Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering Problems
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HANDBOOK OF
HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING
PROBLEMS
Cutoff Time
Mohammad Valipour
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Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering Problems
Edited by: Mohammad Valipour
Published Date: June 2014
Published by OMICS Group eBooks
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Copyright © 2014 OMICS Group
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Preface
In near future, energy become a luxury item and water is considered as the most vital
item in the world due to reduction of water resources in most regions. In this condition,
role of water science researchers and hydraulic experts is more important than ever. If a
hydrologic engineer student is not educated well, he/she will not solve problems of
hydraulic sciences in future. Many engineer students learn all necessary lessons in the
university, but they cannot to answer to the problems or to pass the exams because of
forgetfulness or lack of enough exercise. This book contains one hundred essential
problems related to hydraulic engineering with a small volume. Undoubtedly, many
problems can be added to the book but the author tried to mention only more important
problems and to prevent increasing volume of the book due to help to feature of
portability of the book. To promotion of student skill, both SI and English systems have
been used in the problems. All of the problems were solved completely. This book is
useful for not only exercising and passing the university exams but also for use in actual
project as a handbook. The handbook of hydraulic engineering problems is usable for
agricultural, civil, and environmental students, teachers, experts, researchers, engineers,
designers, and all enthusiastic readers in hydraulic, hydrodynamic, fluid mechanics,
irrigation, drainage engineering, and water resources fields. The prerequisite to study of
the book and to solve of the problems is each appropriate book about hydrologic science;
however, the author recommends studying the References to better understanding the
problems and presented solutions. It is an honor for the author to receive any review and
suggestion improvement of book quality.
- Mohammad Valipour
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About Author
Mohammad Valipour is a Ph.D. candidate in Agricultural Engineering-Irrigation and
Drainage at Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran. He
completed his B.Sc. Agricultural Engineering-Irrigation at Razi University, Kermanshah,
Iran in 2006 and M.Sc. in Agricultural Engineering-Irrigation and Drainage at University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran in 2008. Number of his publications is more than 50. His current
research interests are surface and pressurized irrigation, drainage engineering,
relationship between energy and environment, agricultural water management,
mathematical and computer modeling and optimization, water resources, hydrology,
hydrogeology, hydro climatology, hydrometeorology, hydro informatics, hydrodynamics,
hydraulics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer in soil media.
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Contents Page #
Problems 1
References 160
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Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering
Problems
Mohammad Valipour*
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran
*Corresponding author: Mohammad Valipour, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Kermanshah
Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran; E-mail: vali-pour@hotmail. com
Problems
1. The volume of atmospheric water is 12900 km3. The evapotranspiration from land
is 72000 km3/year and that from ocean is 505000 km3/year. Estimate the residence
time of water molecules in the atmosphere (in days).
The residence time can be derived by dividing the volume of water by the flow rate
Total flow rate = 505000 + 72000 = 577000 km3/s
The residence time = 12900/577000 = 0.0224 year = 8.2 days
2. A reservoir has the following inflows and outflows (in cubic meters) for the first
three month of the year. If the storage at the beginning of January is 60 m3, determine
the storage at the end of March.
Month Jan Feb Mar
Inflow 4 6 9
Outflow 8 11 5
The storage change is
ΔS = I – O = (4+6+9) – (8+11+5) = -5 m3
The storage is 60-5 = 55 m3
3. Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occured. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C was
8.5, 6.7 and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm,
respectively, estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
By equating the ratios of storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each station, the storm rainfall at
station D (PD) is estimated as
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8.5 6.7 9.0 PD
75 84 70 90
The 1 8.5 6.7 9.0
P average value of 90 90 90 9.65 cm
D
3 75 84 70
4. The annual rainfall at station X and the average annual rainfall at 18 surrounding
stations are given below. Check the consistency of the record at station X and
determine the year in which a change in regime has occurred. State how you are going
to adjust the records for the change in regime. Determine the a.a.r. for the period
1952-1970 for the changed regime.
Annual rainfall (cm)
year Stn. X 18- atn average
1952 30.5 22.8
1953 38.9 35.0
1954 43.7 30.2
1955 32.2 27.4
1956 27.4 25.2
1957 32.0 28.2
1958 49.3 36.1
1959 28.4 18.4
1960 24.6 25.1
1961 21.8 23.6
1962 28.2 33.3
1963 17.3 23.4
1964 22.3 36.0
1965 28.4 31.2
1966 24.1 23.1
1967 26.9 23.4
1968 20.6 23.1
1969 29.5 33.2
1970 28.4 26.4
Cumulative annual rainfall (cm)
year Stn. X 18 atn average
1952 30.5 22.8
1953 69.4 57.8
1954 113.1 88.0
1955 145.3 115.4
1956 172.7 140.6
1957 204.7 168.8
1958 254.0 204.9
1959 282.4 233.3
1960 307.0 158.4
1961 328.8 282.0
1962 357.0 315.3
1963 374.3 338.7
1964 396.6 374.7
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1965 425.0 405.9
1966 449.1 429.0
1967 476.0 452.4
1968 496.6 475.5
1969 526.1 508.7
1970 554.5 535.1
The above cumulative rainfalls are plotted as shown in the figure. It can be seen from the
figure that there is a distinct change in slope in the year 1958, which indicates that a change
in regime (exposure) has occurred in the year 1958. To make the records prior to 1958
comparable with those after change in regime has occurred, the earlier records have to be
adjusted by multiplying by the ratio of slopes m2/m1 i.e., 0.9/1.25.
Cumulative rainfall 1958-1970= 554.5 – 204.7 = 349.8 cm
Cumulative rainfall 1952-1957
adjusted for changed environment= 204.7 ×(0.9/125)= 147.6 cm
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Cumulative rainfall 1952-1970
(for the current environment)= 497.4 cm
a.a.r. adjusted for the current regime=497.4/19=26.2 cm
5. Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain-gauge stations in a basin are shown
in the figure. Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin by the three
methods.
(i) Arithmetic average method
P
P 1
1331 cm
8.87 cm
ave
n 15
ΣP1 = sum of the 15 station rainfalls.
(ii) Thiessen polygon method—The Thiessen polygons are constructed as shown in the figure
and the polygonal areas are planimetered and the mean areal depth of rainfall is worked out
below:
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(iii) Isohyetal method—The isohyets are drawn as shown in the figure and the mean areal
depth of rainfall is worked out below:
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6. The area shown in the figure is composed of a square plus an equilateral triangular
plot of side 10 km. The annual precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at the
four corners and centre of the square plot and apex of the triangular plot are indicated
in figure. Find the mean precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon method, and
compare with the arithmetic mean.
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The Thiessen polygon is constructed by drawing perpendicular bisectors to the lines joining
the rain-gauge stations as shown in the figure. The weighted mean precipitation is computed
in the following table:
Area of square plot = 10 × 10 = 100 km2
Difference = 50 km2
Area of each corner triangle in the square plot = 56/4 = 12.5 km2
1 1 1
3 area of the equilateral triangular plot 3 2 10 10sin 60 14.4 km
2
Arithmetic mean
P 397 66.17 cm
n 6
which compares fairly with the weighted mean.
7. For the basin shown in the figure, the normal annual rainfall depths recorded and
the isohyetals are given. Determine the optimum number of rain-gauge stations to be
established in the basin if it is desired to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall to
10%. Indicate how you are going to distribute the additional rain-gauge stations required,
if any. What is the percentage accuracy of the existing network in the estimation of the
average depth of rainfall over the basin?
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The optimum number of rain-gauge stations to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall to
p = 10%. 2
2
C 33.1
N v 11
p 10
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Additional rain-gauge stations to be established = N – n = 11 – 5 = 6
The additional six raingauge stations have to be distributed in proportion to the areas between
the isohyetals as shown below:
zone I II III IV V VI Total
Area (Km2) 410 900 2850 1750 720 550 7180
Area as decimal 0.06 0.12 0.40 0.24 0.10 0.08 1.00
N x area in decimal( N= 11) 0.66 1.32 4.4 2.64 1.1 0.88
Rounded as 1 1 4 3 1 1 11
Rain-guages existing 1 1 1 1 1 - 5
Additional rain guages - - - 2 - 1 6
These additional rain-gauges have to be spatially distributed between the different
isohyetals after considering the relative distances between rain-gauge stations, their
accessibility, personnel required for making observations, discharge sites, etc.
The percentage error p in the estimation of average depth of rainfall in the existing network,
Cv
p , putting N n
N
p 33.1 14.8%
5
Or, the percentage accuracy = 85.2%
8. An isohyetal pattern of critical consecutive 4-day storm is shown in the figure.
Prepare the DAD curve.
Computations to draw the DAD curves for a 4-day storm are made in the table.
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Encom Average Area between Incremental Total volume Average
Storm Area enclosed Isohyetal
passing isohyetal value isohyets (km2) volume (cm. (cm.km2) depth (8)/
centre (km2) (1000) range (cm)
isohyets (cm) (cm) (1000) km2) (1000) (1000) (3) (cm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A 50 0.5 >50 Say,55 0.5 27.5 27.5 55
40 4 40-50 45 3.5 157.5 185.0 46.25
35 7 35-40 37.5 3 112.5 297.5 42.5
30 29 30-35 32.5 22 715.0 1012.5 34.91
35 2 >35 Say,37.5 2 75.0 75.0 37.5
30 9.5 30-35 32.5 7.5 244.0 319.0 33.6
25 82 25-30 27.5 43.5 1196.2 2527.8 30.8
122 20-25 22.5 40 900 3427.8 28.1
15 156 15-20 17.5 34 595 4022.8 25.8
236 10-15 12.5 80 1000 5022.8 21.3
Plot ‘col. (9) vs. col. (3)’ to get the DAD curve for the maximum 4-day critical storm, as shown
in the figure.
Isohyetal patterns are drawn for the maximum 1-day, 2-day, 3-day and 4-day (consecutive)
critical rainstorms that occurred during 13 to 16th July 1944 in the Narmada and Tapti
catchments and the DAD curves are prepared as shown in the figure. The characteristics of
heavy rainstorms that have occurred during the period 1930–68 in the Narmada and Tapti
basins are given below:
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Maximum depth of rainfall (cm)
year River basin
1-day 2-day 3-day 4-day
13-16 july Narmada 8.3 14.6 18.8 22.9
Tapti 6.3 9.9 11.2 15.2
1944
Narmada 7.6 14.5 17.4
4-6 august 1968
Tapti 11.1 19.0 21.1
8-9 september Narmada 8.8 11.9
Tapti 4.7 7.5
1961
Narmada 4.1 7.4 10.4 12.9
21-24
september1945 Tapti 10.9 14.7 18.0 20.0
17 august Narmada 3.8
Tapti 10.4
1944
9. In a Certain water shed, the rainfall mass curves were available for 30 (n)
consecutive years. The most severe storms for each year were picked up and arranged
in the descending order (rank m). The mass curve for storms for three years are given
below. Establish a relation of the form i =kTx /te , by plotting on log-log graph paper.
