Heredity and Variation

Mitosis

Mitosis

Mitosis is when a cell divides itself in half to make two identical copies.
Before mitosis, the cell creates an identical set of genetic information – this
is called DNA replication or 'Interphase'. The duplicated genetic information
then winds up into a visible object, a chromosome. A chromosome is made
up of two chromatids joined at the centromere.

Mitosis happens in all types of cells in the human body except with sperm
and ova cells. The sperm and ova are also called gametes or sex cells. The
gametes go through a different division method called meiosis.

Phases of mitosis

There are six phases of mitosis. Each phase is used to describe what kind of
change the cell is going through. The phases are interphase, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Some may consider
pro-metaphase as part of the phases but most believe it is part of
metaphase and some of prophase. Each phase is important to mitosis.

Interphase: The chromosomes cannot be seen but they duplicate the DNA
and double in mass. When it starts to copy it's own DNA.

Prophase: During prophase, chromosomes in the nucleus condense, pairs of

centrioles move to opposite sides of the nucleus, spindle fibers form a bridge
between the ends of the cell, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase: During metaphase, the chromosomes are pulled by microtubules

called spindle fibers into place. The chromosomes line up on the cell's
equator, or center line, and are prepared for division.
Anaphase: During anaphase the chromosomes move from the cell's equator
(metaphase plate) to their respective poles of the cell. The cell begins to
stretch out as the opposite ends are pushed apart.

Telophase: Telophase is the final stage in mitosis, as the cell itself is ready to
divide. One complete set of chromosomes is now at each pole of the cell.
The spindle fibers begin to disappear, and a nuclear membrane forms
around each set of chromosomes. Also a nucleolus appears within each new
nucleus and single stranded chromosomes uncoil into invisible strands of
chromatin.

Cytokinesis: Main page: Cytokinesis, even though it is very important to cell

division, is not considered a stage of mitosis. During cytokinesis, the cell
physically splits. This occurs just after anaphase and during telophase. The
cleavage furrow, which is the pinch caused by the ring of proteins, pinches
off completely, closing off the cell. The cell now has reproduced itself
successfully. After cytokinesis, the cell goes back into interphase, where the
cycle is repeated. If cytokinesis were to occur to a cell that had not gone
through mitosis, then the daughter cells would be different or not function
properly. One would still have the nucleus and the other would lack a
nucleus. Cytokinesis is different in both animals and plant cells. In plant
cells, instead of splitting into two halves, it forms a cell plate.

The importance of mitosis.

Mitosis: The Amazing Cell Process that Uses Division to …

1. Growth. The number of cells within an organism increases by

mitosis and this is the basis of growth in multicellular
organisms.
2. Cell Replacement. Cells are constantly sloughed off, dying and
being replaced by new ones in the skin and digestive tract.
When damaged tissues are repaired, the new cells must be
exact copies of the cells being replaced so as to retain normal
function of cells.
3. Regeneration. Some animals can regenerate parts of the body,
and production of new cells are achieved by mitosis.
4. Vegetative Reproduction. Some plants produce offspring which
are genetically similar to themselves. These offspring are
called clones.

Meiosis

(OLD VIDEO) Meiosis: The Great Divide

Meiosis I

Meiosis I has two main purposes:

1. It is the reduction division, so it reduces the number of chromosomes in

half, making the daughter cells haploid (when the parent cell has diploid).

2. It is during meiosis I that most of the genetic recombination occurs.

Phases:

Keep in mind that before meiosis begins at all, the DNA undergoes
replication, just like it did before mitosis started. So, when you first see
chromosomes in meiosis I, they have sister chromatids, just like in mitosis.
It is ust that in meiosis I, we will be talking about tetrads becoming visible,
lining up, separating, and decondensing (rather than chromosomes, like in
mitosis). Finally, cytokinesis occurs, too, any time after the tetrads have
moved out of the equator (just like in mitosis).

