
design action Ad = 34 kN/m2).
Three consequence classes are identified.
Table 10.11 Consequence Classes.
CC1 CC2 a CC2 b CC3
Unoccupied buildings. Houses > 4 storeys. Houses > 15 storeys. Stadia.
Houses < 4 storeys. Hotels < 4 storeys. Hotels < 15 storeys. Buildings containing
Flats < 4 storeys. Flats < 15 storeys. hazardous substances.
Offices < 4 storeys. Offices < 15 storeys. Buildings of floor area >
Schools < 2 storeys. Schools < 15 storeys. 5000m2 per storey.
Retail < 3 storeys. Retail < 15 storeys.
Hospitals < 4 storeys.
Car parks < 7 storeys.
provide: provide:
No additional Horizontal ties Horizontal ties Seek specialist advice
measures. Vertical ties
Design key elements
For framed structures the horizontal tie force between floors and vertical elements,
Ti 0.8 g k 1qk A 75kN for internal ties
Tp 0.4 g k q A 75kN for perimeter ties, where A is the area of the floor panel.
1 k
For framed structures the vertical tie force is equal to the largest design vertical permanent +
variable load reaction applied to the column from any one storey.
Whatever the structural form chosen, it is important to ensure that the structure is not unduly
sensitive to damage. This does not mean that structures must be able to withstand an

Structures 1
unexpected loading event (such as aircraft impact) without damage, merely that the level of
damage should not be disproportionate to the event.
It is common practice to design for survival following an extreme event. So the designer should
consider the effects of an extreme event and provide a structure which survives in a possibly
irreparably damaged condition. This often requires consideration of ductility (strain energy) to
ensure that connections and plastic regions can rotate sufficiently (absorbing energy) before
collapse.
For most common structures, compliance with the Building Regulations will be deemed to
satisfy this requirement (up to CC2a).
There are simple procedures available to help steelwork structures survive explosion events.
These include the provision of additional seating cleats at simple connection positions, as
shown below.
Figure 10.12 Additions to reinforced concrete and steel connections to improve blast resistance.

Structures 1
Figure 10.13 - Snow loading zone No

Figure 10.14 - Characteristic 10 minute mean
wind velocity, Vb,0 (m/s)
Z – hdis (m)
distance upwind to shoreline (km) distance inside town terrain (km)
Figure 10.15- Exposure factor, ce Figure 10.16- Exposure correction factor, ce,T

Structures 1
Design Example 4 : Floor Loads - Permanent and Variable Actions
Duo-pitch portal frame roof

Roof imposed action, table 10.3 qk = 0.6 kN/m2
Roof snow loading, 50 pitch, located at an altitude of 80m AoD in zone 3 (Figure 10.13)
80 100
sk 0.15 0.1 3 0.05 0.462
525
table 10.4. = 0.8, s i sk 0.8 0.462 0.37kN / m2
1mm trapezoidal outer sheet = 0.08

insulation = 0.01
1 mm liner sheet = 0.08
Cold formed Zed purlins = 0.02
Hot rolled steel frame = 0.10
Services = 0.10
Total permanent action Gk = 0.39 kN/m2
Variable action Qk = 0.60 kN/m2 imposed most onerous
Hotel bedroom floor

75mm screed = 1.80
150mm precast hollow-core plank = 2.70
Services = 0.25
Suspended ceiling = 0.10
Variable action Qk = 2.00 kN/m2 category A2, table 10.2
Light office floor

50mm screed = 1.20
150mm solid reinforced concrete = 3.60
Services = 0.25
Suspended ceiling = 0.10
Variable action Qk = 2.50 kN/m2 category B1, table 10.2
Domestic floor
18mm chipboard = 0.14
175mm joists = 0.16
Plasterboard and skim = 0.22
Insulation = 0.01
Variable action Qk = 1.50 kN/m2 category A1, table 10.2

Structures 1
Dance hall floor

150mm N.W concrete = 2.85
Trapezoidal deck = 0.15
Reinforcement = 0.04
Steel beam = 0.25
Variable action Qk = 5.00 kN/m2 category C5, table 10.2
Masonry external wall

102mm brickwork = 2.25
Cavity insulation board = 0.01
150mm blockwork = 2.20
Plasterboard and skim = 0.22
Variable action Qk = 0.00 kN/m2
Masonry internal wall

125mm blockwork = 2.10
2 / Plasterboard and skim = 0.44
Timber stud internal wall

100x50 studwork = 1.00
Insulation material = 0.01
2 / Plasterboard and skim = 0.44
Steel external wall cladding

1mm trapezoidal outer sheet = 0.08
Insulation = 0.01
Cold formed Zed purlins = 0.10
1mm inner liner sheet = 0.08
Services = 0.10

Structures 1
Design Example 5 : Wind Actions
A rectangular industrial building 100m x 40m x 8m high to eaves, located in a flat city
centre. The duo-pitch roof angle is 5 degrees, located at an altitude of 80m AoD in
zone 3. The site is 60km from the sea and 10km inside town terrain. The building is
approximately 15m from surrounding buildings of similar height.
Vb,0 is 22.5 m/s, terrain category IV- in TOWN terrain, from table 10.5, Zmin = 10 m.
calt 1 0.001A 1 (0.001 80) 1.08
Vb caltVb,0 1.08 22.5 24.3m / s
2
The basic wind velocity pressure, qb 0.613Vb 0.613 24.32 0.362kN / m2
x 15m 2 z min 2 10 20m then hdis 0.8z min 0.8 10 8m 0.6h 0.6 8 4.8m
z hdis 8 4.8 3.2m
Exposure factor taken from Figure 10.15, ce = 1.68
Exposure correction factor taken from Figure 10.16, ce,T = 0.67
The peak velocity pressure, q p ce ce,T qb 1.68 0.67 0.362 0.41kN / m 2
Simplified assessment of External Pressure Coefficients for walls.

Values of Cp,e for walls.
= 00, h 8 0.08 = 900, h 8 0.2
d 100 d 40
overall coefficients overall coefficients
Cp,e Cp,e
Side front Back side front back
-0.8 +0.70 -0.30 -0.8 +0.70 -0.30
h
for both directions, 1 , COA 0.85 (long in direction of wind)
d
Simplified assessment of External Pressure Coefficients for DUOPITCH ROOFS

overall coefficients Cpe0 for =00
A B C D
0/-1.2 0/-0.6 +0.2/-0.6 -0.6
Simplified assessment of Internal Pressure Coefficients cpi = +0.2 or -0.3
The most onerous wall wind pressure is, w qp z cp 1.00 0.41 0.41kN / m 2
The general roof suction is, w qp z cp 0.80 0.41 0.33kN / m 2
Force on (width) wall is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA 0.41 40 8 1.0 0.85 112kN

Force on (length) wall is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA 0.41 100 8 1.00 0.85 279kN

Structures 1
cpe = -0.30
cpe = -0.80
0.00
-0.50
cpe = -0.80
cpi = -0.3
cpe = -0.80
-0.50
cpe = +0.70
-0.50
cpi = -0.3
cpe = -0.30
+1.00
0.00
= 900
+1.00
-0.50
cpe = +0.70
cpe = -0.80
= 00
cpe = -0.30 cpe = -0.80
-0.50 -1.00
cpi = +0.2
cpe = +0.70
cpi = +0.2
cpe = -0.80
cpe = -0.80
cpe = -0.30
-1.00
+0.50
-1.00
-0.50
= 900
+0.50 -1.00
cpe = +0.70 cpe = -0.80
= 00
Cpe =-0.60
Cpe =-0.60
Cpe = -1.20
-0.80
-0.80
-1.40
= 00
Cpi = +0.2
e
10 e b 2h 100m 2 8 16m
e 16 1.6m
10 10

Structures 1
Design Example 6 : Column Action Run-down

5.0 m 5.0 m An edge column is two storeys high,
carrying a floor (gk = 2.5kN/m2 and qk =
5.0kN/m2) and a roof (gk = 1.0kN/m2
B2 and qk = 0.6kN/m2). The construction is
simple (pin jointed). The floor spans
7.0 m
one-way (in the short direction). The

external cladding weighs 6.5kN/m run
B1 B3 (of beam) and is carried by the edge
beams at the bottom of each storey.
The storey height is 4.0m.
7.0 m
B2
B1 B3
Roof level :
Reaction from beams B1 and B3; Gk = 0kN, Gk = 0kN
Reaction from beam B2;
Gk = 1.0 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 17.5kN, Qk = 0.6 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 10.5kN
Floor level :
Reaction from beams B1 and B3;
Gk = 6.5 x 5.0 / 2 = 16.3kN, Qk = 0kN
Reaction from beam B2;
Gk = 2.5 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 43.8kN, Qk = 5.0 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 87.5kN
Allow self weight of column, say 0.5kN/m x 4.0 = 2.0kN per storey
Floor Imposed Action Reduction
n 2
storey reduction factor for 5 storeys or less, n 1.1 1.1 0.9
10 10
A 5 7
OR area reduction factor, A 1 1 0.965 0.75 where A is the area of floor
1000 1000
supported by a structural element.
Therefore apply 10% reduction to imposed action supported by the column.
Cummulative
Beam Reactions
Column Load Run-down Reactions
Gk Qk Gk Qk
Roof Level Beam B1 0 0
Beam B2 17.5 10.5
Beam B3 0 0
Self weight 2.0 0 19.5 10.5
First Floor Level Beam B1 16.3 0

Beam B2 43.8 87.5
Beam B3 16.3 0
Self weight 2.0 0 78.4 87.5
TOTAL (kN) 97.9 98.0
Design combination is
G Gk Q Qk1 1.35 97.9 1.50 10.5 87.5 0.9 266kN

Structures 1
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 8. Actions.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Actions Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
11. (EN 1993-1-1) Eurocode 3 Structural Steelwork

This section will introduce the current European codes of practice for streelwork design, such as
how steel sections are made, protected from corrosion, their strength and how to classify them
for premature failure in compression.
lectures on Blackboard: 9. Grades, protection and properties.ppt
Principal References: British Standards Institute. PP1990:2010 Extracts from Structural Eurocodes
for students of structural design. BCSA. National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building
Construction. CORUS. The prevention of corrosion on structural steels.
Steel is a versatile and adaptable material which can be used to form almost all the parts of a
modern building because it can be supplied in many different forms (thin gauge rolls, plate,
rolled sections and castings). Steel has relatively high strength and stiffness but is dense so
competitive sections are made using thin material, steelwork sections are often therefore prone
to buckling.
In the UK, steel frames account for around 55% of all multi-storey buildings and over 90% of low-
rise buildings (portal frame structures).
11.0.1 Structural Steel Section Manufacture

Steel is now manufactured in an integrated industrial process, which starts by taking iron ore
(FeO2) and coke which is heated to form sinter. This is mixed with limestone and fed into a blast
furnace. This induces a chemical reaction at high temperature and molten iron may then be
tapped out of the furnace (about 95% Fe). The hot iron is mixed with scrap iron and recycled
steel and fed into a steel making furnace (Basic Oxygen or Electric Arc) which is superheated
and small amounts of other elements are added. Most impurities (slag) are removed by
adding a flux, which floats to the surface and is skimmed off.
The mechanical properties of steel are controlled by the amounts of added elements:
1% Carbon forms mild steel (increases produce higher strength grades)
12% Chromium + 20% Nickel + 12% Molybdenum forms stainless steel
The most common structural steelwork sections are universal beams, universal columns, parallel
flange channels, angles (equal or unequal leg lengths) and hollow sections (circular, square,
elliptical or rectangular). These sections are formed by reheating a steel ingot and forcing it
through sets of rollers until the desired profile is achieved.
Flange
Web
Root radius
UB UC PFC EA CHS
Figure 11.1 Common structural steel sections.
Although steel is manufactured to high quality standards, it will always include some defects, in
most situations this is of little consequence but some structural forms rely on homogeneity of
material (same properties in all directions). To cater for this steel is tested and certified to
grades and sub-grades. The principal reasons for this are:
Rolled sections have different thickness flanges and webs, which cool at different rates,
locking in stresses,

Structures 1
Steel parts are joined together cold by welding (which involves locally melting the
contacting steel parts) which cool at different rates, locking in stresses and may lead to
reheat cracking,
When a steel element is to be subject to tensile loads close to an impurity inclusion, the
result may be a lamella tear or local failure of the material.
Steelwork building structures are invariably prefabricated in an off-site workshop where quality
and environmental conditions can be controlled. Fabrication is now highly automated, using
sawing, flame cutting, drilling and welding. Site erection of steel frames should use bolting to
join elements together (avoid site welding where possible). Specification of steelwork
standards in the UK is based upon The National Steelwork Specification (the Black Book) which
is based upon EN 1090, it sets out the permissible tolerances for such things as how bent a
beam may be or how vertical columns must be when erected, etc.
Steel sections may be bent (longitudinally) by rolling between offset rollers or induction heating
(heat a small section then bend).
Steel has two significant drawbacks – fire and corrosion.
11.0.2 Fire Protection

Steel begins to lose strength at temperatures around 300oC and reaches a limiting temperature
around 550oC, which means that most steel building frames require some sort of protection
(thermal insulation) as fires can reach 1000oC in 90 minutes. The Building Regulations require
that, in the event of a fire, all structures should maintain stability for a reasonable length of time,
which depends upon the use of the building and its height (from ground to top floor level).
Table 11.1 Fire resistance times (minutes).

Building height (m) 5 18 30 30+
Maximum No of storeys 2 5 8 9+
Non-domestic residential 30 60 90 120
Offices 30 60 90 120
Retail 60 60 90 120
Open deck car parks 15 15 15 60
Several methods of fire protection are commonly used:

Sprinklers – an active system, designed to automatically suppress small fires. The
sprinkler nozzle contains a glass dome filled with a volatile liquid which explodes when
exposed to heat, permitting pressurised water out.
Concrete encasement – popular until the 1970’s, encasing the steel sections in
concrete is expensive and slow but improves robustness. Encasement of columns in
blockwork is still popular when internal walls are intended to form part of the structure.
Boards – encasement in plasterboard or proprietary fire board provides an attractive
architectural finish when plastered.
Sprays – are generally the cheapest but least visually appealing and durable protection
available.
Intumescent coating – is a special paint system which swells at about 250oC to provide
a charred layer of low heat conductivity. This has become a popular option for
exposed steelwork.
Fire Engineering – an emerging technology which involves specific design of exposed
steel sections subject to fire load. The size and thickness of the section will affect the
rate of heating (a thick column will heat up slower than a thin beam section). It is
possible to prove that most steel sections will survive for at least 30 minutes without fire
protection, this has been corroborated by full size testing of buildings. Beams supporting
concrete floors do not heat evenly and can be designed to be unprotected for up to
60 minutes. Similarly, beams which carry less than 50% of their normal design load
during a fire will survive for significantly longer periods still.

Structures 1
11.0.3 Corrosion Protection

Steel is principally formed from iron, which reacts in the presence of air (oxygen) and water to
form iron oxides (rust). To prevent this some sort of surface coating is normally applied,
dependant upon the environmental and atmospheric exposure. There are two main sources of
atmospheric corrosion:
Sulphur dioxide gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels (in industrial environments),
reacts with moisture in the atmosphere to form weak sulphur acid,
Chlorides found in marine environments (within 2 km of the coast or tidal estuaries) or
where salt is present in the atmosphere (winter roads).
Both of these environments will result in accelerated corrosion rates in steel.
In order to ensure the protection system adheres to the steelwork it is necessary to remove the
mill scale (the first oxide layer that forms at the steel works). This is usually done by abrasive
blast cleaning, which involves impacting the steel surface with small, high velocity, particles.
Four levels of cleaning are used – Sa 1 (light cleaning), Sa 2 (thorough cleaning), Sa 2½ (very
thorough cleaning), Sa 3 (visually clean).
Other methods of cleaning include acid pickling, ultra high pressure water jetting and flame
cleaning.
Corrosion protection systems involve applying a surface coating, which is usually applied by
brush or spray. The main options are:
Multi-coat paint systems
Paints are formed from a pigment (gives colour), a binder (the surface film) and a solvent
(dissolves the pigment and binder but evaporates when exposed to air).
Coat 1 - steel requires a primer coat which is often zinc rich, this seals the surface and should be
applied immediately after cleaning.
Coat 2 – an undercoat is usually applied to flatten the primer coat finish and build the paint
thickness, which increases lifespan. It also allows improved quality finish coat surface.
Coat 3 – a finish coat is applied for architectural reasons but often improves lifespan because
acrylic / urethane paints have a waterproof surface.
Metallic coatings
Although hot aluminium spraying is used, by far the largest proportion of metal coating is hot
dip galvanising. The cleaned steel elements are dipped into a bath of liquid zinc which forms a
sacrificial layer (it corrodes before the steel) with a spangled shiny appearance. Care must be
taken when detailing steel to be galvanised as the heat in the process can cause distortion of
the element.
For steelwork in interior environments, a selection of the CORUS recommended protection
systems are detailed overleaf.
Exterior steelwork is normally treated with a metallic coating or designed using weathering
steel, which is specifically formulated to exhibit a slow corrosion rate without surface treatment
(beware that weathering steel still rusts).
The life span of the coating is largely determined by its thickness, therefore minimum thicknesses
are specified in microns ( m = thousandth of a millimetre).
Stainless steel is also a popular choice for external applications but it should be borne in mind
that stainless steel is not rustproof, it is merely resists stains in most environmental conditions.
Generally grade 316 stainless steel is required for most external applications. Stainless steel has
its own design recommendations, which are not covered by this publication.