Time (min) accumulated depth (mm) 5 10 15 30 60 90 120
For m = 1 9 12 14 17 22 25 30
For m = 3 7 9 11 14 17 21 23
For m = 10 4 5 6 8 11 13 14
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The intensity-duration curves (lines) are plotted on log-log paper, which yield straight lines
nearby parallel. A straight line for T = 1 – yr is drawn parallel to the line T = 10-yr at a
distance equal to that between T = 30–yr and T = 3-yr. From the graph at T = 1- yr and t = 1
min, k = 103.
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The slope of the lines, say for T = 30-yr is equal to the change in log i per log cycle of t, i.e., for
t = 10 min and 100 min, slope = log 68 – log 17 = 1.8325 – 1.2304 = 0.6021 ≅0.6 = e.
At t = 10 min, the change in log i per log cycle of T, i.e., between T = 3–yr and 30–yr lines (on
the same vertical), log 68 – log 31 = 1.8325 – 1.4914 = 0.3411 ≅0.34 = x.
Hence, the intensity-duration relationship for the watershed can be established as
104T 0.34
i
t0.6
For illustration, for the most severe storm (m = 1, T = 30–yr), at t = 60 min, i.e., after 1 hr of
commencement of storm,
0.34
103 30
i 28 mm / hr
60 0.6
which is very near to the observed value of 22 mm/hr.
10. A small water shed consists of 2 km2 of forest area (c = 0.1), 1.2 km2 of
cultivated area (c = 0.2) and 1 km2 under grass cover (c = 0.35). A water course falls by
20 m in a length of 2 km. The IDF relation for the area may be taken as
i=80T0.2/(t+12)0.5
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Estimate the peak rate of runoff for a 25 yr frequency.
Time of concentration (in hr)
20
0.385
t 0.06628 L0.77S 0.385 0.06628 20.77 40 min
c
2 1000
i = ic when t = tc in the given IDF relation
80 250.2
ic 0.5 21.1 cm / hr
40 12
Qpeak = 2.78 C ic A, rational formula, CA = ΣCiAi= 2.78 × 21.1 × (0.1 × 2 + 0.2 × 1.2 + 0.35 × 1)
= 46.4 cumec
11. The annual rainfall at a place for a period of 10 years from 1961 to 1970 are
respectively 30.3, 41.0, 33.5, 34.0, 33.3, 36.2, 33.6, 30.2, 35.5, 36.3. Determine the
mean and median values of annual rainfall for the place.
i Mean x
x 30.3 + 41.0 + 33.5 + 34.0 + 33.3 + 36.2+ 33.6 + 30.2 + 35.5 + 36.3 34.39 cm
n 10
(ii) Median: Arrange the samples in the ascending order 30.2, 30.3 33.3, 33.5, 33.6, 34.0,35.5,
36.2, 36.3, 41.0
No. of items = 10, i.e., even
33.6 34.0
Median 33.8 cm
2
12. The following are the rain gauge observations during a storm. Construct: (a)
mass curve of precipitation, (b) hyetograph, (c) maximum intensity-duration curve and
develop a formula, and (d) maximum depth-duration curve.
Time since commencement of storm (min) Accumulated rainfall (cm)
5 0.1
10 0.2
15 0.8
20 1.5
25 1.8
30 2.0
35 2.5
40 2.7
45 2.9
50 3.1
(a) Mass curve of precipitation. The plot of ‘accumulated rainfall (cm) vs. time (min)’ gives
the ‘mass curve of rainfall’ figure.
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(b) Hyetograph. The intensity of rainfall at successive 5 min interval is calculated and a bar-
graph of ‘i (cm/hr) vs. t (min)’ is constructed; this depicts the variation of the intensity of
rainfall with respect to time and is called the ‘hyetograph.
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(c) Maximum depth–duration curve. By inspection of time (t) and accumulated rainfall (cm)
the maximum rainfall depths during 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 min durations
are 0.7, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0 and 3.1 cm respectively. The plot of the maximum
rainfall depths against different durations on a log-log paper gives the maximum depth-
duration curve, which is a straight line
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(d) Maximum intensity-duration curve. Corresponding to the maximum depths obtained in
(c) above, the corresponding maximum intensities can be obtained (ΔP/Δt)× 60, i.e., 8.4, 7.8,
6.4, 5.4, 5.52, 5.0, 4.63, 4.35, 4.0 and 3.72 cm/hr, respectively. The plot of the maximum
intensities against the different duration on a log-log paper gives the maximum intensity-
duration curve which is a straight line.
The equation for the maximum itensity duration curve is of the form
i = ktx
Slope of the straight line plot,
dy 0.75
x 9.375
dx 2.00
k = 17 cm/hr when t = 1 min
Hence, the formula becomes
17
i
t0.375
which can now be verified
as t = 10 min, i = 7.2 cm/hr
t = 40 min, i = 4.25 cm/hr
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which agree with the observed data
13. The annual rainfall at a place for a period of 21 years is given below. Draw the
rainfall frequency curve and determine:
(a) the rainfall of 5-year and 20-year recurrence, interval
(b) the rainfall which occurs 50% of the times
(c) the rainfall of probability of 0.75
(d) the probability of occurrence of rainfall of 75 cm and its recurrence interval.
year Rainfall (cm) year Rainfall (cm)
1950 50 1961 56
1951 60 1962 52
1952 40 1963 42
1953 27 1964 38
1954 30 1965 27
1955 38 1966 40
1956 70 1967 100
1957 60 1968 90
1958 35 1969 44
1959 55 1970 33
1960 40
Arrange the yearly rainfall in the descending order of magnitude as given below. If a particular
rainfall occurs in more than one year, m = no. of times exceeded + no. of times equaled.
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Draw the graph of ‘P vs. F’ on a semi-log paper which gives the rainfall frequency curve. From
the frequency-curve, the required values can be obtained as
1 100
a T 5 yr, F 100 20% for which P 64 cm
T 5
1
T 20 year, F 100 5% for which P 97.5 cm
20
(b) For F = 50%, P = 42.2 cm which is the median value, and the mean value
x
x 1026 48.8 cm
n 21
which has a frequency of 37%.
(c) For a probability of 0.75 F = 75% for which P = 32 cm
d For P 75 cm, F 12.4%, T 1 100
100 8 yr
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F 12.4
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and its probability of occurrence = 0.124
14. The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan.-Dec.) at Krishnarajasagara
in a certain year in cm.
16.7, 14.3, 17.8, 25.0, 28.6, 21.4
16.7, 16.7, 16.7, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80
km2 and at the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km 2. Calculate the loss of water
due to evaporation in that year. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7.
Mean water spread area of lake
1
A A A A A 1 2.80 2.55
1 2
2.80 2.55 2.673 km 2
ave 1 2
3 3
Annual loss of water due to evaporation (adding up the monthly values)= 228.7 cm
Annual volume of water lost due to evaporation= (2.673 × 106) ×(228.7/100)× 0.7= 4.29 × 106
m3
15. Compute the daily evaporation from a Class A pan if the amounts of water added to
bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rainfall (mm) 14 6 12 8 0 5 6
Water added (mm): removed -5 3 0 0 7 4 3
What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area = 640 ha) in
the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?
Pan evaporation, Ep, mm = Rainfall + water added or − water removed
day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ep: 14-5 6+3 12 8 7 5+4 6+3
(mm): =9 =9 =9 =9
7
Pan evaporation in the week Ep 63 mm
1
Pan coefficient 0.75 = EL/Ep
Lake evaporation during the week EL= 63 × 0.75 = 47.25 mm
Water lost from the lake A 47.25
EL 640 1000 30.24 ha m
16. The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration with a uniform
intensity of 15 mm/hr is 21.6 Mm 3. If the area of the basin is 300 km 2, find the average
infiltration rate and the runoff coefficient for the basin.
(i) Infiltration loss Fp = Rainfall (P) – Runoff (R)= 15 × 6 –(21.6/300)× 1000=18 mm
fave t
Fp
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18
3 mm / hr
6
(ii) Yield = C A P
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90
21.6 106 m3 C 300 106 1000
C=0.8
17. Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement for wheat, if the water
application efficiency is 65% and the consumptive use coefficient for the growing season
is 0.8 from the following data:
Month Mean monthly temp (oC) Monthly percentage of sunshine (hours) Effective rainfall (cm)
November 18 7.20 2.6
December 15 7.15 2.8
January 13.5 7.30 3.5
february 14.5 7.10 2.0
Seasonal consumptive use, U = K Σ f= 0.8 × 43.54= 34.83 cm
Field irrigation requirement,
U
F.I.R. 34.83 10.90
Pe 0.65 36.9 cm
i
18. Assuming a growing season of 4 months December-March for wheat, determine
the consumptive use of wheat in the month of January if the pan evaporation for the
month is 9.5 cm. Take the consumptive use coefficient at 40%, stage growth of the crop
as 0.52.
Et = kEp
The crop season is December to March i.e., 120 days. By middle of Jaunary the number of
days of growth is 47, i.e., 47/120=40% stage growth of the crop has reached and k for this
stage is 0.52 and Ep for the month of January is 9.5 cm.
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Et = 0.52 × 9.5 = 4.94 cm
The daily consumptive use for the month of January= (4.94×10)/31=1.6 mm/day
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19. For a given basin, the following are the infiltration capacity rates at various time
intervals after the beginning of the storm. Make a plot of the f-curve and establish an
equation of the form developed by Horton. Also determine the total rain and the excess
rain (runoff).
Time (min) Precipitation rate (cm/hr) Infiltration capacity (cm/hr)
1 5.0 3.9
2 5.0 3.4
3 5.0 3.1
4 5.0 2.7
5 5.0 2.5
6 7.5 2.3
8 7.5 2.0
10 7.5 1.8
12 7.5 1.54
14 7.5 1.43
16 2.5 1.36
18 2.5 1.31
20 2.5 1.28
22 2.5 1.25
24 2.5 1.23
26 2.5 1.22
28 2.5 1.20
30 2.5 1.20
The precipitation and infiltration rates versus time are plotted as shown in the figure. In the
Hortons equation, the Horton’s constant
f0 fc
k
Fc
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From the figure, shaded area
1 cm
Fc 8.25 60 min 2 min 0.275 cm
4.5 1.2 cm / hr 1
k 0.275 cm 12 hr
The Hortons equation is
f = fc + (f0 – fc)e–kt = 1.2 + (4.5 – 1.2)e–12t
is the equation for the infiltration capacity curve (f-curve) for the basin, where f is in cm/hr
and t in hr.
f 1.2 3.3
1.7 cm / hr, which is very near compared
121/
e
6
to the observed value of 1.8 cm/hr.
1
Total rain P = 68.75 sq. units = 68.75
2.29 cm
30
Excess rain Pnet = P – Fp= 68.75 – 26.5 = 42.25 sq. units= 1.41 cm
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Total infiltration Fp = 26.5 1 0.88 cm
30
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The total infiltration loss Fp can also be determined by intergrating the Hortons equation for
the duration of the storm.
30
t 60 3.3 3.3 1 3.3 1
Fp f dt 1.2 12t dt 1.2t 1 6 0.6 1 0.88 cm
0 e 12 e 12 408
0
Pnet = P – Fp= 2.29 – 0.88= 1.41 cm
which compares with the value obtained earlier.