Prophase I

Just like in mitosis, during prophase, DNA condensation occurs, the nuclear
envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the spindle starts to form. The big
difference is what is going on with the chromosomes themselves. As DNA
condensation proceeds and the chromosomes first become visible, they are
visible as tetrads. So, tetrads become visible during prophase.

Metaphase I

Tetrads line up at the equator. The spindle has completely formed. It is

during prophase I and metaphase I that genetic recombination is
occurring. Take a look at the genetic recombination page to find out about
how that happens here. Keep in mind that it only happens when there are
tetrads, so as soon as anaphase I gets going, genetic recombination is
over.

Anaphase I

Tetrads pull apart and chromosomes with two chromatids move toward the
poles.

Telophase I

Chromosomes with two chromatids decondense and a nuclear envelope

reforms around them. Each nucleus is now haploid. Keep in mind that it is
not the number of chromatids per chromosome that determine whether a
cell is diploid or haploid, but, it is the number of chromosomes and
whether they are paired that determines this.

Meiosis II

At the end of meiosis I, each chromosome still had two chromatids. That
is double the amount of DNA that a cell should have. So, the entire reason
to go through meiosis II is to reduce the amount of DNA back to normal--
basically, to split the chromosomes so that each daughter cell has only one
chromatid per chromosome (the normal genetic content).

Phases:

As you read through the phases of meiosis II, you will see that it looks just
like mitosis. It is really similar to mitosis-- so keep that in mind. The only
difference is that the two chromatids per chromosome are not necessarily
identical due to genetic recombination occurring in meiosis I.
Prophase II

Chromosomes with two chromatids become visible as they condense (and

the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the spindle is forming).

Metaphase II

Chromosomes with two chromatids line up at the equator. The spindle is

fully formed. Although genetic recombination primarily occurs during
meiosis I, the way the chromosomes line up during metaphase II can also
help to make unique daughter cells. I mention this on the genetic
recombination page.

Anaphase II

Chromosomes split, so that a chromosome with only one chromatid heads

toward each pole.

Telophase II

Chromosomes with only one chromatid decondense and get surrounded by

new nuclear envelopes. The four daughter cells are now all haploid and
have the right amount of DNA. They are ready to develop into sperm or
eggs now.

The Importance of Meiosis

The Significance of Meiosis

1. It maintains the same chromosome number in the sexually reproducing

organisms. From a diploid cell, haploid gametes are produced which in turn
fuse to form a diploid cell.
2. It restricts the multiplication of chromosome number and maintains the
stability of the species.

3. Maternal and paternal genes get exchanged during crossing over. It

results in variations among the offspring.

4. All the four chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes segregate

and go over separately to four different daughter cells. This leads to
variation in the daughter cells genetically.

Genetic variation

Variation in alleles of genes, occurs both within and among populations.

Genetic variation is important because it provides the “raw material” for
natural selection. Genetic variation is brought about by mutation, which is a
change in the chemical structure of a gene.

Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing

environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in
a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the
environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce
offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more
generations because of the success of these individuals.

Genetic diversity plays an important role in the survival and adaptability of a

species. When a population's habitat changes, the population may have to
adapt to survive; "the ability of populations to cope with this
[environmental] challenge depends on their capacity to adapt to their
changing environment". variation in the population's gene pool provides
variable traits among the individuals of that population. These variable traits
can be selected for, via natural selection; ultimately leading to an adaptive
change in the population, allowing it to survive in the changed environment.
If a population of a species has a very diverse gene pool then there will be
more variability in the traits of individuals of that population and
consequently more traits for natural selection to act upon to select the fittest
individuals to survive.

Mechanisms that Increase Genetic Variation

Distinguish between genetic variation and environmental

variation.

Variation can be due to inheritance, and also to environmental factors such

as climate and diet. Different forms of a certain gene are called alleles.
Alleles can be recessive - showing up only when there are two of them - or
dominant - showing up always.