CORUS Possible Lifespan Shop Applied Site Applied
Environment Environment Cost
System
Category example Structur £/m2
Structures 1
No Coating Preparation Coating Preparation Coating

e
© Jonathan Haynes
C1 Heated
B8 60+ N/A None None None None 0
very low risk buildings
HB ZP 80 m
Manual
B9 50 10 None None + Alkyd Finish 7.50
Unheated clean
60 m
buildings with
C2 possible Blast clean HB ZP Alkyd Finish
B10 55 15 None 6.30
low risk condensatio Sa 2½ 80 m 60 m
n, sports halls,
depots Water based
Blast clean WE ZP
B11 None Epoxy Finish 7.60
Sa 2½ 60 m
version 3.3
60 m
Hot Dip
B12 60+ 20+ None Galvanise None None 8.25
85 m
High humidity Hot Dip
Mordant Vinyl prim 40 m
production B13 60+ 20+ None Galvanise 10.8
Wash Vinyl Finish 60 m
C3 medium rooms, food 85 m

Table 11.2 Corrosion protection for visible steelwork inside buildings.
risk processing,
breweries, Blast clean HB EMIO Polyurethane
B14 45 25 None 9.75
laundries Sa 2½ 100 m Finish 60 m
Blast clean HS AP
B15 40 20 None None 7.50
Sa 2½ 100 m
HB ZP = High Build Zinc Phosphate Epoxy Primer WE ZP = Water Based Epoxy Zinc Phosphate Primer
HB EMIO = High Build Epoxy Miicacious Iron Oxide HS AP = high Solid Aliphatic Polyurethane Finish
Page 142 of 219

Structures 1
11.0.4 Guestimating Steelwork Sizes

It helps to know roughly how big a steel section should be before starting the design, some hints
are :
For floor beams of span, L Beam depth, h

restrained beams L L
15 18
composite beams L L
18 21
plate girders L L
10 12
For triangulated bracing of length, Lb CHS tube diameter,

low-rise 3Lb
250
multi-storey 3Lb
180
Columns in simple construction

3 storeys 203 UC serial size
Low-rise portal frames of classic proportions and UB depth, h

main span L
L
column
45
L
rafter
60
11.0.5 Steelwork Pricing

It is worth noting that the cost of modern buildings is largely dependant upon the level of
services and choice of cladding. The structural frame constitutes only around 10% of the
finished cost.
Table 11.3 Cost breakdown for a steelwork building.

Cost of steelwork frame Cost of finished building
Fire protection 30 % Finishes 10 %
Corrosion protection 10 % Services (M&E etc.) 30 %
Fabrication 30 % Cladding 20 %
Raw steel sections 27 % Floors 5%
Design fees 3% Steelwork frame 10 %
other 25 %

Structures 1
b
tf Z
Eurocode 3 uses different axes to British Standards, the major
axis is Y-Y, the minor axis is Z-Z, leaving X-X to run along the
Y Y longitudinal axis of the element.
h
d
Z
tw
Figure 11.2 Steel section dimensions. Mp
Class 1 - Plastic
Member strength checks are based upon plastic Me
stress distributions. However, steel sections are Class 2 M = pyWpl
formed from thin elements, which may be quite Class 3 M = pyWel
slender. If local buckling sets in before yield stress is
reached the section will not achieve plastic Class 4 - Slender
capacities, it is therefore necessary to check
section classification.
Figure 11.3 Section classification.
11.0.6 Section Classification

There are two elements of any steel section; an outstand compression element usually the part
of the flange which extends from the web, and the internal compression element usually the
c
part of the web between root fillets. Ratio’s for are calculated for each element and must
t
be less than the limit value.
Table 11.4 Outstand element classification.

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
UB or UC sections in Flange element ≤9 ≤ 10 ≤ 14 > 14

pure bending Web element ≤ 72 ≤ 83 ≤ 124 > 124
UB or UC sections in Flange element ≤9 ≤ 10 ≤ 14 > 14

pure compression Web element ≤ 33 ≤ 38 ≤ 42 > 42
Hollow sections in pure compression ≤ 50 2 ≤ 70 2 ≤ 90 2 N/A
Angle sections in pure compression ≤ 15 or (b+h)/2t ≤
c b tw 2 r
For a flange element,
t 2 tf
c d
For a web element,
t tw
c h
For a hollow section,
t t

Structures 1
Eurocode 3 member capacities are based upon grade S235 steel, but since most UK structural
235
steel is S275 it is necessary to adjust the section classification using the factor, where fy
fy
is the design strength of the steel (eg. 275 N/mm2).
11.0.7 Steel Grades

EN 10 025 specifies steel strengths (or grades) at yield and ultimate levels, these depend upon
the steel thickness.
Table 11.5 Design strengths.
Grade Thickness Ultimate

Yield strength
t strength
fy (N/mm2)
(mm) fu (N/mm2)
16 275 410
40 265 410
S 275
63 255 410
80 245 410
16 355 470
40 345 470
S 355
63 335 470
80 325 470
Higher strength is achieved at the expense of ductility so steel subgrades are specified by
consideration of toughness (strength, ductility and weldability) which is tested using the Charpy
Impact test (an assessment of material quality). Three subgrades are available, they relate to
minimum operating temperature:
Table 11.6 Maximum thickness for operating temperature.

Maximum steel thickness (mm) Building Building
internal external
Grade Sub-grade -5oC -15oC
JR 36 20
S275 J0 65 54
J2 94 78
JR 25 14
S355 J0 46 38
J2 66 55
An example of a full specification for structural steel open sections would be:
EN10 025 – 2 : S 275 JR
Alternatively, open sections produced by TATA in the UK may be specified using their trade
mark sections, which are CE mark (European Union, 2006 Construction Product Directive)
compliant:
ADVANCE : S 275 JR
Specific rules apply to hollow sections. Tubes are manufactured by bending plates and
welding the longitudinal seam. Specification is much more important for tubes as they may be
hot or cold formed, which has a significant effect upon their properties. Hot formed tubes are
annealed after forming, which relieves stresses and permits a tight root radius to be used, thus
hot formed sections display more ductility and better compression characteristics but are more

Structures 1
expensive. Cold formed sections must have larger radius corners to prevent cracking inside the
root, and can brittle fracture if welded. All tubes are manufactured in S355 material.
An example of a full specification for structural steel hollow sections would be:
EN10 210 : S 355 JR for hot formed sections
EN10 219 : S 355 JR for cold formed sections
Alternatively, hollow sections produced by CORUS in the UK may be specified:

CELCIUS : S 355 JR for hot formed sections
HYBOX : S 355 JR for cold formed sections
Thick elements subject to through thickness tension may need a special HiZed grade specified
to BS EN 10164 (see also PD 6695-1-10). Ultrasonic lamination checks are used to check for
sulphide inclusions (cause lamina tears) Z15 Z25 and Z35 grades. (the number is the average %
reduction in area under standard tensile test).
11.0.8 Material Properties

The (Young’s) modulus of elasticity of steel; E = 210 kN/mm2
The coefficient of thermal expansion; = 12x10-6 /0C
Poisson’s ratio; = 0.3
Steel expands when heated, therefore expansion joints must be provided in multi-storey
buildings longer than 75m. For low-rise buildings this may be increased to 150m. The actual
expansion length may be calculated from:
e LT where L is the length of the building and T is the temperature change.
11.0.9 Material Safety Factor

Material partial safety factors ( M) are used to account for the change of reliability with different
failure modes.
Table 11.7 Building design the material factors.
Condition Buildings Bridges
Local failure (yielding) m0 1.0 1.0
Member instability (buckling) m1 1.0 1.1
Tension fracture m2 1.1 1.25
Joint resistance m2 1.25 1.25
Bolt friction SLS m3,ser 1.1 1.1
Bolt friction ULS m3 1.25 1.25
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 9. Grades, protection and properties.ppt on
2. Attempt the Grades Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
11.1 Beams
This section deals with structural elements which resist bending.
lectures on Blackboard: 10. Restrained beams.ppt , 11. LT Buckling.ppt
Principal References: Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual. Working with
Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements. Cobb, F. Structural Engineers Pocket Book.
Although most beams are used to form horizontal floors, the term will also be used to cover roof
rafters and other elements which predominantly resist bending. Beams which also resist axial
forces should be checked for bending and compression interaction (see columns).
ANALYSE beam to obtain ULS design
forces (MEd, VEd) and SLS deflections (Ireq’d)
choose
serial
size
check shear
VEd ≤ Vc,Rd
full lateral restraint to partial lateral restraint
compression flange
check buckling
and bearing effective length, LLTB
NEd ≤ Fw,Rd
slenderness, LT
check SLS deflection check moment check buckling

Ireq’d ≤ Iprov capacity moment capacity
≤ L with brittle finishes
360 MEd ≤ Mc,Rd Cm MEd ≤ Mb,Rd
Figure 11.4 Design flowchart for beams.
11.1.1 Shear Capacity, Vc,Rd

Most steel beams are modelled as simply supported, therefore the maximum shear generally
occurs at supports. The simplified model of steel beams assumes shear is resisted by the web
alone.
hw
Shear buckling need only be checked if 72 where =1.0
tw
VEd
For elements subject to shear the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
Vc , Rd
where VEd is the applied design shear force and Vc,Rd is the design shear resistance of the
section being checked. The resistance is based upon principal stress, and may be calculated
from:
Structures 1
fy
Av
3
Vc , Rd where Av is the shear area.
M0
Av A 2bt f t f tw 2r ht w may be conservatively be taken as 1.0

The shear area comprises the web, the root fillet area and part of the flange.
It will be conservative and simplistic to take Av ht w
Shear areas of other section types may be calculated from:
Tee sections Av A bt f 0.5t f t w 2r
RHS Av Ah (b h)
CHS Av 2A
11.1.2 Bending Capacity, Mc,Rd (full plastic moment capacity)

Most steel beams are modelled as simply supported, therefore the maximum bending moment
generally occurs around midspan. The simplified model of steel beams assumes bending
moment is predominantly resisted by the flanges.
When the compression flange of the beam is fully restrained by positive connection to the
stability system through a horizontal diaphragm (floor slab), then the section will develop full
plastic moment capacity.
M Ed
For elements subject to pure bending the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
M c , Rd
where MEd is the applied design bending moment. This applies only to sections with full lateral
restraint, such that yield stress is reached. Mc,Rd may be calculated as follows:
W pl f y
M pl, Rd for Class 1 and 2 sections, where Wpl is the plastic section modulus.
M0
Wel f y
M el , Rd for Class 3 sections, where Wel is the elastic section modulus.
M0
Separate rules apply to slender sections but will not be addressed here.
VEd
If 0.5 then the effects of shear may be ignored when calculating bending capacity,
Vc , Rd
otherwise the strength of the shear area must be reduced to, 1 f y where
2
2VEd Av f y
1 and V pl .
V pl, Rd M0
Aw2
The plastic modulus is also reduced to W pl, y where Aw is the web area.
4t w
11.1.3 Bending Capacity, Mb,Rd (buckling moment capacity)

When the compression flange of the beam is not fully restrained by positive connection to the
stability system, then the compression flange acts as a strut and wants to buckle, becoming less
stable. The tension flange acts as a tie, therefore becoming more stable as it is loaded. As the
two flanges are connected together, their interactio is complicated and a compression flange
local buckling phenomena called lateral torsional buckling (LTB) develops. The section must be
designed for a reduced bending stress, leading to the buckling moment capacity.
h
The effects of LTB are most pronounced in sections where 2.0 , and the physical effect is
b
that the compression flange will try to move laterally (sideways) as the loading is applied. If the
load carried by the beam moves with the compression flange then the load is termed
Structures 1
destabilising and a larger effective length applies. As the compression flange attempts to
displace sideways, there is a lateral force in the flange which must be transferred into the floor
diaphragm at points of intermediate lateral restraint. In BS 5950 this force was quantified as:
2.5 M Ed
FLTB and may be split equally between points of restraint.
100 h t f
grouted precast planks bolted timber concrete cast onto grouted precast
concrete
on unpainted flange floor diaphragm unpainted flange planks
encased
Examples of fully restrained beam arrangements.
compression
flange (strut) wall
FLTB
line of action now
eccentric to beam
h-tf centreline, causing
destabilising effect
tension
flange (tie)
Figure 11.5 Lateral Torsional Buckling effects.
M Ed
For pure bending without full lateral restraint the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
M b , Rd
Mb,Rd is the design lateral torsional buckling (LTB) resistance of the section.
LT Wy f y
M b, Rd where LT is the LTB capacity reduction factor, which may be obtained from
M1
LT buckling curves or from equations.
For class 1 and 2 sections Wy is Wpl,y the Y-Y axis plastic section modulus.
For class 3 sections Wy is Wel,y the Y-Y axis elastic section modulus.
1 1
LT 1.0 and 2
where LT , 0 0.4 and = 0.75
2 2
LT LT
LT LT
2
and LT 0.5 1 LT LT LT , 0 LT where LT is an imperfection factor
Wy f y
LT however, there is no code guidance on the calculation of Mcr
M cr
Various methods may be employed to obtain LT , some being more precise than others. This
text will use the simplified IStructE Manual method but those interested in the topic may wish to
review the the procedure used in BS5950 or the recommendations of SN0003a.
IStructE Manual method :
z z
LT for S275 material or LT for S355 material
96 85
LTB curves of LT against LT may be plotted (see Figure 11.6)

Structures 1
Table 11.8 Imperfection factor, rolled sections.

Buckling curve a b c d
Imperfection factor, LT 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Table 11.9 Beam lateral torsional buckling effective lengths, LLTB.
Type of End Plan on Loading Condition
Description of Connection
Connection Beam Normal Destabilising
Extended end plate or

LE haunch designed for y-y
0.7 LLR 0.85 LLR
and z-z moments.
Seating, head and web

cleats. Compression 0.75 LLR 0.9 LLR
LE
flange restrained against
rotation on plan.
Endplate welded to web

only. Some restraint to
0.85 LLR 1.0 LLR
LE compression flange plan
rotation.
Fin plates. Both flanges

LE can rotate freely on plan. 1.0 LLR 1.2 LLR
h Beam sat upon wall and

bolted down or web
LE blocked in. Lateral 1.0 LLR+2h 1.2 LLR+2h
restraint force has load
path.
h
Beam sat on wall, only self
weight restrains bodily
LE movement. 1.2 LLR+2h 1.4 LLR+2h
LLR
possible deflected shape

of compression flange
shown dotted
*
LLR
*
the length between points
of lateral restraint * is LLR.
LLR * * *
Structures 1
Table 11.10 Lateral torsional buckling curve selection, rolled sections.

Buckling curve
Aspect
ratio Rolled
General
sections
h
2 c b
b
h
2 d c
b
11.1.4 Moment Gradient

Clearly, by designing a beam to resist the maximum bending moment, there will be lengths of
the beam which have much more bending capacity than is necessary. To account for this, it is
possible to either :
Method 1 – increase the bending capacity, or
Method 2 - reduce the applied design bending moment MEd
This adjustment depends upon the shape (or gradient) of the bending moment diagram.
Method 1
Where the bending moment varies between two points of lateral restraint, the lateral torsional
strength reduction factor ( LT) may be modified;
Wy f y
LT mod
M b, Rd where LT mod
LT
1.0
M1 f
1 kc 2
f 1 1 2 LT 0.8 1.0 where kc is dependant upon the shape of the bending
2
moment diagram.
Table 11.11 Factor kc.
B.M.D shape kc B.M.D shape kc

1.0 0.91
M1 M2 1 0.86
1.33 0.33
0.94 0.77
0.90 0.82
M1
Note that generally, 1 1
M2
Method 2
Where the bending moment varies between two points of lateral restraint, the design bending
moment may be reduced (equivalent uniform moment factor) by a factor Cm, which is taken
from Annex B.3
C m M Ed
The general design equality becomes, 1.0
M b, Rd

Structures 1
Table 11.12 Factor Cm.