Fp 0.88 cm
Ave. infiltration loss f = 1.76 cm / hr
ave
t 0.5
To determine the Horton’s constant by drawing a semi-log plot of t vs. (f – fc):
The Horton’s equation is
f = fc + (f0 – fc)e–kt
log (f – fc) = log (f0 – fc) – kt log e
Solving for t,
log f0 fc log f fc
t k log e k log e
which is in the form of a straight line y = mx + c in which y = t, x = log (f – fc), m = -1/k log e.
Hence, from a plot of t vs. (f – fc) on a semi-log paper (t to linear scale), the constants in the
Horton’s equation can be determined.
From the given data, fc = 1.2 cm/hr and the values of (f – fc) for different time intervals from
the beginning are: 2.7, 2.2, 1.9, 1.5, 1.3, 1.1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.46, 0.32, 0.22, 0.16, 0.12, 0.05, 0.04,
0.02, 0.0 cm/hr, respectively; (note: 3.9 – 1.2 = 2.7 cm/hr and like that for other readings).
These values are plotted against time on a semi-log paper as shown in the figure.
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From the figure, m = – 0.1933 = –1/k log e
k
0.19331 12 hr 1
0.434
Also from the graph, when t = 0,
f – fc = 3.3 = f0 – fc, (since f = f0 when t = 0)
f0 = 3.3 + 1.2 = 4.5 cm/hr
Hence, the Hortons equation is of the form
f = 1.2 + (4.5 – 1.2)e–12t
5 10 15
Total rain P 5 7.5 2.5 2.29 cm
60 60 60
Infiltration loss Fp = 0.88 cm
Excess rain (runoff), Pnet = P – Fp= 2.29 – 0.88= 1.41 cm
which compares with the value obtained earlier.
20. For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of rain was observed to
be 90 mm/hr and decreased exponentially to a constant rate of 8 mm/hr after 2.5 hr.
The total infiltration during 2.5 hr was 50 mm. Develop the Horton’s equation for the
infiltration rate at any time t<2.5 hr.
f0 fc 50 8 2.5
k 90 8
Fc
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2.73 hr 1
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f = fc + (f0 – fc)e–kt= 8 + (90 – 8)e– 2.73 t
21. A 24-hour storm occurred over a catchment of 1.8 km 2 area and the total rainfall
observed was 10 cm. An infiltration capacity curve prepared had the initial infiltration
capacity of 1 cm/hr and attained a constant value of 0.3 cm/hr after 15 hours of rainfall
with a Horton’s constant k = 5 hr –1. An IMD pan installed in the catchment indicated
a decrease of 0.6 cm in the water level (after allowing for rainfall) during 24 hours of
its operation. Other losses were found to be negligible. Determine the runoff from the
catchment. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7.
24 24 5t 0.7 24
kt
Fp fc f0 fc e dt 0.3 1.0
0.3e
0 0.7 0.7 0 0.7 1
0.3 24 0 7.2 1 7.34 cm
524 5e0
120
5e
5 e
Runoff = P – Fp – E = 10 – 7.34 – (0.60 × 0.7)= 2.24 cm
Volume of runoff from the catchment= (2.24/100)(1.8 × 106)=40320 m3
22. In a double ring infiltrometer test, a constant depth of 100 mm was restored at every
time interval the level dropped as given below:
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 25 45 60 75 90 110 130
Depth of water (mm) 100 83 87 90 85 78 85 85 85 80 80
(i) Establish the infiltration equation of the form developed by Horton.
(ii) Obtain the equation for cumulative infiltration of the form (a) F = atn (b) F = atn + b.
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(i) (a) Plot on natural graph paper, t vs. f,
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Horton’s equation f = fc + (f0 – fc) e–kt
f0 = 300 mm/hr, fc = 60 mm/hr
Fc = shaded area= 6 sq. units × (50/60) × 10 min= 50 mm
f0 fc 300 60
k 4.8 hr 1
Fc 50
(b) Plot on semi-log paper‘t vs. log (f – fc)’,
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f = fc + (f0 – fc)e–kt
log (f – fc) = log (f0 – fc) – kt log e
log f0 fc log f fc
t k log e k log e
i.e., of the form, y = c + mx
1 27.5 / 60 k 4.8 hr 1
Slope m
k log 1
e
at t = 0, f – fc = 240 = f0 – fc
f0 = 240 + 60 = 300 mm/hr
(ii) Cumulative infiltration curve
(a) F = atn, kostiakov
Plot ‘t vs. F’ on log-log paper
log F = log a + n log t
i.e., y = c + mx form, yields a straight line,
when t = 1, a = F = 5.8
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also, log t1
n log
F1
t2
Fn2
F t
1
1
F2 t2
n
132 100
27 10
n = 0.69, also from the plot,
dF 0.31
f dt 5.8 0.69t
(b) F = atn + b
log F = log ab + n log t, yields straight line plot,
n
F t
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1
1
F2 t2
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n = 0.69 = slope from the plot
when t = 1, F = ab = 5.8, from the plot,
5.8
Try b 1, a 5.8
1
say t = 25 min, F = 5.8 (25)0.69 + 1 = 55 mm
also f dF
5.8 0.69t 0.32
dt
i.e., f 4 , at t 25 min, f 1.48 mm/ min
t0.32
which are very near the observed values; otherwise a second trial value of b is necessary.
23. The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are:
1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to be
3.6 cm. Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.
Construct the hyetograph as shown in the figure.
Σ(i – φ)t = Pnet, and thus it follows
30
3.6 5.0 2.8 2.2 3.6 1.6 cm / hr
60
30
P 1.6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 + 1.0 8.1 cm
60
P Q 8.1 3.6
W index 1.5 cm / hr
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tR 3
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Suppose the same 3-hour storm had a different pattern as shown in the figure producing the
same total rainfall of 8.1 cm. To obtain the same runoff of 3.6 cm (shaded area), the φ-index
can be worked out as 1.82 cm/hr. Hence, it may be seen that a single determination of φ-
index is of limited value and many such determinations have to be made and averaged,
before the index is used. The determination of φ-index for a catchment is a trial and error
procedure.
24. Hourly rainfalls of 2.5, 6, and 3 cm occur over a 20-ha area consisting 4 ha of φ =
5 cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr, and 6 ha of φ = 1 cm/hr. Derive hourly values of net
rain.
1st hour (P 2.5 cm) Pnet 4 0 100 62.5 1
20 0.45 cm
mean
4 6 5 106 3 6 6 1
20 3.20 cm
2nd hour (P 6 cm) Pnet mean
3rd hour (P 3 cm) Pnet 4 0 100 6 3 1
mean 20 0.60 cm
Total net rain for the 3-hour storm = 4.25 cm
25. The successive hourly rains of a 10-hour storm are: 2.5, 6.3, 10, 12, 8, 5, 3, 1.5,
1 cm. Using the supra-rain-curve technique, determine the total net rain and its time
distribution for a 20-hr area consisting of 4 ha of φ = 5 cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr and
6 ha of φ = 1 cm/hr.
For φ = 1 cm/hr, P net (supra-rain) from the hyetograph—the figure is 41 cm. Similarly, for φ =
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0.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 cm, Pnet (supra-rain) values are 47, 33.5, 26, 21, 16, 12, 9, 6,
4 and 2 cm, respectively. With these values, the supra-rain-curve is plotted as shown in the
figure. The supra-rain for the 20-ha area can be obtained by weighing for the sub-areas as
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follows:
Sub-areal supra rain Pnet- 1
Sub area A1 (ha) Φ-index (cm/hr) A1/A (decimal) Product 3 x 4 (cm)
(cm)
1 2 3 4 5
4 5 16 0.2 3.2
10 3 26 0.5 13.0
6 1 41 0.3 12.3
A = 20 ha Total net rain over basin = 28.5 cm
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Corresponding to this supra-rain of 28.5 cm, the mean effective φ-index for the entire 20 ha,
from the figure, is 2.6 cm/hr. Application of φ = 2.6 cm/hr to the values of hourly rainfalls of
the 10-hr storm. Fig. 3.13 gives the values of hourly net rain as 0, 3.4, 0.4, 7.4, 9.4, 5.4, 0.4,
0 and 0 cm, respectively, giving a total of 28.8 cm.
The hourly net rains are obtained in the table, which also gives a total net rain of 28.80 cm,
though the hourly net rains are slightly different from those obtained from the supra-rain-
curve technique.
Pnet over a
hour Rainfall(cm) Rainfall excess, Pnet from sub areas Weighted Pnet from sub-areas basin (cm)
A1 A2 A3 3 x 0.2 (cm)
4 x 0.5 (cm) 5 x 0.3 (cm) 6+7+8
Φ = 5cm/hr Φ = 3cm/hr Φ = 1cm/hr
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2.5 - - 1.5 - - 0.45 0.45
2 6 1 3 5 0.2 1.5 1.50 3.20
3 3 - - 2 - - 0.6 0.60
4 10 5 7 9 1.0 3.5 2.7 7.20
5 12 7 9 11 1.4 4.5 3.3 9.20
6 8 3 5 7 0.6 2.5 2.1 5.20
7 5 - 2 4 - 1.0 1.2 2.20
8 3 - - 2 - - 0.6 0.60
9 1.5 - - 0.5 - - 0.15 0.15
10 1 - - - - - - 0
26. The contour map of a basin is subdivided into a number of square grids of equal size
by drawing horizontal and vertical lines as shown in the figure. The contour interval is
25 m.
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The number of contour intersections by vertical lines is 75 and by horizontal lines
126. The total length of the vertical grid segments (after multiplying by the scale) is
53260 m and of the horizontal grid segments 55250 m. Determine the mean slope of
the basin.
Slope in the vertical direction
Nc C.I. 75 25
S 0.0352 m / m
53260
Y
v
Slope in the horizontal direction
Nc C.I. 25
S 0.0570 m / m
55250
x
X
Mean slope of the basin
Sv Sx 0.0352 0.0570
S 2 2 0.0461 m / m
Also, from the Hortons equation,
1.5C.I.
Nc
S 1.5 2575 126
53260 55250 0.0695
L
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27. A basin has an area of 26560 km2, perimeter 965 km and length of the thalweg
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230 km. Determine: (i) form factor, (ii) compactness coefficient, (iii) elongation ratio,
and (iv) circularity ratio.
i Form factor, Ff A 26560
0.502
L2b 2302
An inverted factor will give 2
(ii) Compactness Coefficient Cc
Radius R of an equivalent circular area is given by
26560 = πR2→R = 91.9 km
Cc Pb 965
1.67
2 2 91.9
R
2R 291.9
iii Elongation ratio, E 0.8
r
Lb 230
(iv) Circularity ratio Cr
Radius R′ of a circle of an equivalent perimeter as the basin is given by
2πR′ = 965→R′ = 153.5 km
Cr A 26560 0.358
R 153.5
2
'2
28. The areas between different contour elevations for the Noyyil River basin, Coimbatore
(south India) are given below. Determine the mean and the median elevation for the
basin.