Our genetic make-up, the sum total of our genes, is called a genotype, but
the characteristics which show up in our appearance are called a phenotype.

Genetic variation gives rise to differences between individuals that are

inherited. For example, our eye colour is inherited from our parents. But our
phenotype is also affected by environmental variation such as:

● climate
● diet
● physical accidents
● culture
● lifestyle

Many kinds of variation are influenced by both environmental and genetic

factors, because although our genes decide what characteristics we inherit,
our environment affects how these inherited characteristics develop. For
example:

● a person might inherit a tendency to be tall, but a poor diet during

childhood will cause poor growth
● plants may have the potential for strong growth, but if they do not
receive sufficient mineral resources from the soil, they may hardly
grow at all
Identical twins are a good example of the interaction between inheritance
and environment, as such twins are genetically the same. Any differences
you may see between them – for example in personality, tastes and
particular aptitudes – are due to differences in their experience or
environment.

Definition of Genetic Terms

 PHENOTYPE is the physical
appearance resulting from the
inherited information. E.g. Someone
Each duplicated chromosome with blue eyes has the phenotype
(yellow and blue) is made of sister blue eyes.
chromatids.
The GENOTYPE of an organism
demonstrates the alleles present for
a particular characteristic. E.g. BB,
bb, Bb.

Genotype can be expressed as

either Homozygous or Heterozygous
 Replace the above image and add
ONLY homozygous genes can be
your own text here.
dominant or recessive.
 ●

● If the alleles are different then the genotype is Heterozygous and if the alleles
are the same then the genotype is Homozygous.
Chromosome – a thread-like structure along which genes are found. Nb.
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - the chemical which forms a gene

Gene – a length of the DNA on a chromosome that determines one character

by coding for the synthesis of specific proteins in the cell

Allele – the two alternative forms of a gene.

Dominant allele – the allele whose character is seen when inherited with a
recessive allele or with another dominant allele.

Recessive allele – the allele whose character is seen only when inherited with
another recessive allele.

Homozygous – similar alleles of a pair are inherited together

Heterozygous – dissimilar alleles of a pair are inherited together

Genotype – the genes contained in an organism

Phenotype – the characters which can be seen or found in an organism and

is dependent on the genotype

RNA – stands for ribonucleic acid and is involved in protein synthesis

Inheritance – passing on of genetic information from one generation to the
next

Monohybrid – character which is controlled by only one pair of genes

How to Do Genetic Crosses

The inheritance of a single pair of characteristics (monohybrid

inheritance).

Inheritance involving only one pair of contrasting traits is called monohybrid

inheritance.

(Remember: alleles, which always occur in pairs, control the inheritance of

various characteristics. Genes are always at the same position (locus) on
homologous chromosomes.)

Pattern of inheritance seen in simple genetics experiments, where the two

animals (or two plants) being crossed are genetically identical except for one
gene, which is heterozygous. In other words, inheritance is the passing of
characteristics from parents to offspring, while monohybrid inheritance is
inheritance for a single characteristic.

Characteristics that can be passed on in this way are determined by genes.

Genes may exist in different forms known as alleles. Since chromosomes in
animals and plants are found as matching pairs in the nucleus of each cell,
there will always be two genes for a characteristic in a cell. If the same allele
is present twice, the organism is said to be homozygous for this
characteristic. If, however, one chromosome contains one allele and the
other chromosome a contrasting allele, the organism is said to be
heterozygous for that characteristic. In a heterozygous organism the
appearance of the organism (phenotype) may be determined by one allele
and not the other. The allele that determines the phenotype is said to be
dominantly expressed (see dominance). The expression of the other allele is
described as being recessive.