Value of Cmy or Cmz or CmLT
B.M.D shape Range of Concentrated
Uniform load
load
M M 1 1 0.6 0.4 0.4
Ms 0 1 1 1 0.2 0.8 0.4

M M
0 1 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4
1 0
1 0 0.1 1 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.4
M
0 1 1 1 1
M 0.95 0.05 1 0.9 0.1 1
Ms
0 1
1 1 0
M
Ms 1 0 0.95 0.05 1 1 2 0.9 0.1 1 2
Cmy denotes bending about y-y axis (points braced in z-z direction)
Cmz denotes bending about z-z axis (points braced in y-y direction)
CmLT denotes lateral torsional buckling about y-y axis (braced in y-y direction)
11.1.5 Deflection Calculations (serviceability limit state)

The deflection of structural elements should be calculated using elastic analysis and the SLS
combination. There is no code guidance on deflection limitations.
BS 5950 lists limits for deflection due to imposed loads (variable actions) only.
Beams carrying brittle finishes such as plaster , L
360
Cantilevers carrying brittle finishes such as plaster, L
180
Other beams (such as steel walkways), L
200
Where L is the overall span of the beam.
The predicted deflection of a beam is usually calculated using standard formulae such as those
given in the appendices of this text.
11.1.6 Moment Interaction

When a beam is subject to bending moment about two axes (possibly with a small amount of
axial). The interaction to satisfy is:
M yEd M zEd
1.0
M NyRd M NzRd
where = = 1.0 conservatively in any case, or = = 2.0 for circular hollow sections, or for
equal flanges in symmetrical sections = 2.0 and = 5n ≥ 1.0 or

Structures 1
Lateral Torsional Buckling Curve

1.1
0.9 a
0.8
b
0.7
0.6 c
c LT
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
l LT
Figure 11.6 – Lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 10. Restrained beams.ppt , 11. LT Buckling.ppt on
2. Attempt the Beams Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Design Example 7 : Floor Beam with Full Lateral Restraint

8m span simply supported steel beam, which supports a 6m span one-way spanning precast hollowcore plank floor
slab. Unit loads are, permanent action (dead load) Gk = 5.5 kN/m2 and variable action (imposed load) Qk = 2.5
kN/m2.
Permanent uniformly distributed load,
6 5.5
gk 16.5kN / m
2
Variable uniformly distributed load,
6 2.5
qk 7.5kN / m
2
Ultimate limit state udl,
w fg gk fq qk VEd
w 1.35 16.5 1.5 7.5 33.5kN / m
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
Design for shear
wL 33.5 8
Ultimate limit state shear force, VEd 134kN
2 2 MEd
Try 457x152x60UB S275 steel f y 275N / mm2
Av htw 455 8.1 3686mm2 , MO 1.0
fy 275
Av 3686
3 3
Vc , Rd 585152 N 585kN
M0 1.0
VEd 134
0.23 0.5 low shear condition, no reduction in bending capacity
Vc , Rd 585
Design for bending
wL2 33.5 8 2
Ultimate limit state bending moment, M Ed 268kNm
8 8
classify section
c b tw 2 r 153 8.1 (2 10.2) 235
4.7 9 9 8.3 Class I plastic
t 2 tf 2 13.3 275
For a web element,
c h 2t f 2r 455 2 13.3 10.2 235
t tw 8.1 275
Section is CLASS I PLASTIC
Wpl, y f y 1287 103 275
M pl, Rd 354kNm
M0 1.0 106
M Ed 268
0.76 1.0 OK for bending
M c , Rd 354
SERVICABILITY LIMIT STATE
Design for deflection
For a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load, the formula for deflection is
5wL4
max where E = 210 kN/mm2, Iyy = 25500 cm4, L = 8 m
384 EI
serviceability limit state udl, w 1.00 16.5 1.00 7.5 24kN / m

Structures 1
5wL4 5 24 84
max 0.024m 24mm
384 EI 2 25500
384 210 1000
1004
for dead+imposed limit deflection to, L 8000 40mm 24mm OK
200 200
also check imposed load only,
5wL4 5 7.5 84
max 0.0074m 7mm
384 EI 2 25500
384 210 1000
1004
for imposed only limit deflection to, L 8000 22.2mm 7mm OK
360 360
..457x152x60UB S275 JR OK all checks..
Design Example 8 : Floor Beam with Partial Lateral Restraint

12m span simply supported steel beam, which supports an 8m span beam (example 7).
16.5 8
Permanent point load from beam, Gk 66kN
2
7.5 8 134 kN ULS floor action
Variable point load from beam, Qk 30kN
2
Ultimate limit state point load, P 1.35 66 1.5 30 134kN
Design for shear
P 134 6.000m 6.000m
Ultimate limit state shear force, VEd 67kN
2 2
Try 533x210x82UB S275 steel f y 275N / mm2
Av ht w 528 9.6 5069mm2 , MO 1.0
VEd
fy 275
Av 5069
3 3
Vc , Rd 805kN
M0 1.0
MEd
VEd 67
0.08 0.5 low shear condition, no reduction in bending capacity
Vc , Rd 805
Design for bending
PL 134 12
Ultimate limit state bending moment, M Ed 402kNm
4 4
classify section
c b tw 2 r 209 9.6 (2 12.7) 235
t 2 tf 2 13.2 275
For a web element,
c h 2t f 2r 528 2 13.2 12.7 235
36 72 72 66.5 Class I plastic
t tw 13.2 275
The beam is only restrained at the supports and at midspan by the supported beam. Consider lateral torsional
buckling.
LLTB 600
LTB effective length, LLTB 6m , z 137
izz 4.38

Structures 1
z 137
For S275 material, LT 1.43
96 96
h 528
2.53 2 use buckling curve c for rolled sections
b 209
Figure 11.6 – lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor, LT 0.40 M1 1.0
LT Wy f y 0.4 2059 10 3
275
M b, Rd 226kNm
M1 1.0 106
M Ed 402
1.78 1.0 FAILS bending
M b, Rd 226
Further economy may be obtained by applying moment gradient (method 1);
BMD shape is a triangle between points of lateral restraint
M1 0
0
M2 402
kc 1 0.752
1.33 0.33
(1 kc ) 2 1 0.752 2
f 1 1 2 LT 0.8 1 1 2 0.40 0.8 0.6 1.0
2 2
LT 0.40
LT mod 0.67 1.0
f 0.6
LT mod Wy f y 0.67 2059 103 275
M b, Rd 377kNm
M1 1.0 106
This still does not exceed the applied moment so try applying equivalent uniform moment factor (method 2);
Cm 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0 0.6 0.4
Cm M Ed 0.6 402
1.07 1.0 just FAILS in bending (should try next serial size up)
M b, Rd 226
Design for deflection
For a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load, the formula for deflection is;
where Es = 210 kN/mm2, Iyy = 47500 cm4, L = 12 m
PL3
max serviceability limit state udl, P 1.00 66 1.00 30 96kN
48EI
PL3 96 123
max 0.035m 35mm
48EI 48 210 106 47500
1004
for dead+imposed limit deflection to, L 12000 60mm 35mm OK
200 200
also check imposed load only,
PL3 30 123
max 0.0108m 11mm
48EI 2 47500
48 210 1000
1004
for imposed only limit deflection to, L 12000 33.3mm 11mm OK
360 360
..533x210x92UB S275 JR OK all checks..

Structures 1
11.2 Columns
This section deals with structural elements which resist axial compression.
lectures on Blackboard: 19. Columns.ppt
Principal References: SCI 376. Steel building design : Worked examples for students in
accordance with Eurocodes. Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual.
Working with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements.
ANALYSE column to obtain ULS design

compression force (NEd) by Load rundown
All connections pinned If not simple construction

– SIMPLE construction then requires FULL
INTERACTION check
Calculate eccentricities
ecy and ecz
and eccentricity moments
Mey and Mez
LE → → LLT → → LE>1.0L
LT LT
See level 6
< 250 pure wind load < 300 pure bending design course
< 180 otherwise < 180 otherwise
Axial buckling Buckling moment

capacity, NbRd capacity, MbRd
SIMPLE interaction check

N E ,d M y , Ed M z , Ed
1.5 1.0
N b, z , Rd M b, y , Rd M z ,cb , Rd
Figure 11.7 - Design flowchart for compression elements.

The majority of multi-storey steel buildings are designed for simple construction – the beam-to-
column joints are nominally pinned. Columns will be continuous from baseplate to roof but
constructed in two or three storey sections and spliced together. Column design therefore is
predominantly for axial compression with nominal bending moments caused by eccentricity of
load from connecting floor beams.
It is normally acceptable to design simple columns assuming :
beams are fully loaded with the permanent (dead) + variable (floor imposed)
combination,
beam reactions are applied 100mm from the face of the column,
points of lateral restraint occur at each floor level, if a vertical bracing system can
transfer 1% of the factored column axial load at each floor, horizontally into the bracing
system.

Structures 1
11.2.1 Compression Capacity, Nc,Rd (squash load)

For elements in pure compression (no buckling) the design equality to satisfy is,
N Ed
1.0 where NEd is the applied design axial load and Nc,Rd is the design axial
N c , Rd
compression resistance of the section being checked.
Af y
N c , Rd where A is the gross cross sectional area.
M0
Inspection of Chart D3.3 suggests that axial flexural buckling takes effect from 0.2 ,
therefore there are few cases in real structures where the squash load is applicable.
11.2.2 Axial Flexural Buckling Compression Capacity, Nb,Rd (strut capacity)

Most axially compressed elements are proportioned such that flexural buckling (mid-length
lateral displacement) controls the capacity. For strut elements of pin-jointed frameworks
(trusses) this is the only check required.
N Ed
For compression elements where buckling will occur the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
N b , Rd
Nb,Rd is the design axial flexural buckling compression resistance of the section.
Af y
N b, Rd where is a capacity reduction factor, which may be obtained from strut curves
M1
or from equations.
Af y Lcr E
where L is the limiting slenderness, i is the radius of
N cr L i L fy
gyration and Lcr is the axial buckling effective length.
Strut curves of against may be plotted to simplify the design process, see Chart D3.3.
0.85LLR3
1.0LLR3
LLR3
Multi-storey building columns are generally
unrestrained between floor levels and so LLR is the
storey height. Lcr (like LLTB) is a function of the
0.7LLR2
displaced shape of the column, which in turn is

0.85LLR1 1.0LLR2
LLR2 affected by the amount of rotational restraint

provided by the floor beam connections. It is
therefore generally the case that an effective
length factor of 1.0LLR will provide a conservative
0.85LLR1
LLR1 design for non-sway frames.
Figure 11.8 Effective lengths of columns.
The maximum slenderness about either y-y or z-z must be used in design. The bottom storey of a
building will usually have the largest storey height (and highest axial load), in which case it may
be possible to check only one section (storey) of a column.
2
EI
Alternatively N cr 2
may be used (Euler buckling load).
Lcr
2
0.5 1 0.2 where is an imperfection factor from table D3.12
1
and 1.0
2 2

Structures 1
may be obtained using the process listed for beams subject to LTB, and Chart D3.3 shows
buckling curves which relate this to .
For rolled sections the following may be used to select buckling curves and axial buckling
imperfection factors,
Table 11.13 Imperfection factor, hollow sections.
Buckling curve a0 a b c d
Imperfection factor, 0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Table 11.14 Flexural buckling curve selection, rolled sections.
Buckling curve
Aspect Buckling
Material thickness
ratio axis S235, S275,
S460
S355, S420
y-y a a0
h tf 40mm
z-z b a0
1.2 y-y b a
b 40mm tf 100mm
z-z c a
y-y b a
h tf 100mm
z-z c a
1.2 y-y d c
b tf 100mm
z-z d c
Table 11.15 Flexural buckling curve selection, other sections.
Buckling curve
Buckling
Section type Description
axis S235, S275,
S460
S355, S420
Hot finished any a a0
Hollow Section
Cold finished any c c
Welded box Weld < 0.5tf any b b

section Weld > 0.5tf any c c
Channel, Tee,
any c c
plates and bar
Angle any b b
11.2.3 Bending and Compression Capacity (interaction check)

Multi-storey columns are subject to nominal moments due to eccentricity of floor beam
reaction. It is therefore necessary to check the interaction between compression and bending
at key points in the column.
assumed
Y reactions of floor
beams
ez
Z Z
Y ey
Figure 11.14 Nominal eccentricity.

Structures 1
h tw
The major and minor axis eccentricities are ey 100 and ez 100 .
2 2
Where the beam reaction applied to the column is VEd, then the nominal moments are
M ey , VEd , y e y and M ez VEd , z e z
Most symmetrically arranged simple multi-storey buildings there will be two columns to check :
Internal column, loads may balance VEd,y

(minimum eccentricity moments), VEd,z
maximum axial.
VEd,z VEd,z
External column, maximum eccentricity VEd,y
VEd,y
moments but minimum axial.
Eccentricity moments are assumed to have dissipated at the floor levels above and below.
The moment is apportioned to each storey in proportion to bending stiffness, and since the
material is constant, stiffness may be taken as I (the value of I will only change at splice
L
levels),
I1
L1
where, 0.6 1.5 the moment may be divided equally between storeys,
I1 I2
L1 L2
3 otherwise,
0 I2 For the top storey,

L2 M Ed M2
h2
M2 Me
2 I1 I2
M1 M2 L1 L2
Me
I1
h1 L1 For the bottom storey,
1
M1 Me M Ed M1
I1 I2
0 L1 L2
Remember, at the top storey the eccentricity moment cannot be divided into two storeys.
For elements subject to bending and compression it is necessary to check the interaction of the
two effects, this is done by ensuring the sum of axial flexural buckling, lateral torsional buckling
and moment capacity effects are less than unity. By using proportions of capacity it is possible
to ensure the interaction point is inside a plane failure surface.
N Ed
1.0
N b, Rd Interaction check point
Interaction surface created

by joining failure points at all
three axes
M y , Ed
0.67
M b, Rd
M z , Ed
1.0
M cz , Rd
Figure 11.15 Simple interaction check surface.

Structures 1
N E,d M y , Ed M z , Ed
The simplified design equality to satisfy is, 1.5 1.0
Nb, z , Rd M b, y , Rd M z , cb , Rd
The simplified design equality is to be used ONLY for elements in simple construction (where
beam-column joints are nominally pinned), so columns subject to large moments (such as
portal frames) must be designed in accordance with the full interaction formula. However, the
calculation of k factors is tedious and is considered separately at the end of this section.
The outstand elements of these sections will be subject to bending compression and axial
compression so more onerous classification limits apply;
Table 11.16 Section classification for bending & compression.

For UB or UC
sections in Y-Y
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
bending (only) +
compression
c c c
Flange element ≤9 ≤ 10 ≤ 14
t t t
c 396 c 456 If, > -1
if , 0.5, if , 0.5,
t 13 1 t 13 1
Web element c 42
c 36 c 41.5
if , 0.5, if , 0.5, t 0.67 0.33
t t
1 N Ed
Depth of compression zone, 1
2 f ytwd
2 N Ed
Proportion of tensile stress, 1
Af y
Although there are no limitations applied to slenderness in columns it is worth noting that BS
5950 gave limitations of:
General compression elements, 180
Compression elements assumed to carry wind load
250
only,
LcrY L
where is the maximum of or crZ
i yy izz

Structures 1
Flexural Buckling Curve

1.1
0.9
a
0.8
0.7
b
0.6 c
c
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
l
Figure 11.17 – Axial flexural buckling capacity reduction factor
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 19. Columns.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
2. Attempt the Columns Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Design Example 9 : Simple Column

A perimeter column in a three storey steel framed building is loaded as set out in the table below. The
storey height is 4m and the column is formed from a single UC element, the base is nominally pinned
and the beam connections are flexible end plates which provide some rotational restraint (the effective
length of the bottom storey is 0.85L).
B2
B1 B2 B3
Z
Roof 33.5 67 33.5 134
nd
2 floor 67 134 67 268
st
1 floor 67 134 67 268 B1 B3
Y Y
Total ultimate axial load at ground (kN) 670

Z
Design for slenderness
LE 0.85L 0.85 4000
For compression, ensure 180 i 18.9mm 1.89cm
180 180 180
Try 203x203x60 UC S275 steel izz = 5.2cm, A = 76.4 cm2, fy = 275 N/mm2, E = 210 kN/mm2, same
section through full height of column.
MO 1.0, M2 1.25
Design for axial flexural buckling compression
E 210 103
L 86.8
fy 275
Af y Lcr 3400
Lcr 0.85L 0.85 4000 3400mm , 0.753
N cr izz L 52 86.8
h 209.6
1.02 1.2 , t f 100mm buckling about z-z use curve c,
b 205.8
from Figure 11.17 = 0.70
Af y 0.70 76.4 102 275
Nb, Rd 1471kN
M1 1.0 103
Design for major axis bending
The column will be subject to moments due to load eccentricity,
h 209.6
Major axis eccentricity, eyy 100 100 205mm
2 2
tw 9.4
Minor axis eccentricity, ezz 100 100 104mm
2 2
Ultimate limit state bending moment, M y , Ed Fe yy 134 0.205 27.5kNm
Ultimate limit state bending moment, M z , Ed Fezz 67 67 0.104 0kNm
The section will be subject to lateral torsional buckling on the z-z axis.
classify section
c b tw 2 r 206 9.4 (2 10.2) 235
t 2 tf 2 14.2 275

Structures 1
1 N Ed 1 670 103
For a web element, 1 1 1.3 0.5
2 f ytwd 2 275 9.4 160.8
c d 160.8 396 396 0.924
17.1 23.0 Class I plastic
t tw 9.4 13 1 13 1.3 1
LTB effective length, LLTB 0.85 4m 3.4m , assuming endplates give plan torsional restraint
LLTB 340
z 65.4
i zz 5.2
z 65
For S275 material, LT 0.68
96 96
h 209.6
1.02 2 use buckling curve b for rolled sections
b 205.8
Figure 11.6 – lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor, LT 0.87
LT Wpl, y f y 0.87 656 103 275
M b, Rd 157kNm
M1 1.0 106
Design for minor axis bending
The section will reach full moment capacity on the y-y axis,
W pl, z f y 305 10 3 275
M c , Rd M pl, z , Rd 84kNm
M0 1.0 10 6
Design for bending and compression

Simplified bending and compression interaction check;
NE,d M y , Ed M z , Ed 670 27.5 0
1.5 1.5 0.46 0.18 0 0.64 1.0 OK for
Nb, z , Rd M b, Rd M cz , Rd 1471 157 84
bending and compression
..203x203x60 UC S275 JR OK all checks..

Structures 1
11.4 Bracing
lectures on Blackboard: 15a. Tension only bracing design tutorial.ppt , 16. Tension-compression
bracing design tutorial.ppt
accordance with Eurocodes. Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual.
Working with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements.
Low-rise and multi-storey steel framed buildings are often stabilised by vertical pin-jointed
frameworks, often known as bracing. Bracing resists wind and notional loadings and any other
lateral loads such as seismic. There are two popular configurations of bracing but many are
possible.
a) b) c)
a) Tension & Compression bracing, utilises a single member at each storey which may be in
tension or compression depending upon the wind direction. Compression in the bottom storey
element will govern design.
b) Tension Only, utilises two members at each storey but only the tension element is assumed to
resist wind load, the compression element is assumed to buckle and offer no resistance to
lateral movement. Tension in the bottom storey element will govern design.
c) Structural Engineers are often required to work bracing around doorways and other
architectural obstructions. Many arrangements are possible but should comply with the
following :
Split the structure into triangles,
Element centre lines should join at nodes to avoid eccentricity moments,
Provide a complete load path to ground,
Keep bracing angles close to 45o for maximum efficiency.
11.4.1 Floor Diaphragms

It is worth considering the dual role which floors play in buildings :
Floors provide a solid surface which has sufficient strength (it will not collapse) and
stiffness (it will not deform too much) to resist the vertical imposed loads,
Floors form a vital part of the overall stability system, which prevents the building
overturning as a global unit when subject to lateral loads.
If we consider a two storey building subject to wind loading on its cladding, the load path is :

Structures 1
5. The vertical bracing is
framework, transferring
reacts at vertical strong
the horizontal loadings

6. The vertical bracing
4. Floor plate acts as a
from beam transferred
1. Wind load on panel
3. Horizontal reaction
loaded horizontally at
very deep beam, and
vertically onto floor
acts as a pin-jointed
into reactions at the

2. Wall panel spans
each floor level

into floor plate
foundations
beams
points
Figure 11.10 Importance of the floor diaphragm.
ANALYSE bracing to obtain ULS

design axial force (NEd)
Tension and Compression Tension only

bracing (axial buckling) (cross bracing)
no buckling
Limit slenderness Limit slenderness

< 180 < 350
LE → →
Axial buckling capacity, Tension capacity

NEd < NbRd NEd < NtRd
11.4.2 Tension Capacity

N Ed
For elements in pure tension the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
N t , Rd
where NEd is the applied design axial load and Nt,Rd is the design axial tension resistance of the
section being checked.
Nt,Rd may be calculated as the smaller value of:

Af y
N pl, Rd where A is the gross cross sectional area.
M0

Structures 1
0.9 Anet f u
N u , Rd where Anet is the net cross sectional area (deduct for holes) and m2=1.10
M2
for net section fracture.
It may be necessary to check several failure paths to obtain the smallest net area,
Figure 11.11 Possible failure paths of a tension element.