Contour elevations (m) Area between contours (km2)
< 225 181
225-300 723
300-375 1144
375-450 814
450-525 216
525-600 46
>600 140
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% of total area over given lower
Contour elevations (m) Area between contours, a1 (km2) Percentage of total area (%)
limit
<225 181 5.5 100.0
225-300 723 22.1 94.5
300-375 1144 35.1 72.4
375-450 814 25.0 37.3
450-525 216 6.6 12.3
525-600 46 1.4 5.7
<600 140 4.3 4.3
A= 3264
The hypsometric curve is obtained by plotting the contour elevation (lower limit) against the
corresponding percent of total area; the median elevation for 50% of total area is read from the
curve as 350 m, while the mean elevation is 358 m.
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29. A 4-hour rain of average intensity 1 cm/hr falls over the fern leaf type
catchment as shown in the figure. The time of concentration from the lines AA, BB,
CC and DD are 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours, respectively, to the site 0 where the discharge
measurements are made. The values of the runoff coefficient C are 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7
for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd hours of rainfail respectively and attains a constant value of
0.8 after 3 hours. Determine the discharge at site 0.
The discharge computations are made in the table.
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30. The following data are collected for a proposed tank in the Deccan plains of south
India:
Catchment area = 1200 ha
a. a. r. = 90 cm
Intensity of rainfall of duration and frequency 35 years = 5 cm/hr
Average runoff coefficient for the whole catchment = 20%
Tank gets filled = 1 ½ times in a year
Difference between the maximum water level (MWL) and full tank level (FTL) = 0.6 cm
Determine
(a) the yield of the catchment and the capacity of the tank
(b) the area of rice crop that can be irrigated from the tank
(c) the duties of water assumed and the discharge at the head to the distributor
(d) the length of clear overfall weir near one flank.
A.A.R. is available only in 50% of the years. To ensure filler of the tank in deficient
years dependable rainfall ≈ 75% of a. a. r.=0.75 × 90 = 67.5 cm or 0.675 m
P 17.8 P 67.5 17.867.5
R 254 254 13.2 cm
Since the runoff coefficient C = 20% (given)
R = CP = 0.20 × 67.5 = 13.5 cm
which compares well with the value obtained above by applying the empirical formula for the
region.
Yield from the catchment = CAP = 0.2 × 1200 × 0.675 = 162 ha-m
Since the tank gets filled 1.5 times in a year,
162
Capacity of the bank 108 ha m
1.5
(b) Assuming loss of water due to evaporation and seepage as 10% in the tank and 20%
in the distributary
Water available at the field outlet = 162 (1 – 0.3) = 113.4 ha-m
For rice crop assuming U = 88 cm, crop period B = 120 days
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Field irrigation requirement, U 88 126 cm
irrgn 0.7
113.4 h m
Area of rice crop that can be irrigated 90 ha
1.26 m
1 0.3
c Tank duty 0.555 ha / ha m of annual storage (i.e., yield )
1.26
1 0.3106 m3
For 1 Mm 3
55.5 ha / Mm3 of annual storage
: 1.26 10 m / ha
4 2
8.64B 8.64 120 days
D 823 ha / cumec
1.26 m
Disch arg e at field outlet 90
0.1093 cumec
823
Discharge at the head of the distributary, i.e., tank outlet= 0.1093/0.80 = 0.137 cumec = 137
lps
(d) Length of the clear overfall weir (L):
Using the rational formula for the maximum rate of runoff
5
Q CiA 0.2
10060 60
1200 104 33.3 cumec
Weir formula is Q = CLH3/2
Head over the weir H = MWL – FTL = 0.6 m, L = length of the weir
Assuming a weir coefficient C of 1.84, the weir formula becomes
33.3 = 1.84 L (0.6)3/2
L = 39 m
31. A small watershed consists of 1.5 km 2 of cultivated area (c = 0.2), 2.5 km2 under
forest (c = 0.1) and 1 km2 under grass cover (c = 0.35). There is a fall of 20 m in a
watercourse of length 2 km. The I–D–F relation for the area is given by I=(80T 0.2)/(t+12)0.5.
Estimate the peak rate of runoff for a 25-year frequency.
Time of concentration (Kirpich’s formula–modified)
t0.02
0.02L0.8S
2000 0.4
0.8 0.4 55 min t
20
c
55 12
I 80 25 0.5 18.6 cm /
0.2
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2000
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Q = CIA = 2.78 I (Σ Ci Ai) = 2.78 × 18.6 (1.5 × 0.2 + 2.5 × 0.1 + 1 × 0.35) = 46.5 Cumec
32. The mean daily streamflow data from a drainage basin is given below. It is
known that the recession limb of the discharge hydrograph has components of channel
storage, interflow and base flow. Find the values of the recession coefficients for each
of the three components.
date Mean daily discharge (cumec) date Mean daily discharge (cumec)
1978, oct 4 278 1978, oct 14 179
5 265 15 167
6 5350 16 157
7 8150 17 147
8 6580 18 139
9 1540 19 131
10 505 20 123
11 280 21 117
12 219 22 111
13 195 23 105
24 100
Also determine
(a) ground water storage on October 14, 1978.
(b) ground water storage and stream flow on October 30, 1978, assuming no rainfall
during the period.
The discharge hydrograph is drawn on a semi-log paper and the flow components are separated
by the method proposed by Bernes as shown in the figure. The recession coefficients (Kr) for
the three components of base flow (ground water contribution), interflow and channel storage
are computed as 1.059, 2.104 and 4.645, respectively.
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(a) Ground water storage (S0) on October 14, 1978 when the ground water depletion starts.
Q0 179 86400 m3 / day 8 3
S0 2.75 10 m
loge kr loge 1.06 / day
(b) Stream flow on October 30, 1978, i.e., after 16 days
Qt = Q0 Kr–t
Q16 days = 179 (1.06)–16 = 71.6 cumec
Ground water storage (St) on October 30, 1978 can be determined from
Q0 S0
Qt St
Q
SS t
t 0
Q0
S16 days 71.6
2.75 108
179
1.10 108 m3
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33. The runoff data at a stream gauging station for a flood are given below. The
drainage area is 40 km2. The duration of rainfall is 3 hours. Derive the 3-hour unit
hydrograph for the basin and plot the same.
date Time (hr) Discharge (cumec) Remarks
1-3-1970 2 50
5 47
8 75
11 120
14 225
17 290 ← peak
20 270
23 145
2-3-1970 2 110
5 90
8 80
11 70
14 60
17 55
20 51
23 50
State the peak of the unit hydrograph you derive.
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34. The stream flows due to three successive storms of 2.9, 4.9 and 3.9 cm of 6 hours
duration each on a basin are given below. The area of the basin is 118.8 km2. Assuming
a constant base flow of 20 cumec, derive a 6-hour unit hydrograph for the basin. An
average storm loss of 0.15 cm/hr can be assumed.
Time (hr) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Flow (cumec) 20 50 92 140 199 202 204 144 84.5 45.5 29 20
Let the 6-hour unit hydrograph ordinates be u0, u1, u2, u3, u4, ...., u7 at 0, 3, 6, 12,......,21
hours, respectively. The direct runoff ordinates due to the three successive storms (of 6 hours
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duration each) are obtained by deducting the base of flow of 20 cumec from the streamflows
at the corresponding time intervals as shown in the table. The net storm rains are obtained by
deducting the average storm loss as
0-6 hr: x = 2.9 – 0.15 × 6 = 2 cm
6-12 hr: y = 4.9 – 0.15 × 6 = 4 cm
12-18 hr: z = 3.9 – 0.15 × 6 = 3 cm
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The equations can be easily arrived by entering in a tabular column and successively solving
them. The 6-hr unit hydrograph ordinates are obtained in the last column; of course the
ordinates are at 3-hr intervals since the streamflows are recorded at 3-hr intervals. The last
four equations in the table serve to check some of the UGO’s derived. Another check for the
UGO’s derived is that the area under the UG should give a runoff volume equivalent to 1 cm,
i.e.,
ut 1 cm, in consistent units
A
Σu = sum of the UGO’s = 110 cumec
1103 60 60
118.8 106 0.01 m
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35. The following are the ordinates of a 3-hour unit hydrgraph. Derive the ordinates
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of a 6-hour unit hydrograph and plot the same.
Time (hr) 3-hr UGO Time (hr) 3-hr UGO (cumec)
0 0 15 9.4
3 1.5 18 4.6
6 4.5 21 2.3
9 8.6 24 0.8
12 12.0
Time (hr) 3-hr UGO (cumec) 3-hr UGO (logged) (cumec) Total 2 + 3 (cumec) 6-hr UGO 4 + 2 (cumec)
1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0
3 1.5 0 1.5 0.7
6 4.5 1.5 6.0 3.0
9 8.6 4.5 13.1 6.5
12 12.0 8.6 20.6 10.3
15 9.4 12.0 21.4 10.7
18 4.6 9.4 14.0 7.0
21 2.3 4.6 6.9 3.4
24 0.8 2.3 3.1 1.5
27 0.8 0.8 0.4
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36. The ordinates of a 4-hour unit hydrograph for a particular basin are given below.
Derive the ordinates of (i) the S-curve hydrograph, and (ii) the 2-hour unit hydrograph,
and plot them, area of the basin is 630 km2.
Time (hr) Discharge (cumec) Time (hr) Discharge (cumec)
0 0 14 70
2 25 16 30
4 100 18 20
6 160 20 6
8 190 22 1.5
10 170 24 0
12 110
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37. The ordinates of a 4-hour unit hydrograph for a particular basin are given below.
Determine the ordinates of the S-curve hydrograph and therefrom the ordinates of the 6-
hour unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) 4-hr UGO (cumec) Time (hr) 4-hr UGO (cumec)
0 0 12 110
2 25 14 70
4 100 16 30
6 160 18 20
8 190 20 6
10 170 22 1.5
24 0
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38. Analysis of the runoff records for a one day unit storm over a basin yields the
following data:
Total stream flow at concentration point on successive days are 19.6, 62.4, 151.3,
133.0, 89.5, 63.1, 43.5, 28.6, and 19.6 cumec.
Estimated base flow during the corresponding period on successive days are 19.6, 22.4,
25.3, 28.0, 28.0, 27.5, 25.6, 22.5 and 19.6 cumec.
Determine the distribution graph percentages.
On the same basin (area = 2850 km2) there was rainfall of 7 cm/day on July 15 and
10 cm/day on July 18 of a certain year. Assuming an average storm loss of 2 cm/day,
estimate the value of peak surface runoff in cumec and the date of its occurrence.
The total runoff hydrograph and estimated base flow are drawn in the figure and the direct
runoff ordiantes on successive mid-days are determined as DRO = TRO – BFO and the
percentages of direct runoff on successive days computed in the table Column (3) gives the
distribution percentages, and the derived distribution graph for 1-day unit storms is shown
in the figure.
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Applying the distribution percentages computed in col. (3) above the direct surface discharge
on successive days due to the two storms (lagged by 3 days) is computed in the table.
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The peak surface runoff is 892 cumec and occurs on July 20 of the year. The flood
hydrograph is shown in the figure.
39. Analysis of rainfall and runoff records for a certain storm over a basin (of area
3210 km2) gave the following data:
Rainfall for successive 2 hr periods: 2.5, 6.5 and 4.5 cm/hr.
An average loss of 1.5 cm/hr can be assumed.
Direct surface discharge at the concentration point for successive 2-hr periods: 446,
4015, 1382, 25000, 20520, 10260, 4900 and 1338 cumec.