The gene in question may code for some obvious external features such as seed colour,
with one parent having green seeds and the other having yellow seeds. The offspring
are monohybrids, that is, hybrids for one gene only, having received one copy of the
gene from each parent. Known as the F1 generation, they are all identical, and usually
resemble one parent, whose version of the gene (the dominant allele) masks the effect
of the other version (the recessive allele). Although the characteristic coded for by the
recessive allele (for example, green seeds) completely disappears in this generation, it
can reappear in offspring of the next generation if they have two recessive alleles. On
average, this will occur in one out of four offspring from a cross between two of the
monohybrids. The next generation (called F2) shows a 3:1 ratio for the characteristic in
question, 75% being like the original parent with the recessive allele. Austrian biologist
Gregor Mendel first carried out experiments of this type (crossing varieties of artificially
bred plants, such as peas) and they revealed the principles of genetics. The same basic
mechanism underlies all inheritance, but in most plants and animals there are so many
genetic differences interacting to produce the external appearance that such simple,
clear-cut patterns of inheritance are not evident.

DESCRIBE THE INHERITANCE OF SEX IN HUMANS

Human Genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings.

The XY sex-determination system is the sex-determination system found in

humans, most other mammals, some insects (Drosophila), and some plants
(Ginkgo).
the sex of an individual is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes
(gonosomes). Females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX),
and are called the homogametic sex. Males have two distinct sex
chromosomes (XY), and are called the heterogametic sex.

Human Physiology - Reproduction: Sex Determination and Differentiation

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the deliberate, controlled manipulation of the genes in an

organism with the intent of making that organism better in some way. This is usually
done independently of the natural reproductive

process. The result is a so-called genetically modified organism (GMO). To date, most
of the effort in genetic engineering has been focused on agriculture.

Proponents of genetic engineering claim that it has numerous benefits, including the
production of food-bearing plants that are resistant to extreme weather and adverse
climates, insect infestations, disease, molds, and fungi. In addition, it may be possible
to reduce the amount of plowing necessary in the farming process, thereby saving

energy and minimizing soil erosion. A major motivation is the hope of producing
abundant food at low cost to reduce world hunger, both directly (by feeding GMOs to
human beings) and indirectly (by feeding GMOs to livestock and fish, which can in turn
be fed to humans).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering

Manipulation of genes in natural organisms, such as plants, animals, and

even humans, is considered genetic engineering. There are benefits and
risks associated with genetic engineering, just like most other scientific
practices.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Better Flavor, Growth Rate and 1. May Hamper Nutritional Value

Nutrition
Genetic engineering on food also includes the
Crops like potatoes, soybeans and infectivity of genes in root crops. These crops
tomatoes are now sometimes might supersede the natural weeds. These can
genetically engineered in order to be dangerous for the natural plants. Unpleasant
improve size, crop yield, and genetic mutations could result in an increased
nutritional values of the plants. allergy occurrence of the crop. Some people
These genetically engineered crops believe that this science on foods can hamper
also possess the ability to grow in the nutrients contained by the crops although
lands that would normally not be their appearance and taste were enhanced.
suitable for cultivation.
2. May Introduce Risky Pathogens
2. Pest-resistant Crops and
Extended Shelf Life Horizontal gene shift could give an increase to
other pathogens. While it increases the
Engineered seeds can resist pests immunity against diseases among the plants,
and have a better chance at the resistant genes can be transmitted to
survival in harsh weather. harmful pathogens.
Biotechnology could be increasing
the shelf life of many foods. 3. May Result to Genetic Problems

3. Genetic Alteration to Supply New Gene therapy on humans can have some side
Foods effects. While relieving one problem, the
treatment may cause the onset of another
Genetic engineering can also be issue. As a single cell is liable for various
used in producing completely new characteristics, the cell isolation process
substances like proteins or other responsible for one trait will be complicated.
nutrients in food. This may up the
benefits they have for medical 4. Unfavorable to Genetic Diversity
uses.
Genetic engineering can affect the diversity
among the individuals. Cloning might be
unfavorable to individualism. Furthermore, such
a process might not be affordable for the poor.
Hence, it makes gene therapy impossible for an
average person.