Although there are no limitations applied to slenderness in ties it is worth noting that BS 5950
gave limitations of:
Compression elements assumed to carry wind load
250
only (compression & tension),
Tension elements which may be subject to reversal
350
(tension only),
LcrY L
where is the maximum of or crZ
i yy izz
There are particular rules for angles in tension where connections are made using bolts:
load direction p2
do e2
p1
2
p2
The net area of staggered holes in angles, Anet A t nd 0 where n is the number
4 p1
of holes.
2.0 e 2 0.5d 0 tf u
For single bolt connection, N u , Rd where t is the material thickness,
M2
2 Anet f u
For two bolt connection, N u , Rd
Bolt pitch, p1 2.5d0 ≥5d0
M2
Anet f u 2 0.4 0.7

3
For three bolt connection, N u , Rd 3 0.5 0.7
M2
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 15a. Tension only bracing design tutorial.ppt , 16.
Tension-compression bracing design tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
2. Attempt the Bracing Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Design Example 11 : Diagonal Bracing – Tension Only

A steel frame building is stabilised by tension-only, diagonal bracing which 15 kN
forms a vertical pin-jointed framework. The storey height is 4m and the
4.000 m
bay width is 5m. The unfactored wind forces are 30kN at first and second
floor, and 15kN at roof level.
Variable horizontal wind reaction, H w 30 30 15 75kN
Where W is the maximum wind force in bracing, 30 kN
5
4.000 m
75 W W 96.0kN
6.403
SERVICABILITY LIMIT STATE 30 kN
For wind reversal, ensure
4.000 m
LE 1.0 L 6403
350 i 18.3mm 1.83cm W
350 350 350
Try 100x100x8 EA, S275 steel, ivv = 1.93cm, A = 15.5 cm2 f y 275N / mm2 75kN
as the section is not compressed there can be no local buckling so no
section classification is required 108 kN 5.000 m 108 kN
Design for tension
Ultimate limit state load, Wk 1.5 96.0 144kN
MO 1.0, M2 1.25 Nt,Rd may be calculated as the smaller value of:
Af y 15.5 10 2 275
N pl, Rd 426kN (capacity remote from connection)
M0 1.0 10 3
assuming connection has two M20 bolts in line across section (in 22mm dia. holes)
0.9 Anet f u 0.9 15.5 2.2 0.8 2 410
N u , Rd 402kN (capacity at connection)
M2 1.10 10
N Ed 144
0.36 1.0 OK in tension
N t ,Rd 402
To carry 144kN at the end connection three bolts would be required using the standard bearing capacity
calculations, however special rules apply to angles and channels;
load direction p2=60mm

do=22mm
e2=30mm
e1=30mm p1=50mm
The net area of staggered holes in angles,
2
p2 602
Anet A t nd0 15.5 102 8 2 22 1342mm2
4 p1 4 50
For two bolt connection,
2 Anet fu 0.4 1342 410 Bolt pitch, p1 ≥5d0
Nu , Rd 200kN 2.5d0
M2 1.10 2 0.4 0.7
…Two M20 cl.8.8 bolt connection in 100x8 EA adequate….

Structures 1
Design Example 12 : Diagonal Cross Bracing (Tension and Compression)

A steel frame building is stabilised by diagonal cross bracing 15 kN
(tension and compression) which forms a vertical pin-jointed
4.000 m
framework. The storey height is 4m and the bay width is 5m.
The unfactored wind forces are 30kN at first and second floor,
and 15kN at roof level.
30 kN
4.000 m
Variable horizontal wind reaction, H w 30 30 15 75kN
Where Wk is the maximum wind force in bracing,

30 kN
5
75 W W 96.0kN
6.403
4.000 m
W
75kN
SERVICABILITY LIMIT STATE 108 kN 5.000 m 108 kN

LE 1.0 L 6403
For compression, ensure 180 i 35.5mm 3.55cm
180 180 180
Try 114.3x6.3 CHS, S275 steel, i = 3.82cm, A = 21.4 cm2, fy = 275 N/mm2 this will ensure the section is adequate
in compression and 350 for wind reversal.
classify section
2
c h 114.3 2 235
For a flange element, 18.1 50 50 42.7 Class I plastic
t t 6.3 275
Ultimate limit state load, Wk 1.5 96.0 144kN
MO 1.0, M2 1.25 E = 210 kN/mm2

E 210 103
L 86.8
fy 275
Af y Lcr 6403
Lcr 1.0L 6403mm , 1.93
N cr i L 38.2 86.8
h 114.3
1.0 1.2 , t f 100mm hot finished buckling curve a, from Chart D3.3 = 0.25
b 114.3
Af y 0.25 21.4 102 275
Nb, Rd 147kN
M1 1.0 103
N Ed 144
0.98 1.0 OK in compression.
Nb, Rd 147
…114.3x6.3 CHS S275 JR OK all checks…

Structures 1
11.5 Roof Trusses

lectures on Blackboard: 17. Roof truss design tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual. Working
with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements. SCI 376. Steel building design : Worked
examples for students in accordance with Eurocodes.
The truss is a common and versatile structural form often used to span large distances with
economy and efficiency. In spite of this, the trussed roof has been usurped by the portal frame
because triangulated frameworks attract high fabrication costs (a portal frame has only four
elements, whereas a truss has many).
Some common truss forms are :
Warren girder
pitched roof truss
Pratt truss
portalised truss
industrial building
Figure 11.14 Common truss arrangements.
The design of truss elements should comply with the rules for either tension elements or
compression elements.
Roof trusses can be subject to reversal of stress due to wind uplift, so two analyses may be
needed. To simplify the analysis and subsequent fabrication it is common to rationalise the
serial sizes used to three or four (top / bottom chords and internal strut / tie).
The detailing rules quoted for bracing also apply to trusses :
Split the structure into triangles,
Element centre lines should join at nodes to avoid eccentricity moments,
Provide a complete load path to ground,
Keep bracing angles close to 45o for maximum efficiency,
All joints are nominally pinned,
All loads are applied at joints.
It is acceptable to undertake analysis assuming the framework to be pin-jointed, if the
subsequent design uses effective lengths based upon the same assumptions.
It is very important to know if an lateral restraint bracing

system connected to
element is in tension or compression
top chord
because the design rules are
different. Tension elements
straighten themselves when loaded
and fail by yielding, but
compression elements will buckle
between points of lateral restraint.
The lateral restraint system must be
arranged first. Consider this
arrangement :

Structures 1
Figure 11.15 Arrangement of a truss and lateral restraint system.

For parallel chord trusses, simplified analysis may be undertaken to obtain the minimum
necessary design forces :
0.5P P P P 0.5P
Maximum axial force in top and
* * * * *
M Ed ,max
bottom chords N Ed H
H
* *
L
S S S S
Maximum axial force in internal tie
L
N Ed VEd ,max
H
VEd,max
Maximum axial force in internal

strut N Ed VEd , max 0.5P
MEd,max
11.5.1 Gravity condition

Top chord in compression * * * * *
Lateral restraint provided at each node point
LEy = LEz = 1.0S
Bottom chord in tension * *
No buckling so no effective length required
Internal ties (diagonals) in tension For gravity loads
No buckling so no effective length required
Internal struts in compression * point of lateral restraint
At the top chord connection, a point of lateral restraint is provided. At the bottom chord
connection, an effective lateral restraint is provided because the bottom chord is in tension
and will not displace significantly.
LEy = LEz = 1.0L
11.5.2 Uplift condition

Under wind uplift the position of lateral restraints remains unchanged but the magnitude and
sense of the forces (tension or compression) changes.
Top chord in tension * *
No buckling so no effective length required * * *
Internal ties in tension
No buckling so no effective length required * *
Internal struts (diagonals) in compression
At the top chord connection, a point of lateral restraint For wind uplift loads
is provided. At the bottom chord connection, a
lateral restraint is required to ensure that LEy = LEz = 1.0L
Bottom chord in compression
Lateral restraint only provided at the truss supports
(columns). In order to provide lateral restraint to the 1% NEd
internal struts the bottom chord must resist 1% of the 1% NEd
1% NEd
axial force in the internal struts applied horizontally.
LEy=4.0S
LEz=1.0S

Structures 1
This is usually combated by rotating the bottom

chord so that its strong axis resists bending.
Trusses must be checked for serviceability using the

top chord limits quoted for beams. The exact deflection can
be calculated using Castigliano’s Theorem but a
simplification can be made for parallel chord
z trusses using standard beam deflection formulae.
The second moment of area may be calculated
h for a compound section of the top and bottom
Neutral Axis chords only.
2 2
I NA I yy ,top Atop z I zz,btm Abtm h z
bottom chord
Figure 11.16 Transverse section through truss.

There are particular rules for effective lengths of angles in compression since they can buckle
about any of four axes. Where angles form web elements of trusses, and two or more bolts are
used to connect each end of the angle, the slenderness may be calculated from:
For buckling about v-v axis, eff , v 0.35 0.7 v
Leff
For buckling about y-y axis, eff , y 0.50 0.7 y where,
i 93.9
For buckling about z-z axis, eff , z 0.50 0.7 z
Leff is taken as the distance between the intersection of web and chord element centroids.
centroidal axes cannot coincide at a point
unless the angle leg is cut, so the design must
include an eccentricity moment
Leff
centroidal axes of all elements

coincide at a point, so there is
no eccentricity
The pin jointed framework is a adaptable structural form, not only in new build but also to
convert existing failing structures since a structure is usually most efficient when bending is
replaced by axial transfer. Below are some common truss forms;

Structures 1
King post Queen post
Howe Fink
Pratt or N Warren
Northlight Scissor
Bowstring Thrust
Cable stayed (fan and harp cable arrangements shown)
Latticed web beam
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 17. Roof truss design tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The
last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Truss Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Design Example 13 : Pin-jointed Framework (Roof Truss)

A shallow roofed recreational building requires a clear span steelwork roof structure formed from hollow sections.
The combined gravity (downward) loading is 20kN and the combined uplift (upward) loading is -5kN at each joint.
Each of the joints on the top chord is laterally restrained by a horizontal bracing system. Only joints M and H on
the bottom chord are connected to a lateral bracing system. The truss will be a fully welded from rolled sections.
For gravity loading.

10 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 10 kN
-66.7 -66.7 C -120 -120 E -66.7 -66.7

A B G
D F
-50 3m
-20
16.7
-20
-20
83.3 83.3
-50 16.7
106.7 106.7
M 106.7
L
106.7
K J H
5
Force in first diagonal (tie), FAM 50 83.3kN
3
5
Force in second diagonal (strut), FMC 30 50kN
3
Force in first vertical (strut), FBM 20kN
B.M 12 50 8 20 4 20
Force in chord, FDE FKJ 120kN
3.0m 3.0
For uplift loading.
-2 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -2 kN
16.7 16.7 C 30 30 E 16.7 16.7

A B G
D F
12.5
-4.2
-20.8
3m
5
-20.8
5
-5
12.5 -4.2
M -26.7
L -26.7
K -26.7
J -26.7
H
5
Force in first diagonal (strut), FAM 12.5 20.8kN
3
5
Force in second diagonal (tie), FMC 7.5 12.5kN
3
Force in first vertical (tie), FBM 5kN
B.M 12 12.5 8 5 4 5
Force in chord, FDE FKJ 30kN
3.0m 3.0
First diagonal element. ULS design force is N t , Ed 83.3kN, N c, Ed 20.8kN

LE 1.0L 500cm for uplift when element is in compression
LE 1.0 L 500
Check slenderness, for compression case, ensure 180 i 2.77cm
180 180 180
Structures 1
Try 114.3x6.3 CHS, S275, i = 3.82cm, A = 21.4 cm2, fy = 275 N/mm2.

classify section
2
c h 114.3 2 235
For a flange element, 18.1 50 50 42.7 Class I plastic
t t 6.3 275
E 210 103 Af y 500
L 86.8 , 1.51
fy 275 N cr L 3.82 86.8
h
1.0 1.2 , t f 100mm hot finished buckling curve a, from figure 17 = 0.38
b
Af y 0.38 21.4 10 2 275
N b, Rd 224kN
M1 1.0 10 3
N c , Ed 21
0.10 1.0 OK in compression.
N b, Rd 224
Design for tension
Af y 15.5 10 2 275
N pl, Rd 426kN
M0 1.0 10 3
N Ed 83.3
0.2 1.0 OK in tension. 114.3x6.3 CHS S275 JR OK all checks
N t ,Rd 426
First vertical element. ULS design force is N t , Ed 5kN, N c, Ed 20kN

Since the design forces and effective lengths are less onerous than the first diagonal, use same section size.
114.3x6.3 CHS S275 JR OK all checks
Top chord element.

ULS design force is N c , Ed 120kN and LE 1.0L 400cm for gravity loading
ULS design force is N t , Ed 30kN for uplift loading LE 1.0L 400cm (therefore not onerous case)
LE 1.0 L 400
For compression, ensure 180 i 2.22cm
180 180 180
Try 203x203x60 UC S275 steel izz = 5.2cm, A = 76.4 cm2, fy = 275 N/mm2, E = 210 kN/mm2
E 210 103 Af y Lcr 400
L 86.8 0.89
fy 275 N cr izz L 5.2 86.8
h 209.6
1.02 1.2 , t f 100mm buckling about z-z use curve c,
b 205.8
from figure 17 = 0.70
Af y 0.70 76.4 102 275
Nb, Rd 1471kN
M1 1.0 103
classify section
c b tw 2 r 206 9.4 (2 10.2) 235
t 2 tf 2 14.2 275
1 N Ed 1 120 10 3
For a web element, 1 1 0.64 0.5
2 f ytwd 2 275 9.4 160.8

Structures 1
c d 160.8 396 396 0.924

17.1 49.6 Class I plastic
t tw 9.4 13 1 13 0.64 1
N E ,d 120
0.08 1.0 OK for compression. 203x203x60 UC S275 JR OK all checks
N b, z , Rd 1471
Bottom chord element.

ULS design force is N t , Ed 107kN and LE 1.0L 1600cm for gravity loading (not onerous case)
ULS design force is N c , Ed 27kN and LEy 1.0L 1600cm, LEz 1.0L 400cm for uplift loading
Try 203x203x60 UC S275 izz = 5.2cm, iyy =8.96cm, A = 76.4 cm2, fy = 275 N/mm2, E = 210 kN/mm2.
1.0 L 400 1.0 L 1600
zz 77, yy 179 therefore buckles about y-y axis
i zz 5.2 i yy 8.96
E 210 103 yy 179
L 86.8 2.0
fy 275 L 86.8
h 209.6
1.02 1.2 , t f 100mm buckling about y-y use curve b, from figure 17 = 0.21
b 205.8
Af y 0.21 76.4 102 275
Nb, Rd 441kN
M1 1.0 103
N E,d 27
0.06 1.0 OK for compression. 203x203x60 UC S275 JR OK all checks
Nb, z , Rd 441
Design for major axis bending

Under wind reversal conditions the bottom chord must restrain the internal elements in position at the bottom
chord level. This is done by designing the bottom chord to bend between joints M and H. The design forces are
1% of the design axial forces in the internals applied horizontally.
1
1% axial compression, 27 0.3kN , analyse simply supported beam with three point loads at 4m spacing,
100
PL 0.3 16
M y , Ed 2.4kNm
2 2
LTB effective length, LLTB 1.0 4m 4m , minor axis restraint from internal elements of truss
LLTB 400
77
izz 5.2
LT 77
LT 0.8
96 96
h 209.6
1.02 2 use buckling curve b for rolled sections
b 205.8
figure 6 – lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor, LT 0.79
LT W pl, y f y 0.79 656 103 275
M b, Rd 6
142kNm
M1 1.0 10
Design for bending and compression
Simplified bending and compression interaction check;

Structures 1
N E ,d M y , Ed M z , Ed 27 2.4
1.5 0.06 0.02 0.08 1.0 OK for bending and
N b, z , Rd M b, Rd M cz , Rd 441 142
compression. 203x203x60 UC S275 JR OK all checks
Check deformation
Check the vertical deflection at joint K under gravity loading, using Castigliano’s Theorem.
Length Area FL FL U
Element L A F U e C
AE AE W
(m) (m2) (kN) W (m) (m)
AB 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
BC 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
CD 4 0.00764 -120 -1.33 -0.00030 0.00039791
DE 4 0.00764 -120 -1.33 -0.00030 0.00039791
EF 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
FG 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
ML 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
LK 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
KJ 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
JH 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
AM 5 0.00214 83.3 0.83 0.00093 0.00076924
MC 5 0.00214 -50 -0.83 -0.00056 0.00046173
CK 5 0.00214 16.7 0.83 0.00019 0.00015422
KE 5 0.00214 16.7 0.83 0.00019 0.00015422
EH 5 0.00214 -50 -0.83 -0.00056 0.00046173
HG 5 0.00214 83.3 0.83 0.00093 0.00076924
BM 3 0.00214 -20 0.00 -0.00013 0.00000000
CL 3 0.00214 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000000
DK 3 0.00214 -20 1.00 -0.00013 -0.00013351
EJ 3 0.00214 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000000
FH 3 0.00214 -20 0.00 -0.00013 0.00000000
0.005293543
vertical deflection at joint K, K 5.3 mm
Allowable vertical deflection of roof truss (no brittle finishes),

L 24000
allow 120mm
200 200
check using approximation of a uniformly loaded beam, (h=3.0m, z=1.5m)
2 2
I NA I yy ,top Atop z I zz,btm Abtm h z 6090 76.4 1.5 2 2040 76.4 1.5 2
I NA 8474cm 4
2 10kN 5 20kN
Convert point loads into an equivalent uniformly distributed load, w 5kN / m
6 4.0m
5wL4 5 5 24 4
max 1.2mm 120mm OK
384 EI 8474
384 210 10 6
100 4
..Truss OK for serviceability and strength, Top chord – 203x203x60UC S275JR, Bottom chord – 203x203x60UC
S275JR, Internals – 114.3x6.3CHS S275JR..