Derive the unit hydrograph in the form of distribution percentages on the basis 2-hr unit
periods.
The rainfall may be considered for three unit periods of 2 hr each, then from the figure,
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TDSR = tR + Tr
T = tr + Tr
T = tr + TDSR – tR= 2 + 8 × 2 – 3 × 2= 12 hr
The base width is 12 hr or 6 unit periods. As a first trial, try a set of six distribution
percentages of 10, 20, 40, 15, 10, 5 which total 100%. The direct surface discharge can be
converted into cm/hr as
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and the direct surface runoff for successive 2-hr periods are 0.05, 0.45, 1.55, 2.80, 2.30, 1.15,
0.55, and 0.15 cm/hr. The first trial hydrograph computed in the table is shown by dashed
lines in the figure for comparison and selection of the distribution percentages for the second
trial. The first percentage affects the first 3 unit periods, the second percentage affects the
2nd, 3rd and 4th unit periods and like that. Since the first trial hydrograph gives higher
values (than gauged) for the first three unit periods, a lower percentage of 5 (instead of
10%) is tried. Similarly, the other percentages are adjusted till the computed discharge
values agree with the gauged values. Thus, the second trial distribution percentages are 5,
20, 40, 20, 10, 5 which total 100 and are final and the distribution graph thus derived is
shown in the figure. In most cases, more trials are required to obtain the desired degree of
accuracy.
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40. The following are the ordinates of the 9-hour unit hydrograph for the entire
catchment of the river Damodar up to Tenughat dam site:
Time (hr) 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
Discharge (cumec) 0 69 1000 210 118 74 46 26 13 4 0
and the catchment characteristics are
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A = 4480 km2, L = 318 km, Lca = 198 km
Derive a 3-hour unit hydrograph for the catchment area of river Damodar up to the head
of Tenughat reservoir, given the catchment characteristics as:
A = 3780 km2, L = 284 km, Lca = 184 km
Use Snyder’s approach with necessary modifications for the shape of the hydrograph.
The 9-hr UG is plotted in Fig. 5.30 and from that tp = 13.5 hr
tp 13.5
t 9 hr, 2.46 hr t of 9 hr
r
5.5 5.5 r
tr′ = 9 hr, tpr = 13.5 hr and tp has to be determined
t'r t r
tpr t p
4
13.5 9 t p / 5.5
tp t 11.8 hr
4
p
tp = Ct (LLca) 0.3
11.8 = Ct (318 × 198)0.3
Ct = 0.43
A
Peak flow, Q C
p p
t pr
1000 4480
Cp `3.5 C p 3
The constants of Ct = 0.43 and Cp = 3 can now be applied for the catchment area up to the head
of the Tenughat reservoir, which is meteorologically and hydrologically similar.
tp = Ct (LLca)0.3 = 0.43 (284 × 184)0.3 = 11.24 hr
tp 11.24
2.04 hr t of 3 hr (duration of the required UG)
5.5 5.5 r
tr′ = 3 hr, tr = 2.04 hr and tpr has to be determined.
t' t 3 2.04
r r
tpr t p 11.24
11.5 hr
4 4
A 3780
Peak flow, Q C 3 987 cumec
p p
t pr 11.5
Time to peak from the beginning of rising limb
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t' 3
t peak t pr r 11.5 13 hr
2 2 t pr 11.5
Time base (Snyder ' s) T (days) 3 3 3 3 24 4.44 days
24
This is too long a runoff duration and hence to be modified as
T(hr) = 5 × tpeak = 5 × 13 = 65 hr
To obtain the widths of the 3-hr UG at 50% and 75% of the peak ordinate :
Qp
q 987 0.261 cumec / km2
p
A 3780
5.6 5.6 23.8 hr
W 1.08
50 p 1.08 0.261
3.21
q
W 3.21 13.6 hr
1.08
75 p 1.08 0.261
q
These widths also seem to be too long and a 3-hr UG can now be sketched using the
parameters Qp = 987 cumec, tpeak = 13 hr and T = 65 hr such that the area under the UG is
equal to a runoff volume of 1 cm, as shown in the figure.
41. Construct a 4-hr UH for a drainage basin of 200 km2 and lag time 10 hr by the
SCS method, given (pk = peak):
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t pk tr t 4 10 12 hr
2
p 2
i 5.36 A 5.36 200 t
Q 89.33 cumec, which occurs at 1 or t 12 hr
t
p
t 12 pk
pk t pk
ii t 0.5 or t 0.5 12 6 hr,
0.4 or Q 0.4 89.33 35.732 cumec
At t Q
pk
Qp
t Q
iii 2 or t 2 12 24 0.32 or Q 0.32 89.33 28.6 cumec
At t Qp
hr,
Q
pk
0.075 or Q 0.075 89.33 6.7 cumec
iv At t 3 or t 3 12 36
hr,
t pk Qp
Time base T = 5 t pk = 5 × 12 = 60 hr; W75 = W50/1.75
With this, a 4-hr UH can be sketched.
42. The 3-hr unit hydrograph ordinates for a basin are given below. There was a
storm, which commenced on July 15 at 16.00 hr and continued up to 22.00 hr, which
was followed by another storm on July 16 at 4.00 hr which lasted up to 7.00 hr. It was
noted from the mass curves of self-recording raingauge that the amount of rainfall on
July 15 was 5.75 cm from 16.00 to 19.00 hr and 3.75 cm from 19.00 to 22.00 hr, and on
July 16, 4.45 cm from 4.00 to 7.00 hr. Assuming an average loss of 0.25 cm/hr and 0.15
cm/hr for the two storms, respectively, and a constant base flow of 10 cumec, determine
the stream flow hydrograph and state the time of occurrence of peak flood.
Time (hr) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
UGO (cumec) 0 1.5 4.5 8.6 12.0 9.4 4.6 2.3 0.8 0
Since the duration of the UG is 3 hr, the 6-hr storm (16.00 to 22.00 hr) can be considered
as 2-unit storm producing a net rain of 5.75 – 0.25 × 3 = 5 cm in the first 3-hr period and a
net rain of 3.75 – 0.25 × 3 = 3 cm in the next 3-hr period. The unit hydrograph ordinates are
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multiplied by the net rain of each period lagged by 3 hr. Similarly, another unit storm lagged
by 12 hr (4.00 to 7.00 hr next day) produces a net rain of 4.45 – 0.15 × 3 = 4 cm which is
multiplied by the UGO and written in col (5) (lagged by 12 hr from the beginning), the table.
The rainfall excesses due to the three storms are added up to get the total direct surface
discharge ordinates. To this, the base flow ordinates (BFO = 10 cumec, constant) are added to
get the total discharge ordinates (stream flow).
The flood hydrograph due to the 3 unit storms on the basin is obtained by plotting col (8) vs.
col. (1).
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DRO due to rainfall excess total BFO TRO Remarks
I II III
Time (hr) UGO* DRO
UGO X 5 cm UGO x 3cm UGO x 4cm 3+4+5 constant 6+7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 0 0 - - 0 10 10.0 July 15, 16 hr commencement of food
3 1.5 7.5 0 - 7.5 10 17.5
6 4.5 22.5 4.5 - 27.0 10 37.0
9 8.6 43.0 13.5 - 56.5 10 66.5
12 12.0 60.0 25.8 0 85.8 10 95.8
15 9.4 47.0 36.0 6 89.0 10 99.0 Peak flood on july 16, 07.00 hr
18 4.6 23.0 28.2 18 69.2 10 79.2
21 2.3 11.5 13.8 34.4 59.7 10 69.7
24 0.8 4.0 6.9 48 58.9 10 68.9
27 0 0 2.4 37.6 40.0 10 50.0
30 0 18.4 18.4 10 28.4
33 9.2 9.2 10 19.2
36 3.2 3.2 10 13.2
39 0 0 10 10.0 Flood subsides on july 17 , 07.00 hr
43. The design storm of water shed has the depths of rainfall of 4.9 and 3.9 cm for
the consecutive 1-hr periods. The 1-hr UG can be approximated by a triangle of base 6
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hr with a peak of 50 cumec occurring after 2 hr from the beginning. Compute the flood
hydrograph assuming an average loss rate of 9 mm/hr and constant base flow of 10
cumec. What are the areas of water shed and its coefficient of runoff?
(i) The flood hydrograph due to the two consecutive hourly storms is computed in the table
and the figure.
Time hr UGO* cumec DRO due to rain-fall excess cumec Total cumec BF cumec TRO cumec Remarks
4.9-0.9 =4cm 3.9-0.9= 3cm
1 0 0 - 0 10 10
2 25 100 0 100 10 110
3 50 200 75 275 10 285
4 37.5 150 150 300 10 310 ←peak flood+
5 25 100 112.5 212.5 10 222.5
6 12.5 50 75 125 10 135
7 0 0 37.5 37.5 10 47.5
8 - - 0 0 10 10
*ordinates by proportion in the triangular UG. + Peak flood of 310 cumec, after 4hr from the
commencement of the storm.
(ii) Area of water shed—To produce 1-cm net rain over the entire water shed (A km2). Volume
of water over basin = Area of UG (triangle)
1 1
A 106 100 2 6 60 6050
from which, A = 54 km2 4.9 0.9 3.9 0.9
R
iii Coefficient of runoff C 0.795
P 4.9 3.9
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44. Storm rainfalls of 3.2, 8.2 and 5.2 cm occur during three successive hours over
an area of 45 km2. The storm loss rate is 1.2 cm/hr. The distribution percentages of
successive hours are 5, 20, 40, 20, 10 and 5. Determine the streamflows for successive
hours assuming a constant base flow of 10 cumec. State the peak flow and when it is
expected; the precipitation started at 04.00 hr, on June 4, 1982.
The computation of stream flow hydrograph from the distribution percentages due to net
rainfall in three successive hours (i.e., from a complex storm) over an area of 45 km 2 is made
in the table.
45. The successive three-hourly ordinates of a 6-hr UG for a particular basin are 0,
15, 36, 30, 17.5, 8.5, 3, 0 cumec, respectively. The flood peak observed due to a 6-hr
storm was 150 cumec. Assuming a costant base flow of 6 cumec and an average storm
loss of 6 mm/hr, determine the depth of storm rainfall and the streamflow at
successive 3 hr interval.
DRO peak = Flood peak – BF= 150 – 6 = 144 cumec
DROpeak 144 4 cm
Pnet
UGpeak 36
Depth of storm rainfall,
P = Pnet + losses = 4 + 0.6 × 6 = 7.6 cm.
DRO = UGO × Pnet; DRO + BF = TRO
Hence, multiplying the given UGO by 4 cm and adding 6 cumec, the stream flow ordinates at
successive 3-hr intervals are: 6, 66, 150, 126, 76, 40, 18, 6 cumec, respectively.
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46. The following data were collected for a stream at a gauging station. Compute the
discharge.
Distance from one end of water Depth, d (m) Immersion of current meter below water surface
surface ((m) At 0.6d At 0.2d At 0.8d
rev sec Rev. Sec. Rev. Sec.