Structures 1
11.6 Simple Connections

lectures on Blackboard: 22. Connections.ppt
accordance with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements.
Once the structural elements of a frame have been designed the next step is to decide how to
join them together, such that site erection is as simple as possible and the form of construction
reflects the design assumptions.
Although portal frames require moment connections for stability, the majority of steelwork
connections are nominally pinned. This text will only address rules for the design of the most
common simple connections - plain baseplates and flexible endplates. Eurocode 3 refers to
joints as the area where two or more members meet and connections as the individual
interface between two parts.
column
primary beam with

primary beam top flange notch and endplate
primary beam with
notch to clear flange of
endplate
secondary beam
connection to
column
secondary beam with

endplate for connection to
column web
column baseplate with four

holding down bolts to fix
column to foundation
Figure 11.17 Common simple connections.

Although we assume that the connections transmit no bending moment, in reality this is
unavoidable but is minimised by not connecting to the beam flanges. Column baseplates are
often required to provide temporary erection stability, and so some moment capacity is
necessary but ignored in design. There are only two types of steelwork fixing – bolts and welds.
11.6.1 Ordinary Bolt Capacity

Bolts are placed in clearance holes through the connecting plys (plates or parts of rolled
sections). Clearance holes are 2mm larger than the bolt diameter. Therefore, joints which must
not slip in service (beam or column splices) must be made with High Strength Friction Grip
(HSFG) bolts. These notes will only deal with Ordinary Bolts, which are merely spanner tightened
by hand.
Metric structural bolts are available in several sizes and grades but M20 class 8.8 bolts should
generally be used for connections. Bolts are threaded and the area which actually resists the

Structures 1
loading is termed the tensile stress area. M24 class 4.6 bolts (in 30mm diameter holes) should be
used for holding down bolts as the larger size is more robust (impact from swinging column) and
the more ductile grade permits bending (in the event of inadequate setting out).
Table 11.19 Structural bolt information.
Tensile Nut Nut
Bolt Hole Nut Washer
stress across across
diameter diameter thickness thickness
area, A flats corners
d (mm) do (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm2) (mm) (mm)
M16 18 157 13 24 28 3.0
M20 22 245 16 30 35 3.0
M24 26 353 19 36 42 3.0
M30 33 561 24 46 53 4.0
Bolted joints may fail in several modes : shear, bearing, tension, block tearing and plain shear.
f A
shear capacity of a bolt, Fv , Rd v ub
M2
where, v is 0.6 for class 4.6 and 8.8 bolts but 0.5
for class 10.9, fub is the bolt material ultimate
strength and A is the bolt tensile stress area.
k1 b f u dt
bearing capacity of a bolt, Fb , Rd
M2
where, d is the nominal bolt diameter, fu is the beam or
plate material ultimate strength, t is the plate thickness
e1 f ub
for the end row of bolts, b 1.0
3d 0 fu
e2
and k1 2.8 1.7 2.5
d0
p1 f ub
for the inner rows of bolts, b 0.25 1.0
3d 0 fu
p2
and k1 1.4 1.7 2.5
d0
Generally the material partial safety factor M2 = 1.25, however when the imensional reduction
factor a reaches 1.0 the value of M2 is increased to 1.50 to account for the increased
probability of plate buckling.
p2 e2
p1 is the bolt spacing distance in the direction of load
transfer, p2 is the bolt spacing distance perpendicular to
e1 direction of load transfer, e1 is the end distance in direction
of load transfer, do is the nominal bolt hole diameter, e2 is the
p1 end distance perpendicular to direction of load transfer.
l Minimum Maximum
End, e1 1.2d0 4t+40
Edge, e2 1.2d0 4t+40
do Pitch, p1 2.2d0 14t 200
Gauge, p2 2.4d0 14t 200
load direction Figure 11.18 Layout of a simple endplate.

Structures 1
k2 fub A
tension capacity of a bolt, Ft , Rd
M2
where, k2 is taken as 0.9
Table 11.20 Bolt and ply strength information.

Ply t < 40mm Ordinary Bolts
Grade Yield strength Ultimate Class Yield strength Ultimate
fy (N/mm2) strength fyb (N/mm2) strength
fu (N/mm2) fub (N/mm2)
S 275 275 410 4.6 240 400
S 355 355 470 8.8 640 800
Bolts subject to shear and tension should comply with the design equality:
VEd TEd
1.0
Fv , Rd 1.4 Ft , Rd Internal
zone of
block tearing capacity of a bolt group, plate
k b f u Ant f y Anv tears
Veff ,1, Rd where, fy is the beam or plate material between
M2 3 M0 bolts
d0
yield strength, the net area in tension is Ant 2t e2 and net
2
shear area Anv 2t l e1 2.5d 0
where, l is the length of the end plate, kb = 1.0 for symmetrical
concentrically loaded arrangements, otherwise 0.50.
web fails in
f y Av shear
plain shear, V pl, Rd where Av 0.9t wl is the area of adjacent to
3 M0 weld
beam web in shear.
Weld strength must be reduced in lap joint fillet welds longer than 150a,
0.2 L j
1.0 Lw 1.2 1.0
150a
Where the centres of end bolts in a long grip, Lj > 15d the joint capacity must be reduced by
L j 15d
the factor, 1.0 Lf 1 0.75
200d
9d
If bolts pass through packing thicker than 0.33d a reduction applies, b 1.0
8d 3t p
11.6.2 Weld Capacity

Structural welds may be subdivided into fillet and butt welds. The vast majority of structural
welds are fillet type, due to the relative ease of making the weld (which controls cost). Fillet
welds require little preparation, whereas butt welds require preparation of the plys, a backing
strip and more weld material. Where a backing strip is not used the butt weld requires the
assembly to be turned over, the weld gouged out and a weld run laid in the gouge, which is still
more expensive. A full penetration butt weld has equal strength to the smallest ply.

Structures 1
butt weld
fillet weld corner ground off
2
mm
throat thickness sacrificial
gives weld size backing strip 450
Figure 11.19 Fillet and butt welds.
Fillet welds are specified by the leg length, s (6, 8 or 10mm – larger fillet welds may be formed
by using multiple runs but anything larger than 20mm warrants a full penetration butt weld) but
designed using throat thickness, a. The standard fillet weld size is 6mm,
s 6
a so for example, a 6mm fillet weld has a 4.2mm
2 2
The intersection angle of the two plys being joined should lie in the range, 60 120
otherwise it may be impossible to make a satisfactory weld.
Figure 11.20 Fillet weld terminology.

Welds should not be shorter than 4s long and since starting and stopping a weld will result in
incomplete metal fusion of the parts, it is required to calculate weld effective lengths by
subtracting a throat thickness for each start or stop in a weld run,
effective length of one weld run, lw L 2a
fu
The design shear strength of welded material is given by, f vw,d
3 w m2
for welds w = 0.85 for S275 steel and m2=1.25, so this reduces to f vw, d 0.5433 f u
N Ed
For a fillet weld subject to shear and or tension the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
Fw, Rd
where Fw,Rd is the design weld resistance.
Fw, Rd fvw, d a lw where a is the weld throat thickness, lw is the weld effective length and fvw,d is
the weld shear strength.
Table 11.21 Weld strength information.
Design 6 mm F.W 8 mm F.W 10 mm F.W
Yield Ultimate
shear design design design
strength strength
strength resistance resistance resistance
fy (N/mm2) fu (N/mm2)
fvw,d (N/mm2) Fw,Rd (kN/mm) Fw,Rd (kN/mm) Fw,Rd (kN/mm)
275 410 223 0.95 1.26 1.58
355 470 241 1.02 1.36 1.71
It is important to arrange fillet welding details so that only shear is transmitted through the weld
run. Longitudinal bending moments which produce ‘torsion’ in a fillet weld run will propagate
premature failure and must be avoided.
Welds subject to shear and tension should be designed for the most onerous of shear, tension or
the resultant force,

Structures 1
VEd
N Ed VEd , TEd , VEd2 TEd2

TEd
lw
NEd
weld on both
sides of plate
Figure 11.21 Combined stress in welds.
11.6.3 Flexible End Plates

The flexible end plate connection is the most common method of attaching a beam to a
column or other beam. Simple detailing rules apply :
The endplate thickness should be 8mm for serial sizes up to and including 457UB, or
10mm for larger serial sizes,
Bolt gauge should be 90mm for 8mm thick endplates, or 140mm for 10mm endplates,
Bolt pitch should not be less than 70mm,
For M20 bolts, the edge and end distances (e2 and e1) should be at least 35mm,
At least four bolts, arranged in two rows, should be provided,
The fillet weld between endplate and beam should be full profile on both sides of the
web,
The connection must be able to transmit 75kN in tension to avoid disproportionate
collapse.
primary beam bolt gauge
notch to avoid n p2 e2
flange clash
m 50
e1
p1 bolt pitch
≥0.6h
h l
column web or
flange / primary
beam web
Figure 11.22 Arrangement of a flexible endplate.
11.6.4 Simple Base Plates

The primary function of a plain baseplate is to take the large concentrated axial force in a
column and spread it onto a foundation. Columns in braced bays will also apply lateral shear
forces which must be resisted by the holding down bolts.

Structures 1
A plain baseplate is formed by welding an oversize flat plate to the bottom of the column
section. The full profile weld transfers all of the loading so the column need not be specially
prepared for contact with the baseplate.
The baseplate is bolted to the foundation, which provides shear resistance and temporary
erection stability. Holding-down bolts are normally cast into the foundation, complete with
washer plates to resist uplift. To ensure that all columns start at the same level, they are erected
on shims, and once the bare frame is erected the gap between the underside of the
baseplate and foundation is filled with high strength grout.
Axial only base plates should be analysed for bending beyond the stiff bearing of the plate.
Contact stress at the underside of the baseplate should be limited to fcdj where fck is the 28 day
cylinder strength of the foundation concrete. In the UK concrete is normally specified and
tested in terms of the 28 day cube strength fcu where fck = 0.8 fcu therefore care should be taken
to ensure the correct value is being used.
Table 11.22 Concrete strength data for baseplate design.
Foundation concrete
C25/30 C28/35 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50
grade
fck (N/mm2) 25 28 32 35 40
2
fcu (N/mm ) 30 35 40 45 50
Minimum fc,grout (N/mm )
2
5 5.6 6.4 7 8
cc j ckf
Limiting contact stress, f cd j 0.67 f ck for cc=1.00, j=1.00 and mc=1.5
mc
N E ,d
Minimum contact area required (hatched), A
f cdj
If c is the required outstand from the column face to limit the contact stress, then the minimum
contact area may be obtained by solving:
N Ed
b 2c h 2c d 2c b t w using the quadratic formula.
f cdj
It is necessary to specify the next larger plate thickness which is manufactured (note that the
baseplate thickness, tp should not be less than the column flange, tf ) which will result in a slightly
lower actual contact stress.
3 f cdj m0
tp c where fy is the yield strength of the base plate and m0=1.0.
fy
b 2c
baseplate
thickness
b tw
25 tp h 2c d 2c
2
mm
grout
100x100x10
washer plates
Figure 11.23 A plain baseplate.

Structures 1
11.6.5 Web Buckling and Bearing, Fw,Rd

Buckling of a beam web may occur due to an excessive vertical action being applied to a
beam flange which forces the web to buckle like a slender vertical strut. Bearing is similar to
web buckling but the web fails by yielding close to the root radius, like a stocky strut.
critical
section
length of web yielding

NEd
at bearing
area of web NEd
o acting as a strut
45
ss
ss d
leff
NEd
Figure 11.24 Web buckling and bearing.

N Ed
Web buckling and bearing are checked using a single design equality : 1.0
FRd
FRd is the web design resistance to transverse forces and NEd is the applied transverse action.
f yw Leff t w
FRd where Leff is effective length for resistance to transverse action, fyw is the web
M1
yield strength and tw is the web thickness.
0.5 l ytw f y
Leff l
F y where, F 1.0 and F
F Fcr
t w3
Fcr is the web critical buckling force given by, Fcr 0.9k F E
d
l y1 ss 2t f 1 m1 m2
2
m1 le
The effective loaded length ly is the minimum of l y2 le tf m2
2 tf
l y3 le t f m1 m2
where tf is the flange thickness and ss is the horizontal stiff bearing length of web over which the
transverse action is applied, other terms may be calculated from:
f yf b
m1 where fyf is the flange yield strength and b is the breadth of the flange
f yw t w
k F Et w2
le ss c where E is the modulus of elasticity and d is the depth of the web between
2 f yw d
root fillets.

Structures 1
NEd NEd
c ss d hw
A A
a Ls Ls
Figure 11.25 Unstiffened and stiffened web factors. tw
2
ss c d
For unstiffened webs, k F 2 6 6 For stiffened webs, k F 6 2
d a
Where c is the length of web beyond the stiff bearing, a is the distance between stiffeners.
2
d
If F 0.5 then m2 0.02 otherwise, if F 0.5 then m2 0.
tf
When a beam web is not adequate to resist an applied transverse action then a web stiffener
must be added.
To calculate the axial capacity of the stiffened web, a cruciform section should be assessed.
This is formed from part of the beam web and the effective area of the stiffeners (since long
outstands of stiffening plates will tend to buckle locally).
length of stiffener Ls 14t s for class 3 outstand

Ls tw
area of a stiffener As Ls t s
effective area of a stiffener Aeff , s 2 As 2 15tw ts tw
15tw
3
ts 2 Ls t w
stiffener second moment of area I eff , s
12 ts
I eff , s 15tw
radius of gyration of stiffener ieff , s
Aeff , s
0.75hw
dimensionless slenderness ratio of stiffener
ieff , s 93.9
Section A-A
Aeff , s f y
Axial capacity N b , Rd where is obtained from axial buckling curve c.
m1
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 22. Connections.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of
the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Connections Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.

Structures 1
Design Example 14 : Beam to Column Flexible Endplate
A beam 457x152x60 UB (S275 steel) applies a shear reaction of VE,d = 134 kN at its connection with a
203x203x60 UC (S275 steel) column. The connection is to the column flange.
Try 4 No M20 grade 8.8 bolts in 22mm diameter holes; 275x150x8mm thick S275 plate; 6mm fillet
welds to both sides of the beam web.
90 30
50
175 275 75 kN
22 134 kN
Assess bolt group.

f A
v ub 0.6 800 245
shear capacity of a bolt, Fv , Rd 94.1kN
M2 1.25 103
e2 30
k1 2.8 1.7 2.8 1.7 2.12 2.5
d0 22
e1 50 f ub 800
for the end row of bolts, b d 0.76 1.95 1.0
3d 0 3 22 fu 410
p1 175 f ub 800
for the inner rows of bolts, c e 0.25 0.25 2.4 1.95 1.0
3d 0 3 22 fu 410
k1 b f u dt 2.12 0.76 410 20 8
bearing capacity of end row bolt, Fb, Rd 84.5kN
M2 1.25 10 3
k1 c f u dt 2.12 1.00 410 20 8
bearing capacity of inner row bolt, Fb, Rd 111kN
M2 1.25 10 3
Therefore, shear capacity of bolt group, FRd 4Fv, Rd 4 94.1 376.1kN
or FRd 2 84.5 2 111 391kN
Assuming connection must transmit 75kN tie force (TEd),

k 2 f ub A 0.9 800 245
tension capacity of a bolt, Ft , Rd 141.1kN
M2 1.25 10 3
Assess block tearing capacity of a bolt group,

d0 22
net area in tension is Ant 2t e2 2 8 30 304mm 2
2 2
net area in shear is Anv 2t l e1 1.5d 0 2 8 275 50 1.5 22 3072mm2

Structures 1
f u Ant f y Anv 410 304 275 3072

Veff ,1, Rd 587kN
M2 3 M0
1.25 3 1.0
Assess shear capacity of beam web

area of beam web in shear, Av 0.9t wl 0.9 9.4 275 2326mm2
f y Av 275 2326
plain shear, V pl, Rd 369kN
3 M0 3 1.0 10 3
Assess weld between beam web and endplate
6
weld leg length, s = 6 mm and throat thickness, a 4.2mm
2
fu 410
weld shear strength, f vw,d 223N / mm 2
3 3 0.85 1.25
w m2
design weld resistance, Fw, Rd f vw,d a 223 4.2 946 N / mm run of weld
length of profile weld, 2h 2 275 550mm for weld on both sides of beam web
deduction for two start or stops, 2 s s 2 6 6 24mm (assuming the work must be turned)
net length of weld, l w 550 24 526mm
946 526
Capacity of weld, Fw, Rd 498kN
10 3
2 2
Resultant applied action, FEd VEd TEd 1342 752 154kN
FE ,d 154
0.31 1.0 full profile 6 mm fillet weld OK
Fw, Rd 498
Assess combined bolt shear and tension

VEd 134
Shear per bolt, 32.8kN
4 4
TEd 75
Tension per bolt, 18.8kN
4 4
VEd TEd 32.8 18.8
Interaction, 0.3 1.0 OK
Fv , Rd 1.4 Ft , Rd 94 1.4 141
FRd 376kN
Veff ,1, Rd 587kN
Capacity of the connection will be the minimum from
V pl, Rd 369kN VE ,d 134kN
Fw, Rd 498kN
Arrangement of endplate, weld and bolts OK for all checks

Structures 1
Design Example 15 : Column Baseplate
Axially loaded plain baseplate in S275 steel, welded to column which is subject to 670 kN.
Column is 203x203x60 UC S275 steel, fy = 275 N/mm2, MO 1.0, M 2 1.25 .
Foundation is constructed in RC 25/30 concrete, fck = 25 N/mm2.
cc j f ck
Limiting contact stress, f cd j 0.67 25 16.7 N / mm 2
mc
N E ,d 670 10 3
Minimum contact area required, A 40120mm 2
f cdj 16.7
If c is the required outstand from the column face to limit the contact stress, then the contact area is,
b 2c h 2c d 2c b tw and for our column this simplifies to:
206 2c 210 2c 161 2c 206 9 4c 2 1226c 25679 .
The minimum required outstand will occur when, 40120 4c 2 1226c 25679 , solving using the
306 306 2 4 1 16450 306 400
quadratic formula: c 47 or 353mm
2 1 2
3 f cdj m 0 3 16.7 1.0
The base plate thickness, t p c 47 20.4mm provide 20mm thick plate.
fy 265
Note that baseplate thickness should not be less than the column flange thickness (14.2mm).
Holding-down bolts should be M24 grade 4.6 bolts, set in 6 mm oversize holes. Four should be
provided in each baseplate to facilitate site erection without temporary bracing.
The weld between baseplate and column must carry the full axial load of 670 kN, try full profile 6 mm
fillet weld:
6
weld leg length, s = 6 mm and throat thickness, a 4.2mm
2
fu 410
weld shear strength, f vw,d 223N / mm 2
3 w 3 0.85 1.25
m2
design weld resistance, Fw, Rd f vw,d a 223 4.2 946 N / mm run of weld
length of profile weld, 2b 4h 2 206 4 210 1252mm
deduction for four start or stops, 4 s s 4 6 6 48mm (assuming the work must be turned)
net length of weld, l w 1252 48 1204mm
N E ,d 670 10 3
applied action, FEd 556 N / mm run of weld
lw 1204
FE ,d 556
0.58 1.0 full profile 6 mm fillet weld OK.
Fw, Rd 946
400mm sqr. x 20mm thick baseplate with full profile 6mm fillet weld to column.
4 No M24 class 4.6 x 400mm long cast-in holding down bolts.