3 1.4 12 50
6 3.3 38 52 23 55
9 5.0 40 58 30 54
12 9.0 48 60 34 58
15 5.4 34 52 30 50
18 3.8 35 52 30 54
21 1.8 18 50
Rating equation of current meter: v = 0.3 N + 0.05, N = rps, v = velocity, (m/sec), Rev.-
Revolutions, Sec-time in seconds.
The discharge in each strip, ΔQ = (bd) V, where V is the average velocity in each strip. In the
first and the last strips (near the banks) where the depth is shallow, V = v 0.6d, and in the other
five intermediate strips (with deep water), V=(v0.2d+v0.8d)/2. Width of each strip, b = 3 m,
mean
depth of strip = d, and the total discharge, Q = Σ ΔQ = 20.6 cumec,
as computed in the table.
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47. The stream discharges for various stages at a particular section were observed to
be as follows. Obtain an equation for the stage-discharge relationship and determine the
discharge for a stage of 4.9 m and 12 m.
Stage (m) 1.81 1.81 2.00 2.90 3.70 4.50
Discharge (cumec) 1.00 1.50 2.55 5.60 11.70 20.20
Stage (m) 5.40 6.10 7.30 7.70 8.10
Discharge (cuemc) 32.50 44.50 70.0 80.0 90.0
The relation between the stage (h) and discharge (Q) of the stream can be assumed of the form
Q = K (h – a)n
where K, a and n are the constants. Plot Q vs. (h – a) on a lag-lag paper assuming a value for
the constant a = 0.6 m (say); the curve obtained is concave downwards. Now assume a value a
= 1.2 m (say) and the curve obtained is concave upward. Now try an intermediate value a =
0.9 m, which plots a straight line and represents the stage discharge relationship. The slope
of this straight line gives the value of the exponent n = 2.2, and from the graph for h – a = 1,
Q = 1.2
= K. Now the constants are determined and the equation for the stage discharge relationship
is Q = 1.2 (h – 0.9)2.2
It may be noted that the value of a = 0.9, which gives a straight line plot is the gauge reading
for zero discharge. Now the abscissa of (h – a) may be replaced by the gauge reading (stage) h,
by adding the value of ‘a’ to (h – a) values. For example the (h – a) values of 0.1, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8
and 10 may be replaced by the h values of 1, 1.9, 2.9, 4.9, 6.9, 8.9 and 10.9 respectively. Now
for any gauge reading (stage) h, the discharge Q can be directly read from the graph and the
stage discharge curve can be extended.
for h = 4.9 m, Q = 25.3 cumec
and for h = 12.0 m, Q = 240 cumec
which can be verified by the stage-discharge equation obtained
as for h = 4.9 m, Q = 1.2 (4.9 – 0.9)2.2 = 25.3 cumec
for h = 12 m, Q = 1.2 (12 – 0.9)2.2 = 240 cumec
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48. The following data were obtained by stream gauging of a river:
Main gauge staff reading (m) 12.00 12.00
Auxiliary gauge staff reading (m) 11.65 11.02
Discharge (cumec) 9.50 15.20
what should be the discharge when the main gauge reads 12 m and the auxiliary gauge
reads 11.37 m?
Δh0 = 12.00 – 11.65 = 0.35 m
Δha = 12.00 – 11.02 = 0.98 m
n
Q h
a
a
Q0 h0
n
15.20 0.98
9.50 0.35 n 0.5125
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Again, when the auxiliary gauge reads 11.37 m,
Δha = 12.00 – 11.37 = 0.63 m
0.5125
Q 0.63
a
Qa 12.85 cumec
9.50 0.35
49. bridge has to be constructed over a river, which receives flow from three branches
above the site. Compute the maximum flood discharge at the bridge site from the
following data:
Branch 1 has a bridge:
Width of natural water way 324.0 m
Lineal water way under the bridge
(with Cd = 0.95 for rounded entry) 262.5 m
Depth upstream of bridge 4.6 m
Depth downstream of bridge 2.8 m
Branch 2 has a catchment area of 4125 km2
Ryve’s C = 10
Branch 3 leveling cross sectio0n (c/s) data:
Distance from BM (m) 0 11 24 52 67 79 84
Rl ON C/S (m) 10.8 9.6 4.2 2.4 5.4 10.2 10.5
Leveling of longitudinal section (L/S) data:
Distance from bridge site L/S (m) 1 km upstream At bridge site 1km downstream
HFL along L/S (m) 9.60 9.0 8.39
Mannings may be accused at 0.03
(i) Discharge from Branch 1, i.e., Q1 under bridge openings
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Q1 Cd A12g h ha
If L, d, V and L1, d1, V1 refer to the length, mean depth and velocity of the normal stream
(upstream of bridge site) and those under the contracted section of the bridge and also
A1 = L1d
Q1 = LdV
2
ha V
2g
V 2 L2 1
Afflux h 2g C 2L2
d 1
If the Branch 1, flow under bridge openings
V2 3242
4.6 2.8 2 2
1 V 7.16 m / sec
2 9.81 0.95 262.5
Q1 = LdV = 324 × 2.8 × 7.16 = 6500 cumec
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(ii) Discharge from Branch 2:
Q2 = CA2/3= 10 (4125)2/3 = 2580 cumec
(iii) Discharge from Branch 3 (from slope-area method):
A 280.05
Hydraulic mean radius, R
4.27 m
P 65.6
h 9.60 8.39 1
Water surface slope, S
L 2 1000 1652
By Manning’s formula, the velocity of flow
1 1
V R2 / 3S1/ 2 4.27
2/ 3
2.16 m / sec
0.03 1
n 1652
Q3 = AV = 280.05 × 2.16 = 605 cumec
Discharge at bridge site
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 6500 + 2580 + 605 = 9685 cumec
50. In a certain alluvial basin of 100 km2, 90 Mm3 of ground water was pumped in
a year and the ground water table dropped by about 5 m during the year. Assuming no
replenishment, estimate the specific yield of the aquifer. If the specific retention is
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12%, what is the porosity of the soil?
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(i) Change in ground water storage
ΔGWS = Aaq × ΔGWT × Sy
90 × 106 = (100 × 106) × 5 × Sy
Sy = 0.18
(ii) Porosity n = Sy + Sr = 0.18 + 0.12 = 30%
51. An artesian aquifer, 30 m thick has a porosity of 25% and bulk modulus of
compression 2000 kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction
of this is attributable to the expansibility of water?
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.4 × 104 kg/cm2.
S 1 1 1 1
w nb 1000 0.25
7
1.54 103
K nK 2.14 10 8
0.25 2 10
w s
Storage coefficient due to the expansibility of water as a percentage of S above
7500 0.467 108
7500 20.467 108
100 2.28%, whic is negligible
Note In less compressible formations like limestones for which Es ≈ 2 × 105 kg/cm2, S = 5 ×
10–5 and the fractions of this attributable to water and aquifer skeleton are 70% and 30%,
respectively.
52. A 20-cm well penetrates 30 m below static water level (GWT). After a long period
of pumping at a rate of 1800 lpm, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 12 m and
36 m from the pumped well are 1.2 m and 0.5 m, respectively.
Determine: (i) the transmissibility of the aquifer.
(ii) the drawdown in the pumped well assuming R = 300 m.
(iii) the specific capacity of the well.
K h 2 h2
2 1
Q
2.303log10 r2 / r1
h2 = H – s2 = 30 – 0.5 = 29.5 m; h1 = H – s1 = 30 – 1.2 = 28.8 m
1.800
K 29.52 28.82
60 2.303log10 36 / 12
K = 2.62 × 10–4 m/sec
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(i) Transmissibility T = KH = (2.62 × 10–4) 30 = 78.6 × 10–4 m2/sec
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2.72T H hw
ii Q log10 R / rw
1.800
2.7278.6 104 S
w
60 log10 300 / 0.10
drawdown in the well, Sw = 4.88 m
(iii) The specific capacity of the well
Q
1.800
Sw 0.0062 m3 / sec m
60
4.88
53. A tube well taps an artesian aquifer. Find its yield in litres per hour for a drawdown
of 3 m when the diameter of the well is 20 cm and the thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.
Assume the coefficient of permeability to be 35 m/day.
If the diameter of the well is doubled find the percentage increase in the yield, the
other conditions remaining the same. Assume the radius of influence as 300 m in both
cases.
2.72T H hw
2.7235 / 24 303
Q 102.7 3
/ hr
m
log10 R / rw log10 300 / 0.10
1
The yield Q
log R / rw
other things remaining same.
If the yield is Q′ after doubling the diameter, i.e.,
rw′ = 0.10 × 2 = 0.20 m
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Q log R / rw
Q ' log R /
rw
300
log 0.10 3.4771
300
log 0.20 3.1761
102.7 3.1761
Q' 112.4 m3 / hr
Q' 3.4771
Q' Q 112.4 102.7
percentage increase in yield 100 100 9.45%
Q 102.7
Thus, by doubling the diameter the percentage in yield is only about 10%, which is
uneconomical. Large diameter wells necessarily do not mean proportionately large yields. The
diameter of a tube well usually ranges from 20 to 30 cm so that the bowl assembly of a deep
well or a submersible pump can easily go inside with a minimum clearance.
54. The following data are obtained from a cavity tube well:
Discharge 30 lps
Drawdown 4m
Permeability of cavity 50 m/day
Depth of cavity 20 cm
Radius of influence 150 m
Determine the radius and width of cavity.
2 Ky H hw
Well yield , Q
rw
1
R
30
2 50 0.20 4
1000 24 60 60 1 rw
150
Radius of cavity, rw = 135.5 m
Width of cavity, re =[(2rw − y)y]0.5 = [(2 × 4.5 − 0.2) 0.2]0.5 = 7.36 m
55. A well of size 7.70 × 4.65 m and depth 6.15 m in lateritic soil has its normal
water level 5.08 m below ground level (bgl). By pumping for 1.5 hours, the water level
was depressed to 5.93 m bgl and the pumping was stopped. The recuperation rates of
the well during 4 hours after the pumping stopped are given below. The total volume of
water pumped during 1.5 hours of pumping was 32.22 m3. (no well steining is provided)
Time since pumping stopped (min) Water level bgl (m)
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0 5.930
15 5.890
30 5.875
45 5.855
60 5.840
90 5.820
120 5.780
180 5.715
240 5.680
Determine
(i) Rate of seepage into the well during pumping.
(ii) Specific yield of the soil and specific capacity of the well.
(iii) Yield of the well under a safe working depression head of 0.85 m.
(iv) The area of crop that can be irrigated under the well (assume a peak consumptive use
of 4 mm and irrigation efficiency of 75%).
(v) Diameter of the well in such a soil to get an yield of 3000 lph under a safe working
depression head of 0.8 m.
(i) Seepage into the well—from pumping data:
Volume of water pumped out = 32.22 m3
Volume of water stored in the well (that was pumped out)= (7.70 × 4.65) (5.93 – 5.08) = 30.5 m3
32.22 30.5
Rate of seepage int o the well 1.15 m3 / hr
1.5
(ii) Specific yield of the soil
2.303 s 2.303 5.93 5.08 1
C log10 1 log 10 0.09 hr
T s2 4 5.68 5.08
Specific capacity of the well is its yield per unit drawdown
Q = CAH
Specific capacity = Q/H = CA = 0.09 (7.70 × 4.65)= 3.58 m3 hr–1/m
Safe yield of the well
Q = CAH = 0.09 (7.70 × 4.65) 0.85 = 3.04 m3/hr
which is more than twice the seepage into the well during pumping.
(iv) Area of crop that can be irrigated under the well:
Data to draw the curve s1/s2 vs. t (s1 = total drawdown, s2 = residual drawdown): SWL =5.08
m, s1 = 5.93 – 5.08 = 0.85 m
Time since pumping stopped (min) Water level bgl (m) Residual drawdown s2= Ratio (s1/s2)
Wl – SWL (m)
0 5.930 0.850 (=s1) 1.0
15 5.890 0.810 1.05
30 5.875 0.795 1.07
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45 5.855 0.775 1.09
60 5.840 0.760 1.11
90 5.820 0.740 1.15
120 5.780 0.700 1.21
180 5.715 0.635 1.33
240 5.680 0.600 1.41
From the plot of ‘s1/s2 vs. time’ on a semi-log paper, it is seen that s1/s2 = 9.5 after 24 hours
of recovery (by extending the straight line plot), and the residual drawdown after 24 hours, s24
=0.85/9.5≈ 0.09 m; hence the depth of recuperation per day = 0.85 – 0.09 = 0.76 m and the
volume of water available per day ≈ (7.70 × 4.65) ≈ 27.2 m3. With an average peak consumptive
use of 4 mm for the type of crops grown and irrigation efficiency of 75%, the area of crop (A crop)
that can be irrigated under one well in lateritic soils is
4
A 27.4 A 5100 m2
1000 0.75 crop crop
(v) Diameter of the well to yield 3000 lph:
Q = CAH
3000 2
0.09 D 0.8 D 7.3 m, which is too big
1000 4
It may be noted that it is not advisable to go deeper in these areas otherwise salt water
instrusion takes place.
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56. Determine the peak discharge at the concentration point for a basin of 80 hectares
having a time of concentration of 30 minutes due to a 5-cm flash storm, if the duration
of the storm is (i) 60 min, (ii) 30 min, and (iii) 15 min. Assume a φ-index of 2.5 cm/hr
for the entire basin. When the storm duration is 15 minutes, only drainage from 60% of
the area of the basin reaches the concentration point.
Q = (i – φ) A, where i = intensity of rainfall (cm/hr)
(i) Q = (5 – 2.5) 80 = 200 ha-cm = 200 × 0.028 = 5.6 cumec
(ii) Q = ( 5/30 × 60 – 2.5) 80 = 600 ha-cm = 600 × 0.028 = 16.8 cumec
(iii) Q = ( 5/15 × 60 – 2.5) (0.60 × 80) = 840 ha-cm = 840 × 0.028 = 23.52 cumec
It is seen from (i) and (ii) that the peak discharge at the concentration point is maximum
when the duration of storm is equal to the time of concentration, (iii) gives the highest
flood, since only 60% of the area drains, the concentration time becomes less and the
intensity of rainfall is very high during this time.
57. For an area of 20 hectares of 20 minutes concentration time, determine the peak
discharge corresponding to a storm of 25-year recurrence interval. Assume a runoff
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coefficient of 0.6. From intensity-duration-frequency curves for the area, for T = 25-yr,
t = 20 min, i = 12 cm/hr.
For t = tc = 20 min, T = 25-yr, i = ic = 12 cm/hr
Q = CiA = 0.6 × 12 × 20 = 144 ha-cm/hr = 144 × 0.028 = 4 cumec
58. Determine the design flood discharge (allowing an increase of one-third) for a
bridge site with the following data:
Catchment area = 2 x 105 ha
Duration of storm = 8 hours
Storm precipitation = 3 cm
Time of concentration = 2 hr
Gauged discharge for a past flood with average maximum daily rainfall of 18 cm was
3400 cumec.
From the past flood,
Actual disch arg e 3400
Runoff coefficient, C 18 1 0.815
2 105 104
Theoretical discharege
100 24 60 60
Design or critical intensity of rainfall
P tR 1 3 8 1
i ic 1.125 cm / hr
tR t 1 8 2 1
c
Q = CiA = 0.815 × 1.125 × (2 × 105) = 1.83 × 105 ha-cm/hr
From Inglis formula
124 A 124 2000
Q A 10.4 5520 cumec
2000 10.4
Design flood discharge = 5520 × 1.33 = 7350 cumec
The Unit Hydrograph Method. For small and medium size basins (A < 5000 km2,i.e., when a
single unit hydrograph could be applied to the entire basin) in developing design
flood hydrographs by applying the unit hydrograph for the basin, the design storm estimates
are made by the following methods.
(i) Selection of major storms
(ii) Maximization of selected storms
(iii) Plotting the depth-area-duration curves and their analysis
(iv) Moisture adjustment
(v) Storm transposition to a critical position
(vi) Envelopment of the transposed adjusted storms
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(vii) Use of minimum infiltration indices
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In the depth-area-duration analysis of a particular storm, the maximum average depths
of rainfall over various sizes of area during certain periods of storm (hr or days), say
cm
over 1000 km 2 in 1 day, 2 days or 3 days from the isohyetal maps contructed. Such values
determined for all the transposable storms provide the basic data to estimate the PMP
over the basin.
59. Twenty largest one-day floods (without respect to time) are selected in a period
of 20 years arranged in the descending order of magnitude (cumec). Draw the partial
duration curve:
501, 467, 371, 351, 351, 345, 334, 311, 283, 273, 266, 264, 221, 214, 194, 193, 182,
175, 173, 163.
The partial duration curves are plotted on both log-log paper and semi-log paper as shown in
the figures; the 100-yr flood is extrapolated as 640 and 810 cumec from the curves (a) and (b),
respectively.
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60. The highest annual floods for a river for 60 years were statistically analysed.
The sixth largest flood was 30,000 cumec (30 tcm).
Determine:
(i) The period in which the flood of 30 tcm may reoccur once
(ii) The percentage chance that this flood may occur in any one year
(iii) The percentage chance that this flood may not occur in the next 20 years
(iv) The percentage chance that this flood may occur once or more in the next 20 years
(v) The percentage chance that a 50-yr flood may occur (a) once in 50 years, (b) one or
more times in 50 years
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n1 60 1
i Weibull; T 10 yr
m 6
1
ii Percentage chance, i.e., P 100 1
100 10%
10.1
T
N 1 20
iii Encounter probabilty, P N ,0 1 1 12.4%
10.1
P
iv N
1 1 P 1 1 0.124 87.6%
PEx P
N
1
v a P 100 1 ,0
100 2%
50
T 50
1
b P N ,0 1 0.3631
50
PEx 1 P N ,0 1 0.3631 64%
61. Determine the percentage chance that a 25-yr storm may occur
(a) In the next 10 years
(b) In the next year itself
(c) May not occur in another 15 years
a T 25, N 1
1 1 P , P
PEx 10 T
1
PEx 1 1 33.5%
25
1 10
b PEx 1 1 2 5
N
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15
4%
1
c P N ,0 1 1 54.2%
25
P
62. Determine the return period (recurrence interval T) of a flood, which has a 10%
risk of being flooded (a) in the next 100 years, (b) in the next 50 years.
PEx = 1 – (1 – P)N, for risk of being exceeded
i.e., PEx = 10% = 0.1
(a) 0.1 = 1 – (1 – P)100, (1 – P)100 = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9
1 – P = 0.90.01 = 0.99895, P = 0.00105 = 1.05 × 10–3
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1
T 1
P 1000 yr flood
1.05 103
(b) 0.1 = 1 – (1 – P)50, (1 – P)50 = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9
1 – P = 0.90.02 = 0.9979
P = 0.0021 = 2.1 × 10–3
1
T 1
P 500 yr flood
2.1103
Note. If a structure has a life period of 50 years and if we can accept a 10% risk of its being
flooded during its life, then we have to design the structure for a return period of T-Yr as
follows:
PEx = 1 – (1 – P)50; for 10% risk, PEx = 0.1
0.1 = 1 – (1 – P)50, (1 – P)50 = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9
(1 – P) = (0.9)0.02 = 0.9979
1 1
P 0.0021 2.1103, T 476 yr
P 2.1103
i.e., we have to design the structure for a 476-yr flood and not for a 50-yr flood; if it is designed
for a 50 yr flood, the risk of failure
50
50
1
PEx 1 1 1 1 63.6%
50
P
63. The maximum annual floods for the river Tapti at Ukai were statistically analysed
for a period of 93 years (1876-1968). The mean annual flood and the standard deviation
are 14210 and 9700 cumec, respectively.
Determine:
(i) The recurrence interval of the highest flood 42500 cumec (in 1968) by Weibull’s
method and what its percentage chance of occurring in (a) in any year, (b) in 10 years ?
(ii) What is the recurrence interval of the design flood adopted by CWPC (49500 cumec)
and the highest flood (42500 cumec) by Gumbels method?
For the highest flood, its rank m = 1
(ii) From Gumbel’s Eqn.
(a) Design flood QDF = 49500 cumec = QT , Qave = 14210 cumec
QT = Qave + σ (0.78 ln T – 0.45), for n > 50
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n1 93 1
i T 94 yr
m 1
1 1
a P 1.065%
T 94
N 10
1
b PEx 1 1 1 1 10.14%
P
94
49500 = 14210 + 9700 (0.78 ln T – 0.45)
ln T = 5.241, T = 189, say 190 yr
against Weibull’s 50 yr
(b) Highest flood QMF = 42500 cumec = QT
42500 = 14210 + 9700 (0.78 ln T – 0.45)
ln T = 4.316, T = 75 yr, against Weibull’s 30 yr
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64. Statistical analysis of the annual floods of the river Tapti (1876-1968) using
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Gumbel’s method yielded the 100-yr and 10-yr floods as 42800 and 22700 cumec,
respectively.
Determine:
(a) the magnitude of a 20-yr flood.
(b) the probability of a flood of magnitude 35000 cumec (i) occurring in the next 10
years, (ii) in the next year itself.
10
y10 ln.ln 2.25, X 22.7 tcm
10
9
100
y100 ln.ln 4.6, 42.8 tcm
100
X
99
a 22.7 X
2.25 b
a 42.8 X
4.6 b
a
2.35 20.1
1.2835
20.1 10.969 tcm
2.35
10.969
22.7 X 2.25 0.577 14.309
1.2825
X 22.7 14.309 8.391tcm
y20 20
ln.ln 2.97
19
1.2825
2.97 10.969 X 20 8.391 0.577
X 20 28.856 tcm
1.2825
yT 35 8.391 0.577 3.6881
10.969
ln.ln T
3.6881
T
1
T 41 yr
1
P 0.0244
T
y 3.6881
Alternatively, P 1 ee 1 e e 0.0247
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(i) PEx = J(41, 10) = 1 – (1 – 0.0244)10 = 0.2188, say 22%
(ii) PEx = J(41, 1) = – (1 – 0.0244)1 = 0.0244, or 2.44% chance
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65. The annual floods for a large period were statistically analysed by Gumbel’s
methods, which yielded Qave = 19000 cumec, σ = 3200 cumec.
Determine
(a) the probability of a flood magnitude of 30000 cumec occurring in the next year.