Structures 1
Design Example 16 : Beam Web Buckling and Bearing
A 406x140x39 UB in S355 steel is subject to a concentrated load of 250kN, spread over 50mm of the
top flange and 1500mm from the support. Determine whether the web will fail in buckling or bearing.
f yf b f 355 142
Firstly assume, F 0.5, m2 0 and therefore m1 22.2
f ywtw 355 6.4
ss c 50 209 k F Et w2 6 210000 6.42
kF 2 6 2 6 6.1 6 , and le 190.9mm
d 380.8 2 f ywd 2 355 380.8
ly is the minimum of :
l y1 ss 2t f 1 m1 m2 50 2 8.6 1 22.2 0 148mm
2 2
m1 le 22.2 191
l y2 le tf m2 191 8.6 0 384mm
2 tf 2 8.6
l y3 le t f m1 m2 191 8.6 22.2 0 231mm
t w3 6.4 3
Fcr 0.9k F E 0.9 6 210 10 3 780649 N
hw 380.8
l ytw f y 148 6.4 355
now check F 0.66 0.5 m2 0 try again
Fcr 780649
2 2
d 381
F 0.5, m2 0.02 0.02 39.2 and again le 190.9mm and m1 22.2
tf 8.6
ly is the minimum of :
l y1 ss 2t f 1 m1 m2 50 2 8.6 1 22.2 39.2 202mm
2 2
m1 le 22.2 191
l y2 le tf m2 191 8.6 39.2 389mm ly l y1 202mm
2 tf 2 8.6
l y3 le t f m1 m2 191 8.6 22.2 39.2 258mm
l ytw f y 202 6.4 355

now check F 0.77 0.5 OK
Fcr 780649 142
0.5 0.5 8.6
F 0.65 1.0
F 0.77
ly
Leff Fly 0.65 202 131mm
f yw Leff t w 418 le
355 131 6.4 380.8
FRd 298kN
M1 1.0 10 3 10.2
N Ed 250
0.84 1.0 OK
FRd 298 6.4
web will be adequate for buckling and bearing without stiffening.

Structures 1
Z
Hot Rolled Steel Section Properties

Y Y
Universal Beams
(page 1 of 2)
Z
Thick
Depth Width ness Thick Depth Local Buckling
UNIVERSAL BEAMS Second Moment of Area
of of of ness of Root between Ratios
Section Section Web Flange Radius fillets
Serial size type h b tw tf r d I yy I zz I xx
Flange Web
mm mm mm mm mm mm (c/t) (c/t) cm 4 cm4 cm 4
203x133x25 UB 203.2 133.2 5.7 7.8 7.6 172.4 8.54 30.2 2360 310 6.12
203x133x30 UB 206.8 133.9 6.4 9.6 7.6 172.4 6.97 26.9 2890 384 10.2
254x146x31 UB 251.4 146.1 6 8.6 7.6 219 8.49 36.5 4440 449 8.73
254x146x37 UB 256 146.4 6.3 10.9 7.6 219 6.72 34.8 5560 571 15.5
254x146x43 UB 259.6 147.3 7.2 12.7 7.6 219 5.8 30.4 6560 677 24.1
305x165x40 UB 303.4 165 6 10.2 8.9 265.2 8.09 44.2 8520 763 14.7
305x165x46 UB 306.6 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 265.2 7.02 39.6 9950 897 22.3
305x165x54 UB 310.4 166.9 7.9 13.7 8.9 265.2 6.09 33.6 11700 1060 34.5
356x171x45 UB 351.4 171.1 7 9.7 10.2 311.6 8.82 44.5 12100 812 15.7
356x171x51 UB 355 171.5 7.4 11.5 10.2 311.6 7.46 42.1 14200 968 23.6
356x171x57 UB 358 172.2 8.1 13 10.2 311.6 6.62 38.5 16100 1110 33.1
356x171x67 UB 363.4 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 311.6 5.52 34.2 19500 1360 55.5
406x178x54 UB 402.6 177.7 7.7 10.9 10.2 360.4 8.15 46.8 18600 1020 22.7
406x178x60 UB 406.4 177.9 7.9 12.8 10.2 360.4 6.95 45.6 21500 1200 32.9
406x178x67 UB 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 360.4 6.25 41 24300 1360 46
406x178x74 UB 412.8 179.5 9.5 16 10.2 360.4 5.61 37.9 27300 1540 63
457x191x67 UB 453.4 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 407.6 7.48 48 29400 1450 37.1
457x191x74 UB 457 190.4 9 14.5 10.2 407.6 6.57 45.3 33400 1670 52
457x191x82 UB 460 191.3 9.9 16 10.2 407.6 5.98 41.2 37100 1870 69.2
457x191x89 UB 463.4 191.9 10.5 17.7 10.2 407.6 5.42 38.8 41000 2090 90.5
457x191x98 UB 467.2 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 407.6 4.92 35.8 45700 2340 121
533x210x101 UB 536.7 210 10.8 17.4 12.7 476.5 6.03 44.1 61700 2690 102
533x210x109 UB 539.5 210.8 11.6 18.8 12.7 476.5 5.61 41.1 66700 2940 126
533x210x122 UB 544.5 211.9 12.7 21.3 12.7 476.5 4.97 37.5 76200 3390 180
533x210x82 UB 528.3 208.8 9.6 13.2 12.7 476.5 7.91 49.6 47500 2010 51.3
533x210x92 UB 533.1 209.3 10.1 15.6 12.7 476.5 6.71 47.2 55400 2390 76.2
610x229x101 UB 602.6 227.6 10.5 14.8 12.7 547.6 7.69 52.2 75700 2910 77.2
610x229x113 UB 607.6 228.2 11.1 17.3 12.7 547.6 6.6 49.3 87400 3440 112
610x229x125 UB 612.2 229 11.9 19.6 12.7 547.6 5.84 46 98600 3930 155
610x229x140 UB 617.2 230.2 13.1 22.1 16.5 547.6 5.21 41.8 112000 4510 217
610x305x149 UB 612.4 304.8 11.8 19.7 16.5 540 7.74 45.8 125000 9300 200
610x305x179 UB 620.2 307.1 14.1 23.6 16.5 540 6.51 38.3 152000 11400 341
610x305x238 UB 635.8 311.4 18.4 31.4 16.5 540 4.96 29.3 208000 15800 788
686x254x125 UB 677.9 253 11.7 16.2 15.2 615.1 7.81 52.6 118000 4380 116
686x254x140 UB 683.5 253.7 12.4 19 15.2 615.1 6.68 49.6 136000 5180 169
686x254x152 UB 687.5 254.5 13.2 21 15.2 615.1 6.06 46.6 150000 5780 219
686x254x170 UB 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 615.1 5.4 42.4 170000 6620 307
762x267x134 UB 750 264.4 12 15.5 16.5 686 8.53 57.2 150700 4788 119
762x267x147 UB 754 265.2 12.8 17.5 16.5 686 7.58 53.6 169000 5470 161
762x267x173 UB 762.2 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 686 6.17 48 205000 6850 267
762x267x197 UB 769.8 268 15.6 25.4 16.5 686 5.28 44 240000 8170 405
838x292x176 UB 834.9 291.7 14 18.8 17.8 761.7 7.76 54.4 246000 7790 222
838x292x194 UB 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 761.7 6.74 51.8 279000 9070 307
838x292x226 UB 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 761.7 5.48 47.3 340000 11400 514
914x305x201 UB 903 303.3 15.1 20.2 19.1 824.4 7.51 54.6 326000 9430 293
914x305x224 UB 910.4 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 824.4 6.36 51.8 376000 11200 421
914x305x253 UB 918.4 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 824.4 5.47 47.7 437000 13300 627
914x305x289 UB 926.6 307.7 19.5 32 19.1 824.4 4.81 42.3 505000 15600 929
914x419x343 UB 911.8 418.5 19.4 32 24.1 799.6 6.54 41.2 625000 39200 1190
914x419x388 UB 921 420.5 21.4 36.6 24.1 799.6 5.74 37.4 719000 45400 1730

Structures 1
Z
Y Y
(page 2 of 2)
Radius of Elastic Plastic Area

UNIVERSAL BEAMS
Gyration Modulus Modulus Buckling Torsional of
Parameter Constant Section
Serial size type iy iz Wel, y Wel, z Wpl, y Wpl, z u x A
cm cm cm3 cm 3 cm3 cm3 cm2

203x133x25 UB 8.56 3.1 230 46.2 258 70.9 0.877 25.6 32
203x133x30 UB 8.71 3.17 280 57.5 314 88.2 0.881 21.5 38.2
254x146x31 UB 10.5 3.36 351 61.3 393 94.1 0.88 29.6 39.7
254x146x37 UB 10.8 3.48 433 78 483 119 0.89 24.3 47.2
254x146x43 UB 10.9 3.52 504 92 566 141 0.891 21.2 54.8
305x165x40 UB 12.9 3.86 560 92.6 623 142 0.889 31 51.3
305x165x46 UB 13 3.9 646 108 720 166 0.891 27.1 58.7
305x165x54 UB 13 3.93 754 127 846 196 0.889 23.6 68.8
356x171x45 UB 14.5 3.76 687 94.8 775 147 0.874 36.8 57.3
356x171x51 UB 14.8 3.86 796 113 896 174 0.881 32.1 64.9
356x171x57 UB 14.9 3.91 896 129 1010 199 0.882 28.8 72.6
356x171x67 UB 15.1 3.99 1071 157 1211 243 0.886 24.4 85.5
406x178x54 UB 16.5 3.85 930 115 1055 178 0.871 38.3 69
406x178x60 UB 16.8 3.97 1063 135 1199 209 0.88 33.8 76.5
406x178x67 UB 16.9 3.99 1189 153 1346 237 0.88 30.5 85.5
406x178x74 UB 17 4.04 1323 172 1501 267 0.882 27.6 94.5
457x191x67 UB 18.5 4.12 1296 153 1471 237 0.872 37.9 85.5
457x191x74 UB 18.8 4.2 1458 176 1653 272 0.877 33.9 94.6
457x191x82 UB 18.8 4.23 1611 196 1831 304 0.877 30.9 104
457x191x89 UB 19 4.29 1770 218 2014 338 0.88 28.3 114
457x191x98 UB 19.1 4.33 1957 243 2232 379 0.881 25.7 125
533x210x101 UB 21.9 4.57 2292 256 2612 399 0.874 33.2 129
533x210x109 UB 21.9 4.6 2477 279 2828 436 0.875 30.9 139
533x210x122 UB 22.1 4.67 2793 320 3196 500 0.877 27.6 155
533x210x82 UB 21.3 4.38 1800 192 2059 300 0.864 41.6 105
533x210x92 UB 21.7 4.51 2072 228 2360 356 0.872 36.5 117
610x229x101 UB 24.2 4.75 2515 256 2881 400 0.864 43.1 129
610x229x113 UB 24.6 4.88 2874 301 3281 469 0.87 38 144
610x229x125 UB 24.9 4.97 3221 343 3676 535 0.873 34.1 159
610x229x140 UB 25 5.03 3622 391 4142 611 0.875 30.6 178
610x305x149 UB 25.7 7 4111 611 4594 937 0.886 32.7 190
610x305x179 UB 25.9 7.07 4935 743 5547 1144 0.886 27.7 228
610x305x238 UB 26.3 7.23 6589 1017 7486 1574 0.886 21.3 303
686x254x125 UB 27.2 5.24 3481 346 3994 542 0.862 43.9 159
686x254x140 UB 27.6 5.39 3987 409 4558 638 0.868 38.7 178
686x254x152 UB 27.8 5.46 4374 455 5000 710 0.871 35.5 194
686x254x170 UB 28 5.53 4916 518 5631 811 0.872 31.8 217
762x267x134 UB 29.7 5.3 4018 362 4644 570 0.854 49.8 171
762x267x147 UB 30 5.4 4470 411 5156 647 0.858 45.2 187
762x267x173 UB 30.5 5.58 5387 514 6198 807 0.864 38.1 220
762x267x197 UB 30.9 5.71 6234 610 7167 959 0.869 33.2 251
838x292x176 UB 33.1 5.9 5893 535 6808 842 0.856 46.5 224
838x292x194 UB 33.6 6.06 6641 620 7640 974 0.862 41.6 247
838x292x226 UB 34.3 6.27 7985 773 9155 1212 0.87 35 289
914x305x201 UB 35.7 6.07 7204 621 8351 982 0.854 46.8 256
914x305x224 UB 36.3 6.27 8269 739 9535 1163 0.861 41.3 286
914x305x253 UB 36.8 6.42 9501 871 10940 1371 0.866 36.2 323
914x305x289 UB 37 6.51 10880 1014 12570 1601 0.867 31.9 368
914x419x343 UB 37.8 9.46 13730 1871 15480 2890 0.883 30.1 437
914x419x388 UB 38.2 9.59 15630 2161 17670 3341 0.885 26.7 494

Structures 1
Z
Universal Columns
(page 1 of 2) Y Y
Z
Thick
Depth Width ness Thick Depth Local Buckling Second Moment of
of of of ness of Root between Ratios Area
Section Section Web Flange Radius fillets
Serial size type h b tw tf r d I yy I zz I xx
Flange Web
mm mm mm mm mm mm (c/t) (c/t) cm 4 cm4 cm 4
152x152x23 UC 152.4 152.2 5.8 6.8 7.6 123.6 11.2 21.3 1260 403 4.87
152x152x30 UC 157.6 152.9 6.5 9.4 7.6 123.6 8.13 19 1740 558 10.5
152x152x37 UC 161.8 154.4 8 11.5 7.6 123.6 6.71 15.5 2220 709 19.5
203x203x46 UC 203.2 203.6 7.2 11 10.2 160.8 9.25 22.3 4560 1540 22.2
203x203x52 UC 206.2 204.3 7.9 12.5 10.2 160.8 8.17 20.4 5260 1770 32
203x203x60 UC 209.6 205.8 9.4 14.2 10.2 160.8 7.25 17.1 6090 2040 46.6
203x203x71 UC 215.8 206.4 10 17.3 10.2 160.8 5.97 16.1 7650 2540 81.5
203x203x86 UC 222.2 209.1 12.7 20.5 10.2 160.8 5.1 12.7 9460 3120 138
254x254x73 UC 254.1 254.6 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 8.96 23.3 11400 3870 57.3
254x254x89 UC 260.3 256.3 10.3 17.3 12.7 200.3 7.41 19.4 14300 4850 104
254x254x107 UC 266.7 258.8 12.8 20.5 12.7 200.3 6.31 15.6 17500 5900 173
254x254x132 UC 276.3 261.3 15.3 25.3 12.7 200.3 5.16 13.1 22600 7520 322
254x254x167 UC 289.1 265.2 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 4.18 10.4 29900 9800 625
305x305x97 UC 307.9 305.3 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.7 9.91 24.9 22200 7270 91.1
305x305x118 UC 314.5 307.4 12 18.7 15.2 246.7 8.22 20.6 27600 9010 160
305x305x137 UC 320.5 309.2 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.7 7.12 17.9 32800 10700 250
305x305x158 UC 327.1 311.2 15.8 25 15.2 246.7 6.22 15.6 38700 12500 379
305x305x198 UC 339.9 314.5 19.1 31.4 15.2 246.7 5.01 12.9 50800 16200 734
305x305x240 UC 352.5 318.4 23 37.7 15.2 246.7 4.22 10.7 64200 20200 1270
305x305x283 UC 365.3 322.2 26.8 44.1 15.2 246.7 3.65 9.21 78800 24500 2030
356x368x129 UC 355.6 368.6 10.4 17.5 15.2 290.2 10.5 27.9 40200 14600 153
356x368x153 UC 362 370.5 12.3 20.7 15.2 290.2 8.95 23.6 48500 17500 251
356x368x177 UC 368.2 372.6 14.4 23.8 15.2 290.2 7.83 20.2 57200 20500 383
356x368x202 UC 374.6 374.7 16.5 27 15.2 290.2 6.94 17.6 66300 23600 560
356x406x235 UC 381 394.8 18.4 30.2 15.2 290.2 6.54 15.8 79100 31000 812
356x406x287 UC 393.6 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 5.47 12.8 100000 38700 1440
356x406x340 UC 406.4 403 26.6 42.9 15.2 290.2 4.7 10.9 122000 46800 2340
356x406x393 UC 419 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 4.14 9.48 147000 55400 3550
356x406x467 UC 436.6 412.2 35.8 58 15.2 290.2 3.55 8.11 183000 67900 5820
356x406x551 UC 455.6 418.5 42.1 6.75 15.2 290.2 3.1 6.89 227000 81700 9240
356x406x634 UC 474.6 424 47.6 7.7 15.2 290.2 2.75 6.1 275000 98200 13700

Structures 1
Y Y
(page 2 of 2)
UNIVERSAL Radius of Elastic Plastic Area

COLUMNS Gyration Modulus Modulus Buckling Torsional of
Parameter Constant Section
Serial size type iy iz Wel, y Wel, z Wpl, y Wpl, z u x A
cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm2

152x152x23 UC 6.54 3.7 164 52.6 182 80.2 0.84 20.7 29.2
152x152x30 UC 6.76 3.83 222 73.3 248 112 0.849 16 38.3
152x152x37 UC 6.85 3.87 273 91.5 309 140 0.848 13.3 47.1
203x203x46 UC 8.82 5.13 450 152 497 231 0.847 17.7 58.7
203x203x52 UC 8.91 5.18 510 174 567 264 0.848 15.8 66.3
203x203x60 UC 8.96 5.2 584 201 656 305 0.846 14.1 76.4
203x203x71 UC 9.18 5.3 706 246 799 374 0.853 11.9 90.4
203x203x86 UC 9.28 5.34 850 299 977 456 0.85 10.2 110
254x254x73 UC 11.1 6.48 898 307 992 465 0.849 17.3 93.1
254x254x89 UC 11.2 6.55 1096 379 1224 575 0.85 14.5 113
254x254x107 UC 11.3 6.59 1313 458 1484 697 0.848 12.4 136
254x254x132 UC 11.6 6.69 1631 576 1869 878 0.85 10.3 168
254x254x167 UC 11.9 6.81 2075 744 2424 1137 0.851 8.49 213
305x305x97 UC 13.4 7.69 1445 479 1592 726 0.85 19.3 123
305x305x118 UC 13.6 7.77 1760 589 1958 895 0.85 16.2 150
305x305x137 UC 13.7 7.83 2048 692 2297 1053 0.851 14.2 174
305x305x158 UC 13.9 7.9 2369 808 2680 1230 0.851 12.5 201
305x305x198 UC 14.2 8.04 2995 1037 3440 1581 0.854 10.2 252
305x305x240 UC 14.5 8.15 3643 1276 4247 1951 0.854 8.74 306
305x305x283 UC 14.8 8.27 4318 1529 5105 2342 0.855 7.65 360
356x368x129 UC 15.6 9.43 2264 793 2479 1199 0.844 19.9 164
356x368x153 UC 15.8 9.49 2684 948 2965 1435 0.844 17 195
356x368x177 UC 15.9 9.54 3103 1102 3455 1671 0.844 15 226
356x368x202 UC 16.1 9.6 3538 1264 3972 1920 0.844 13.4 257
356x406x235 UC 16.3 10.2 4151 1570 4687 2383 0.834 12.1 299
356x406x287 UC 16.5 10.3 5075 1939 5812 2949 0.835 10.2 366
356x406x340 UC 16.8 10.4 6031 2325 6999 3544 0.836 8.85 433
356x406x393 UC 17.1 10.5 6998 2721 8222 4154 0.837 7.86 501
356x406x467 UC 17.5 10.7 8383 3291 10000 5034 0.839 6.86 595
356x406x551 UC 18 10.9 9962 3951 12080 6058 0.841 6.05 702
356x406x634 UC 18.4 11 11580 4629 14240 7108 0.843 5.46 808

Structures 1
Z
V
Angles U
Y Y
V Z
U
Equal Angle Unequal Angle
Depth Width Area Elastic

Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration
of of Thick of Modulus
Section Section ness Section
h b t A I yy I zz I uu I vv iy iz iu iv Wel, y Wel, z
Serial size type
mm mm mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm 4 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm3

60x60x5 EA 60 60 5 5.82 19.4 19.4 30.7 8.03 1.82 1.82 2.3 1.17 4.45 4.45
60x60x6 EA 60 60 6 6.91 22.8 22.8 36.1 9.44 1.82 1.82 2.29 1.17 5.29 5.29
60x60x8 EA 60 60 8 9.03 29.2 29.2 46.1 12.2 1.8 1.8 2.26 1.16 6.89 6.89
70x70x6 EA 70 70 6 8.13 36.9 36.9 58.5 15.3 2.13 2.13 2.68 1.37 7.27 7.27
70x70x8 EA 70 70 8 10.6 47.5 47.5 75.3 19.7 2.11 2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52 9.52
80x80x10 EA 80 80 10 15.1 87.5 87.5 139 36.4 2.41 3.03 3.03 1.55 15.4 15.4
80x80x6 EA 80 80 6 9.35 55.8 55.8 88.5 23.1 2.44 3.08 3.08 1.57 9.57 9.57
80x80x8 EA 80 80 8 12.3 72.2 72.2 115 29.9 2.43 3.06 3.06 1.56 12.6 12.6
90x90x10 EA 90 90 10 17.1 127 127 201 52.6 2.72 3.43 3.43 1.75 19.8 19.8
90x90x12 EA 90 90 12 20.3 148 148 234 61.7 2.7 3.4 3.4 1.74 23.3 23.3
90x90x7 EA 90 90 7 12.2 92.5 92.5 147 38.9 2.75 3.46 3.46 1.77 14.1 14.1
90x90x8 EA 90 90 8 13.9 104 104 166 43.1 2.74 3.45 3.45 1.76 16.1 16.1
100x100x10 EA 100 100 10 19.2 178 178 283 73.7 3.05 3.05 3.05 1.96 24.8 24.8
100x100x12 EA 100 100 12 22.7 207 207 328 85.7 3.02 3.8 3.8 1.94 29.1 29.1
100x100x15 EA 100 100 15 27.9 249 249 393 104 2.98 3.75 3.75 1.93 35.6 35.6
100x100x8 EA 100 100 8 15.5 145 145 230 59.9 3.06 3.85 3.85 1.96 19.9 19.9
120x120x10 EA 120 120 10 23.2 313 313 497 129 3.67 4.63 4.63 2.36 36 36
120x120x12 EA 120 120 12 27.5 368 368 584 152 3.65 4.6 4.6 2.35 42.7 42.7
120x120x15 EA 120 120 15 33.9 445 445 705 185 3.62 4.56 4.56 2.33 52.4 52.4
150x150x10 EA 150 150 10 29.3 624 624 991 258 4.62 5.82 5.82 2.97 56.9 56.9
150x150x12 EA 150 150 12 34.8 737 737 1170 303 4.6 5.8 5.8 2.95 67.7 67.7
150x150x15 EA 150 150 15 43 898 898 1430 370 4.57 5.76 5.76 2.93 83.5 83.5
200x200x16 EA 200 200 16 61.8 2340 2340 3720 960 6.16 7.76 7.76 3.94 162 162
200x200x18 EA 200 200 18 69.1 2600 2600 4130 1070 6.13 7.73 7.73 3.93 181 181
200x200x20 EA 200 200 20 76.3 2850 2850 4530 1170 6.11 7.7 7.7 3.92 199 199
250x250x25 EA 250 250 25 119 6970 6970 11100 2860 7.65 9.64 9.64 4.9 390 390
250x250x28 EA 250 250 28 133 7690 7690 12200 3170 7.61 9.59 9.59 4.89 433 433
65x50x6 UEA 65 50 6 6.58 27.2 14 33.8 7.43 2.03 1.46 2.27 1.06 6.1 3.77
65x50x8 UEA 65 50 8 8.6 34.8 17.7 43 9.57 2.01 1.44 2.23 1.05 7.9 4.89
75x50x6 UEA 75 50 6 7.19 40.5 14.4 46.6 8.36 2.37 1.42 2.55 1.08 8 3.81
75x50x8 UEA 75 50 8 9.41 52 18.4 59.6 10.8 2.35 1.4 2.52 1.07 10.4 4.95
80x60x7 UEA 80 60 7 9.38 59 28.4 72 15.4 2.51 1.74 2.77 1.28 10.7 6.34
80x60x8 UEA 80 60 8 10.6 66.3 31.8 80.8 17.3 2.5 1.73 2.76 1.27 12.2 7.16
100x65x10 UEA 100 65 10 15.6 154 51 175 30.1 3.14 1.81 3.35 1.39 23.2 10.5
100x65x7 UEA 100 65 7 11.2 113 37.6 128 22 3.17 1.83 3.39 1.4 16.6 7.53
100x65x8 UEA 100 65 8 12.7 127 42.2 144 24.8 3.16 1.83 3.37 1.4 18.9 8.54
100x75x10 UEA 100 75 10 16.6 162 77.6 197 42.2 3.12 2.16 3.45 1.59 23.8 14
100x75x8 UEA 100 75 8 13.5 133 64.1 162 34.6 3.14 2.18 3.47 1.6 19.3 11.4
125x75x10 UEA 125 75 10 19.1 302 82.1 334 49.9 3.97 2.07 4.18 1.61 36.5 14.3
125x75x8 UEA 125 75 8 15.5 247 67.6 274 40.9 4 20.9 4.21 1.63 29.6 11.6
150x75x10 UEA 150 75 10 21.6 501 85.8 532 55.3 4.81 1.99 4.96 1.6 51.8 14.6
150x75x12 UEA 150 75 12 25.7 589 99.9 624 64.9 4.79 1.97 4.93 1.59 61.4 17.2
150x75x15 UEA 150 75 15 31.6 713 120 754 78.8 4.75 1.94 4.88 1.58 75.3 21
150x90x10 UEA 150 90 10 23.2 533 146 591 88.3 4.8 2.51 5.05 1.95 53.3 21
150x90x12 UEA 150 90 12 27.5 627 171 694 104 4.77 2.49 5.02 1.94 63.3 24.8
150x90x15 UEA 150 90 15 33.9 761 205 841 126 4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 77.7 30.4
200x100x10 UEA 200 100 10 29.2 1220 210 1290 135 6.46 2.68 6.65 2.15 93.2 26.3
200x100x12 UEA 200 100 12 34.8 1440 247 1530 159 6.43 2.67 6.63 2.14 111 31.3
200x150x12 UEA 250 150 12 40.8 1650 803 2030 430 6.4 4.44 7.04 3.25 119 70.5
200x150x15 UEA 250 150 15 50.5 2020 979 2480 526 6.3 4.4 7 3.23 147 86.9

Structures 1
Cz
Parallel Flange Channels
Cs
Root radius
Parameter
Depth
Width
Centroid
Torsional
Buckling
Depth Second
Flange
Index
Radius of Elastic Plastic
Area
Web
b/n Moment of
Gyration Modulus Modulus
fillets Area
PFC
h b tw tf r d Iyy Izz iyy izz Wel,y Wel,z Wpl,y Wpl,z Cz u x A
mm mm mm mm mm mm cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm 3 cm3 cm3 cm cm2

430x100x64 430 100 11 19 15 362 21900 722 16.3 2.97 1020 97.9 1220 176 3.27 0.917 22.5 82.1
380x100x54 380 100 9.5 17.5 15 315 15000 643 14.8 3.06 791 89.2 933 161 3.48 0.933 21.2 68.7
300x100x46 300 100 9 16.5 15 237 8230 568 11.9 3.13 549 81.7 641 148 3.68 0.944 17 58
300x90x41 300 90 9 15.5 12 245 7220 404 11.7 2.77 481 63.1 568 114 3.18 0.934 18.4 52.7
260x90x35 260 90 8 14 12 208 4730 353 10.3 2.82 364 56.3 425 102 3.32 0.943 17.2 44.4
260x75x28 260 75 7 12 12 212 3620 185 10.1 2.3 278 34.4 328 62 2.62 0.932 20.5 35.1
230x90x32 230 90 7.5 14 12 178 3520 334 9.27 2.86 306 55 355 98.9 3.46 0.949 15.1 41
230x75x26 230 75 6.5 12.5 12 181 2750 181 9.17 2.35 239 34.8 278 63.2 2.78 0.945 17.3 32.7
200x90x30 200 90 7 14 12 148 2520 314 8.16 2.88 252 53.4 291 94.5 3.6 0.952 12.9 37.9
200x75x23 200 75 6 12.5 12 151 1960 170 8.11 2.39 196 33.8 227 60.6 2.91 0.956 14.7 29.9
180x90x26 180 90 6.5 12.5 12 131 1820 277 7.4 2.89 202 47.4 232 83.5 3.64 0.95 12.8 33.2
180x75x20 180 75 6 10.5 12 135 1370 146 7.27 2.38 152 28.8 176 51.8 2.87 0.945 15.3 25.9
150x90x24 150 90 6.5 12 12 102 1160 253 6.18 2.89 155 44.4 179 76.9 3.71 0.937 10.8 30.4
150x75x18 150 75 5.5 10 12 106 861 131 6.15 2.4 115 26.6 132 47.2 2.99 0.945 13.1 22.8
125x65x15 125 65 5.5 9.5 12 82 483 80 5.07 2.06 77.3 18.8 89.9 33.2 2.56 0.942 11.1 18.8
100x50x10 100 50 5 8.5 9 65 208 32.3 4 1.58 41.5 9.89 48.9 17.5 1.94 0.942 10 13

Structures 1
Circular Hollow Sections Y Y

t
Diameter Local Second

Radius of Elastic Plastic Area of
of Thickness Buckling Moment
Gyration Modulus Modulus Section
Section Ratio of Area
h t I yy iyy Wel, y Wpl, y A

(h/t)
Serial size type mm mm cm4 cm cm3 cm3 cm2
76.1x3 CHS 76.1 3 25.4 46.1 2.59 12.1 16 6.89
76.1x3.6 CHS 76.1 3.6 21.1 54.0 2.57 14.2 18.9 8.2
76.1x4 CHS 76.1 4 19 59.1 2.55 15.5 20.8 9.06
76.1x5 CHS 76.1 5 15.2 70.9 2.52 18.6 25.3 11.2
76.1x6 CHS 76.1 6 12.7 81.8 2.49 21.5 29.6 13.2
76.1x6.3 CHS 76.1 6.3 12.1 84.8 2.48 22.3 30.8 13.8
88.9x3 CHS 88.9 3 29.6 74.8 3.04 16.8 22.1 8.1
88.9x3.6 CHS 88.9 3.6 24.7 87.9 3.02 19.8 26.2 9.65
88.9x4 CHS 88.9 4 22.2 96.3 3 21.7 28.9 10.7
88.9x5 CHS 88.9 5 17.8 116 2.97 26.2 35.2 13.2
88.9x6 CHS 88.9 6 14.8 135 2.94 30.4 41.3 15.6
88.9x6.3 CHS 88.9 6.3 14.1 140 2.93 31.5 43.1 16.3
114.3x3 CHS 114.3 3 38.1 163 3.94 28.4 37.2 10.5
114.3x3.6 CHS 114.3 3.6 31.8 192 3.92 33.6 44.1 12.5
114.3x4 CHS 114.3 4 28.6 211 3.9 36.9 48.7 13.9
114.3x5 CHS 114.3 5 22.9 257 3.87 45 59.8 17.2
114.3x6 CHS 114.3 6 19.1 300 3.83 52.5 70.4 20.4
114.3x6.3 CHS 114.3 6.3 18.1 313 3.82 54.7 73.6 21.4
139.7x4 CHS 139.7 4 34.9 393 4.8 56.2 73.7 17.1
139.7x5 CHS 139.7 5 27.9 481 4.77 68.8 90.8 21.2
139.7x6 CHS 139.7 6 23.3 564 4.73 80.8 107 25.2
139.7x6.3 CHS 139.7 6.3 22.2 589 4.72 84.3 112 26.4
139.7x8 CHS 139.7 8 17.5 720 4.66 103 139 33.1
139.7x10 CHS 139.7 10 14 862 4.6 123 169 40.7
168.3x5 CHS 168.3 5 33.7 856 5.78 102 133 25.7
168.3x6 CHS 168.3 6 28.1 1009 5.74 120 158 30.6
168.3x6.3 CHS 168.3 6.3 26.7 1053 5.73 125 165 32.1
168.3x8 CHS 168.3 8 21 1297 5.67 154 206 40.3
168.3x10 CHS 168.3 10 16.8 1564 5.61 186 251 49.7
168.3x12 CHS 168.3 12 14 1810 5.54 215 294 58.9
168.3x12.5 CHS 168.3 12.5 13.5 1868 5.53 222 304 61.2
193.7x6.3 CHS 193.7 6.3 30.7 1630 6.63 168 221 37.1
193.7x8 CHS 193.7 8 24.2 2016 6.57 208 276 46.7
193.7x10 CHS 193.7 10 19.4 2442 6.5 252 338 57.7
193.7x12 CHS 193.7 12 16.1 2839 6.44 293 397 68.5
193.7x12.5 CHS 193.7 12.5 15.5 2934 6.42 303 411 71.2
193.7x16 CHS 193.7 16 12.1 3554 6.31 367 507 89.3
219.1x6.3 CHS 219.1 6.3 34.8 2386 7.53 218 285 42.1
219.1x8 CHS 219.1 8 27.4 2960 7.47 270 357 53.1
219.1x10 CHS 219.1 10 21.9 3598 7.4 328 438 65.7
219.1x12 CHS 219.1 12 18.3 4200 7.33 383 515 78.1
219.1x12.5 CHS 219.1 12.5 17.5 4345 7.32 397 534 81.1
219.1x16 CHS 219.1 16 13.7 5297 7.2 483 661 102
219.1x20 CHS 219.1 20 11 6261 7.07 572 795 125
244.5x6.3 CHS 244.5 6.3 38.8 3346 8.42 274 358 47.1
244.5x8 CHS 244.5 8 30.6 4160 8.37 340 448 59.4
244.5x10 CHS 244.5 10 24.5 5073 8.3 415 550 73.7
244.5x12 CHS 244.5 12 20.4 5938 8.23 486 649 87.7
244.5x12.5 CHS 244.5 12.5 19.6 6147 8.21 503 673 91.1
244.5x16 CHS 244.5 16 15.3 7533 8.1 616 837 115
244.5x20 CHS 244.5 20 12.2 8957 7.97 733 1011 141
244.5x25 CHS 244.5 25 9.8 10517 7.81 860 1210 172
273x8 CHS 273 8 34.1 5852 9.37 429 562 66.6
273x10 CHS 273 10 27.3 7154 9.31 524 692 82.6
273x12 CHS 273 12 22.8 8396 9.24 615 818 98.4
273x12.5 CHS 273 12.5 21.8 8697 9.22 637 849 102
273x16 CHS 273 16 17.1 10707 9.1 784 1058 129
273x20 CHS 273 20 13.7 12798 8.97 938 1283 159
273x25 CHS 273 25 10.9 15127 8.81 1108 1543 195

Structures 1
General Arrangement Drawings

In order to fabricate a steelwork building economically, the fabricator must have a set
of drawings to work from. The first step in the process is to produce a General
Arrangement of the frame. The drawing shows the whole building and is intended to
transfer all the necessary information about the structure to the fabricator, including :
Title, date, drawing number and revision,

The reference grids, dimensions and location of each frame element on the grid
(floor plans and elevations),
The serial size of every element,
The connection designs, or if the fabricator is to design the connections – all the
design forces,
Specification for steel (grade and subgrade), fire protection if applied by the
fabricator, corrosion protection,
Specification of any tests which must be performed, e.g. testing of site welds,
Scrap details of other parts of the structure (such as curtain wall supports) which
the fabricator requires,
Details of any special requirements (such as erection sequencing) which the
designer has relied upon but may not be obvious to the erector.
Civil engineering drawings are similar to construction drawings (rather than

engineering drawings) as they rarely use true first or third angle projection. Much
terminology is abbreviated :
ToS = top of steel

FFL = finished floor level floor span direction
SSL = structural slab level
u/s = underside
It is standard practice to specify the top flange level rather than centreline of a floor
beam because sections are rolled to a tolerance, so therefore are not likely to be
exactly the depth specified in tables.
Frame elements are usually shown as sticks on general arrangements for simplicity.
Common sectional detail:
Brickwork blockwork
compacted fill material concrete
granular material clay

Structures 1

Structures 1
Fabrication Detail Drawings

A fabrication detail drawing is a large scale picture of the individual element of
structure to be manufactured. It must include all the dimensions and details needed
by the plater and welder, such as holes, welds, stiffeners and attachments. This job is
invariably undertaken by the fabricators draughtsman.
The element fabrication drawing should include:
The element reference (each element has a reference which is shown on the
marking plan, used by the erector to get all the pieces in the correct place),
The grade and subgrade of steel and the element serial size,
The cut length of the element,
Details of the end connections including welding specification,
A scrap detail of every plate or fitting to be attached to the element (such as
endplates or purlin cleats),
The weight of the finished element.
Fabrication drawings also use peculiar abbreviations, such as those for fillet welding :
450 triangle means fillet weld,

below witness line = far face
above witness line = near face
6mm fillet weld Weld leg

on both sides length
of plate
The half solid arrow

head points to the
location of the weld
Figure D3.27 Fillet weld symbols.

Structures 1

Structures 1
The National Structural Steelwork Specification
A construction specification is a document which sets out acceptable standards

(quality) for the provision of materials, workmanship or services. It is common for
tender information which Contractor’s price to include drawings (what to build), an
outline programme (when to build) and specifications (how to build). Specifications
usually relate to materials (Reinforced Concrete / Bituminous Road Construction).
A national standard for the specification of structural steel (NSSS) is produced by the
British Constructional Steelwork Association. It is often referred to as the Black Book
and contains:
Information which the steework fabricator needs

Where the structure is, what it is to be used for, the design concept, general
arrangement drawings, fire and corrosion protection requirements, non-destructive
testing requirements etc.
Materials
Grade and sub-grade of steel, fasteners and welding.
Workmanship
Traceability of steel material, cutting and machining practices, welding procedures
and welder proficiency, recording of testing. Acceptable framework erection
techniques to achieve stability and safety. Accuracy of fabrication (acceptable
tolerances for fabricated steel). Some examples of the tolerances are:
Tolerance on flange width Flange or web straightness Position of foundation bolts

Structures 1
Units and Conversion

With a few exceptions, all measurements are made in specific units. To avoid
confusion in later use, units must be quoted correctly and carried through calculations.
Fundamental Units
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Base Units
Force Newton N kg.m/s2
Energy Joule J N.m
Power Watt W kg.m/s
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m 2
Angle Radian c or Rad. 1800 = c
Acceleration m/s2
Volume Litre L m3
Conversion
micro 10-6 eg. 1 m = 1 x 10-6 m = 0.000001 m
milli m 10-3 eg. 1 mm = 1 x 10-3 m = 0.001 m
kilo k 103 eg. 1 kJ = 1 x 103 J = 1000 J
mega M 106 eg. 1 Mg = 1 x 106 g = 1000 kg
giga G 109 eg. 1 GPa = 1 x 109 Pa = 1000000 kN/m 2
the mass of 1L of water is 1kg, 1 m 3 of water, weighs 10 kN
acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.80665 m/s2 at sea level
Values of Common Material Properties

Some property constants for a range of engineering materials are given below.
Elongation at failure (%)
expansion, (x10-6/oC)
Young’s Modulus,
Coefficient thermal
Property
Shear Modulus,
Ultimate Stress,
Poisson’s ratio,
Unit weight,
G (kN/mm2)
E (kN/mm2)
Yield Stress,
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
(kN/m3)
u
y
Material
Mild steel 210 79 0.3 12 77 35 250 420

High tensile steel 200 79 0.3 12 77 18 400 650
304 Stainless steel 180 76.9 0.3 18 80 45 210 520
Concrete (30 N/mm2) 26 11.5 0.13 24
Aluminium 70 26.3 0.33 13 27 240 260
Timber (D40) 11 4 0.31 5 20
Float Glass 70 28.7 0.22 9 25 1000
Brickwork Masonry 5.22 1.96 0.33 22 20
Bronze 100 40 0.34 20 83 5-60 82 200
Wrought Iron 190 75 0.3 12 75 35 210 340
Carbon Fibre 240 20 1.5 3500
Structures 1
Latin commonly used in Civil Engineering
ad hoc for that purpose

alias otherwise
ad velorem according to value
ante before
a priori from the cause to the effect
bona fide in good faith
caveat emptor buyer beware
ceteris paribus all else being equal
curriculum vitae (c.v.) course of life
de facto in fact
exempli gratia (e.g.) for example
erratum printing error
et al and others
et cetera (etc.) and the rest
ex cathedra with full authority
ex gratia in goodwill
habeas corpus a writ to appear (you must have the body)
ibidem (ibid.) in the same place
id est that is
inter alia among other things
in toto in its entirety
ipso facto by the fact itself
modo et forma in manner and form
noto bene (n.b.) observe what follows
onus burden
per annum each year
per centum in every hundred
per se in itself
pro rata in proportion
stet let it stand
ultra vires beyond legal powers
verbatim word for word
via by way of
viva voce oral examination
videlicet (viz.) by substitution

Structures 1
Bibliography
Structural Mechanics Text Books
Bhatt, P & Nelson, H.M. Structures. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical. 1999.
Brohn, D. Understanding Structural Analysis. 3rd Edition. Oxford: BSP. 2007. [624.04/BRO]
Buckle, I.G. The elements of structure. An introduction to the principles of building and
structural engineering. 2nd Edition. Pitman. 1984. [624.17/MOR]
Ching, F, Onouye, B & Zuberbuhler, D. Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, systems and
design. John Wiley: Hoboken, 2009. [ISBN 978-0-470-18785-2]
Ghali, A & Neville, A.M. Structural Analysis. 5th Edition. Spon, 2003. [ISBN 0-419-21200-0]
Hanaor, A. Principles of Structures. Blackwell Science. 1998. [624.1/HAN]
Hearn, E.J, Mechanics of Materials Volumes I & II. Pergammon Press, 1956. [620.1123/HEA]
Hulse, R & Cain, J, Structural Mechanics. MacMillan, 1991. [624.17/HUL]
Kaufman, H.F. A Structures Primer. Prentice Hall. 2010. [624.1/KAU]
Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers. 2nd Edition. Edward Arnold. 1987.
[624.171/MEG]
Montague, P & Taylor, R. Structural Engineering for First Year Students. McGraw-Hill. 1989. [ISBN
0-07-084195-0]
Philpot, T.A. Mechanics of Materials. An integrated learning system. Wiley. 2008. [ISBN 978-0-
470-04438-4]
Riley, W, Sturges, L. & Morris, D. Mechanics of Materials. 5th Edition. John Wiley & Sons. 1999.
[620.112/RIL]
Seward, D. Understanding Structures. 3rd Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. 2003. [624.17/SEW]
Timoshenko, S, Mechanics of Materials Volumes I & II. Van Nostrand, 1956. [620.11/TIM]
Tyne, J.R, Simple Bending. Chatto & Windus, 1974. [624.072.2/TYN]
Ugural, A.C, Mechanics of Materials. Wiley. 2008. [ISBN 978-0-471-72115-7]
Urry, S.A & Turner, P.J. Solving Problems in Solid Mechanics, Volume 1. Longman. 1986.
[620.1/URR]
Vable, M, Mechanics of Materials. Oxford Univ. Press, 2002. [620.11292/VAB]
Whitlow, R. Materials & Structures. 2nd Edition. Longman. 1991. [620.11/WHI]
Structural Design Manuals and Books

Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements. 2nd Edition, Spon 2003. [624.1771021841/ARY]
British Standards Institute. PP1990: 2010 Extracts from Structural Eurocodes for students of
structural design.
British Constructional Steelwork Association. National Structural Steelwork Specification for
Building Construction. 5th Edition. BCSA Ltd. 2007. [Blackboard]
Cobb, F. Structural Engineers Pocket Book. 2nd Edition. Butterworth-Heinmann : Oxford. 2009.
[Blackboard]
CORUS (British Steel). The prevention of corrosion on structural steels. British Steel Group
promotions department, 1994. [Blackboard]
Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual. Working with Eurocodes.
Butterworth-Heinmann: Oxford. 2009. [Blackboard]
Harris, J.B. & Li, K.P-K. Masted Structures in Architecture. Butterworth Architecture: Oxford, 1996.
[Blackboard]
Hunt, A. Tony Hunt’s structures notebook. 2nd Edition. Architectural Press: Oxford, 2003.
[624.1771/HUN & Blackboard]
MacDonald, A.J. Structural design for architecture. Architectural Press: Oxford, 1998.
[Blackboard]
MacGinley, T.J. & Ang, T.C. Structural Steelwork : Design to Limit State Theory. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992. [624.1821/MAC]
Mainstone, R.J. Developments in structural form. Architectural Press: Oxford, 2001. [FOLIO
721/ROW]
McKenzie, W.M.C. & Zhang, B. Design of Structural Timber to Eurocode 5. 2nd Edition. Palgrave
Macmillan: Basingstoke, 2007. [628.184/MAC]

Structures 1
Millais, M. Building Structures – a Conceptual Approach. 2nd Edition. Spon: London, 2005.
[690/MIL]
Narayanan and Beeby, Introduction to Design for Civil Engineers. Spon 2001. [624/NAR]
SCI Publication 093. Lateral stability of steel beams and columns – common cases of restraint.
The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1992. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 102. Connections between steel and other materials. The Steel Construction
Institute: Ascot, 1996. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 166. Design of steel framed buildings for service integration. The Steel
Construction Institute: Ascot, 1997. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 167. Architectural teaching resource – Studio Guide. 2nd Edition. The Steel
Construction Institute: Ascot, 2003. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 182. A comparative environmental life cycle assessment of modern office
buildings. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1998. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 186. The design of steel framed buildings without applied fire protection. The
Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1999. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 193. Steel supported glazing systems. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot,
1997. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 341. Guidance on meeting the robustness requirements in Approved
Document A (2004 Edition). The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 2005. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 351. Precast concrete floors in steel framed buildings. The Steel Construction
Institute: Ascot, 2007. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 376. Steel building design : Worked examples for students in accordance with
Eurocodes. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 2008. [Blackboard]
Steel Construction Institute. Steel Designers Manual, 5th Edition. Blackwell. 1998.
[624.18210941/STE]
The Institution of Structural Engineers & Timber Research and Development Association. Manual
for the design of timber building structures to Eurocode 5. London: IStructE, 2007. [Blackboard]
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Guide to the advanced fire safety engineering of
structures. London: IStructE, 2007. [Blackboard]
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the design of building structures to Eurocode 1
and Basis of Structural Design. IStructE, 2010.
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the design of steelwork building structures to
Eurocode 3. London: IStructE, 2009.
Electronic Data Sources

www.steelbiz.org a library of steel design information
www.access-steel.com online worked examples and case studies
www.tatasteelconstruction.com manufacturer data and general steel information
www.trada.co.uk timber research and design source
www.info4education.com a general construction information store, use CIS
www.istructe.org Institution website with free library to members
www.ice.org.uk Institution website with free library to members
www.esdep.org an online ‘book’ covering all aspects of steelwork
www.steelconstruction.org/students practical advise and information from BCSA
http://acg.media.mit.edu/people/simong/statics/data
a fantastic web resource called Active Statics which visually demonstrates analysis of
statically determinate structures.

Structures 1
Structural Mechanics Formula Sheet

M f E
Simple bending:
I z R
VA' z '
Shear flow :
Ib
T G
Simple torsion:
r L Ip
L
M U FL U
Castigliano’s Theorem : . .
0
EI W AE W
d 2z
Differential equation of flexure : EI 2 M
dx
Az
Theorem of the Parallel Axis : I NA yy I yy Ah 2 where z
A
2
EI
Euler Buckling: PE 2
LE
fy A
Rankine Capacity: PR 2
where a 0.0001
1 a
1 1 2
Perry-Robertson Capacity: f c fy f cr 1 fy f cr 1 f y f cr
2 4
2
E
where f cr 2
and 0.003
2 I yz
Tan 2
I yy I zz
I uu I yy cos 2 I yz Sin 2 I zz sin 2
Unsymmetrical bending:
I vv I zz cos 2 I yz Sin 2 I yy sin 2
M zz I yy M yy I yz M yy I zz M zz I yz
z x y
I yy I zz I yz2 I yy I zz I yz2
2
Principal Stress : Tan 2 xz
, max
1 2
x z 2
x z 1 2 2 x z 1 2 2
1 x z 4 xz and 2 x z 4 xz
2 2 2 2

Structures 1
Standard Centroids of Area

Shape A Iyy Izz
b
2
Rectangle
3
b.d 3 d .b
b.d
d 12 12
2
b
3
Triangle
b.d b.d 3
d
2 36
3
.D 2 .D 4
Circle
D
R 4 64
Semi-circle
.D 2
R 4R 0.1098R 4 0.3927 R 4
D
3 8
b
2
Parabola
2d 4b.d
0.0914b.d 3 0.2667d .b 3
5 3
3b
Half Parabola
8
2d 2b.d
5 0.0457b.d 3 0.0396d .b 3
3
Complement
Parabola
b.d
of Half
3d 0.0176b.d 3 0.0125d .b 3
10 b
3
4

Structures 1
Standard Cases of Beam Force & Deflection Formulae

P w (per metre) P
L L a b
L
2 2
P L Pa
w
2 2 L
SFD
P Pb
2 L
BMD
Pab
PL 2
wL L
Deflection
4
8
2
PL3 5wL4 PL3 4a a
max max max 3
48EI 384 EI 48EI L L
w (per metre) P
L L
SFD
wL P
wL2
BMD
2 PL
Deflection
wL4 PL3
max max
8EI 3EI

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Structures 1

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page vii of 219

5.1.6 Torsional Stress, ............................................................................................................................ 78

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page viii of 219

11.6.1 Ordinary Bolt Capacity ............................................................................................................... 178

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page ix of 219

Structural analysis might be defined as ‘a means of estimating the forces within,

An Introduction to Structural Analysis

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 9 of 219

1.1 Material Properties

1.1.2 Young’s Modulus, E

Test piece before loading

elastic region plastic region

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 10 of 219

It is useful to consider these material properties for a variety of construction materials.

1.1.3 Poisson’s Ratio,

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 11 of 219

1.1.4 Shear Modulus, G

Shear is a force which distorts shape; in a rectangular structural

The relationship between modulus of elasticity and shear modulus is;

1.1.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion,

To obtain the change in length or width, e L T

Summary table of material properties is presented here:

Elastic Poisson’s ratio Shear modulus Modular ratio

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 12 of 219

1.2 Elastic Section Properties

1.2.1 Centroid of Area

Measuring distances downward from the top O O

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 13 of 219

Measuring distances left from the right hand edge, to

Element breadth depth area distance A.z

1.2.2 Second Moment of Area, Iyy and Izz

In this arrangement, bending will be about the y-y

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 14 of 219

Z if we consider the annular (tube) section

the net value for the hatched tube may be

When the centroid of the elements which

for area 2 (100x10), the distance from its

I yyN . A I Ah 2 130208 810000 833333 2025000 3,798,541mm 4

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 15 of 219

Z Now consider z-z bending:

I zzN. A I Ah 2 2083333 422500 8333 1024000 3,538,166mm 4

Element breadth depth area distance A.z h= z-z Ah 2 bd 3 / 12

1.2.4 First Moment of Area, Wel

Calculate Wel for a tube. Distance to the centroid from Z

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 16 of 219

As the section is not symmetrical there are two Z

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 17 of 219

Element b d A z A.z h z z I Ah2

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 18 of 219

600 x 300 concrete beam

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 19 of 219

100 x 75 timber flange

© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 20 of 219

1.2.5 Polar Second Moment of Area, Ip