(b) the flood magnitude of 5-yr return period.
1.2825
y 30000 19000 0.577 5.5
3200
P 1 ee
0.0067
y
1e 1%
PEx = 1 – (1 – 0.0099)1 = 0.0099 ~ 1%
1 y
T 5, P 1 ee , y 0.079
5
1.2825
0.079 X 19000 0.577, X 17758 cumec
3200
66. A channel has a bottom width of 200 m, depth 6 m and side slopes 1:1. If the
depth is increased to 9 m by dredging, determine the percentage increase in velocity
of flow in the channel. For the same increase in cross sectional area, if the channel is
widened (instead of deepening), what is the percentage increase in the velocity of flow.
Case (i) Increasing the depth to 9 m by dredging.
Putting the subscript ‘o’ for the original area of cross section (A), wetted perimeter (P) and the
hydraulic mean radius (R),
A0 = (200 + 1 × 6)6 = 1236 m2
P0 200 2 12 1 217 m
6
A 1236
R 0 5.7 m
0 P0 217
After deepening from 6 m to 9 m,
A = (194 + 1 × 9)9 = 1827 m2
P 194 2 12 1
219.4 m
8.33 m
A 1827
R P 219.4
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Velocity increase by deepening 8.33 5.70 100 21%
5.7
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Case (ii) For the same increase in the cross sectional area, widening the channel, Let the
bottom width after widening be b′.
1827 = (b′ + 1 × 6)6
b′ = 298.5 m
After widening P 298.5 2 12 1 315.42 m
A
R 1827
P 315.42 5.8 m
5.8 5.70
Velocity increase by deepening 100 0.84%
5.7
Thus, the velocity increase will be only 0.84% on widening as against 21% by deepening.
Hence, exploding the river channels at the mouths at the start and ebbing of floods will be
logical proposition.
67. The costs of construction of levees for flood protection for various flood peaks
are given below. From this and other data given, make an economic analysis of the
flood control project and determine the flood peak for which the levees have to be
designed.
Flood peak (1000 cumec) Total damage under the flood peak Recurrence interval of flood Annual project cost upto the flood
(Rs. In crores) peak (yr) peak (Rs. In crores)
10 0 2 0.2
15 2 10 0.4
20 5 20 0.6
25 8 30 0.8
30 12 42 1.0
35 20 60 1.3
40 32 80 1.6
50 46 150 1.8
60 70 300 2.0
70 98 600 2.4
The economic analysis is made as shown in the table on the basis of benefit-cost ratio.
The ratio of benefit to cost is a maximum of 1.39 when the levees are constructed to safely
pass a flood peak of 40000 cumec. Hence, the levees designed for this flood peak will be most
economical.
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Flood Total damage Increment of Re currence Increment in Annual benefit Total annual Annual Ratio of benefit
peak under the flood Damage (Rs. in terval of recurrence from protection benefits from project cost to cost
(1000 peak (Rs. In crores) flood peak r) interval (Yr) of incremental protection for for the flood
cumec) crores) (y damage (Rs. flood peak (Rs. peak (Rs.
Crores) 3 + 5 Crores) Crores)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0 2 2 8 0.25 0 0.2 0
15 2 3 10 10 0.30 0.25 0.4 0.62
20 5 3 20 10 0.30 0.55 0.6 0.92
25 8 4 30 12 0.33 0.85 0.8 1.06
30 12 8 42 18 0.44 1.18 1.0 1.18
35 20 12 60 20 0.60 1.62 1.3 1.25
40 32 14 80 70 0.20 2.22 1.6 1.39
50 46 24 150 150 0.16 2.42 1.8 1.34
60 70 28 300 300 0.09 2,58 2.0 1.29
70 98 600 2.67 2.4 1.10
68. For a reservoir with constant gate openings for the sluices and spillway, pool
elevation vs storage and discharge (outflow) curves are shown in the figure. The inflow
hydrograph into the reservoir is given below:
Time (hr) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
Inflow (cumec) 50 70 160 300 460 540 510 440
Time (hr) 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
Inflow (cumec) 330 250 190 150 120 90 80 70
Pool elevation at the commencement = 110 m
Discharge at the commencement = 124 cumec
Route the flood through the reservoir by (a) ISD method, and (b) modified Puls method,
and compute the outflow hydrograph, the maximum pool elevation reached, the
reduction in the flood peak and the reservoir lag.
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(a) Flood routing by ISD method Take the routing period as 6 hr or 0.25 day. It is easier to
work the flow rates in cumec and the storage volumes in terms of cumec – 0.25 day. Hence, the
storage in Mm3 is converted to cumec –0.25 day by multiplying by 46.3. Corresponding to an
initial pool elevation of 110 m, O = 124 cumec, S = 49.1 Mm 3 = 49.1 × 46.3 = 2270 cumec -0.25
day, Ot/2=(O/2)×t(124/2) cumec×0.25 day=62 cumec-0.25 day, S+(Ot/2)+2270+62=2332
cumec-0.25 day, and S-(Ot/2)=2270-62=2208 cumec-0.25 day. First ‘O vs. S’ curve is drawn.
For a particular O on the S curve, O/2 abscissa units may be set off on either side of the S
curve and this is repeated for other values of O. The points obtained on either side of S curve
plot S+(Ot/2) and S-(Ot/2) curves as shown in the figure.
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For routing the flood by the I.S.D. method, Table 9.2, for the known outflow at the commoncement of
124 cumec, S- 1
Ot is read from the curve as 2208 cumec- day and to this I1 I2 t 50 70 cumec 1
2 4 2 2 4
1 Ot
day= 60 cumec day is added to get the right hand side of the Eq. i.e., S + 2268 and
4 2
corresponding to this O = 120 cumec is read from the graph which is the outflow at the beginning of
the next routing period. Corresponding to this O = 120 cumec, the pool elevation of 109.2 m is read
Ot
from the 'pool elevations vs. O' curve. Corresponding to this O = 120 cumec, S = 2040 is read
2
I I 70 160 1 Ot
from the graph and 1 2 t t 115 cumec day is added to get S + 2155 for which
2 2 4 2
O is read as 116 cumec and pool elevation as 108.4 m. Thus the process is repeated till the flood is
completely routed through the reservoir and the outflow hydrograph is obtained as shown in the figure.
(b) Flood routing by modified Puls method: Corresponding to the initial pool elevation of 110 m,
1
1 2S 2 2270 cumec 4 day 2S
O = 124 cumec, S = 2270 cumec- day, 1 4540 cumec, O
4 t day t
4
2S
4540 + 124 = 4664 cumec and O 4540 124 4416 cumec.Thus, for other values of O,
t
2S 2S 2S 2S
values of O and O are computed and 'O vs. O and O ' curves are drawn
t t t t
as shown in the figure.
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For routing the flood by the modified Puls method, Table 9.3, corresponding to the initial
2S 2S
pool elevation of 110 m, O = 124 cumec, O 4664 cumec and O 4416 cumec
t t
2S
are read off. For this O = 4416 cumec, I + I = 50 + 70 = 120 cumec is added to get
1 2
t
2S
the right hand side of the Eq. i.e., O= 4416 + 120 = 4536 cumec. For this value of
t
2S 2S
O, O = 123 cumec, and O = 4290 cumec are read off from the curves. For
t t
O = 123 cumec, the pool elevation of 109.8 m is read off from the 'O vs pool elevation curve'.
2S
These values become the initial values for the next routing period. Again, for O= 4290 cumec,
t
2S
I + I = 70 + 160 =230 cumec is added to get the right hand side of the Eq. i.e., O= 4290 +
1 2
t
2S
230 = 4520 cumec for which O and O values are read off and pool elevation obtained, which
t
become the initial values for the next routing period. Thus the process is repeated till the flood is
completely routed through the reservoir and the outflow hydrograph is obtained as shown in the figure
by dashed line.
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ISD method Modified plus method
Maximum pool elevn reached 1113.5 m* 113.6 m
Reduction in flood peak 132 cumec 75 cumec
Reservoir lag 14 ½ hr 12 hr
*to pass the crest of the outflow hydrograph
69. The inflow and outflow hydrographs for a reach of a river are given below.
Determine the value of the Muskingum coefficients K and x for the reach.
Time (hr) 0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216
Inflow (cumec) 35 125 575 740 456 245 144 95 67 50
Outflow (cumec) 39 52 287 624 638 394 235 142 93 60
From the daily readings of the inflow and outflow hydrographs, a routing period t =24 hr = 1
day is taken. The mean storage is determined and then the cumulative storage S is tabulated.
For trial values of x = 0.2, 0.25 and 0.3, the values of [xI + (1 – x) O] are computed in the table.
Storage loops for the reach, i.e., curves of S vs. [xI + (1 – x) O] for each trial value of x are
plotted as shown in the figure. By inspection, the middle value of x = 0.25 approximates a
straight line and hence this value of x is chosen. K is determined by measuring the slope of
the median straight line which is found to be 0.7 day. Hence, for the given reach of the river,
the values of the Muskingum coefficients are
x = 0.25, K = 0.7 day
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Time Inflow I Outflow I-O Mean Cumulative X = 0.2 X = 0.25 X = 0.3
(hr) (cumec) storage 0.2 I 0.80 Total 0.25 I 0.75 O Total 0.3 I 0.7 O Total
O (cumec) (cumec) Storage (cumec)
(cumec-day) (cumec) (cumec)
(cumec-
day)
0 35 39 -4 -2 -2 7 31.2 38.2 8.75 29.25 38.0 10.5 27.3 37.8
24 125 52 73 34 32 25 41.6 66.6 31.25 39.0 70.25 37.4 36.4 73.9
48 575 287 288 180 212 115 229.6 344.6 143.75 215 358.75 172.5 200.9 373.4
72 740 624 116 202 414 148 499.2 647.2 185.0 468 653.0 222.0 436.8 658.8
96 456 638 -182 -33 381 91.2 510.4 601.6 114.0 478 592.0 136.8 446.6 583.4
120 245 394 -149 -166 216 49 315.2 364.2 61.25 295.5 356.75 73.5 275.8 349.3
144 144 235 -91 -120 96 28.8 188.0 216.8 36.0 176.3 212.3 43.2 164.5 207.7
168 95 142 -47 -69 27 19.0 113.6 132.6 23.75 101.64 125.39 28.5 99.4 127.9
192 67 93 -26 -37 -10 13.4 74.4 87.8 16.75 69.7 86.45 20.1 65.1 85.2
216 50 60 -10 -18 -28 10 48.0 58.0 12.5 45.0 57.5 15.0 42.0 57.0
70 The inflow hydrograph readings for a stream reach are given below for which the
Muskingum coefficients of K = 36 hr and x = 0.15 apply. Route the flood through the
reach and determine the outflow hydrograph. Also determine the reduction in peak and
the time of peak of outflow.
Outflow at the beginning of the flood may be taken as the same as inflow.
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Time (hr) 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120
Inflow 42 45 88 272 342 288 240 198 162 133 110
(cumec)
Time (hr) 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240
Inflow 90 79 68 61 56 54 51 48 45 42
(cumec)
O2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2O1
x = 0.15, K = 36 hr = 1.5 day; take the routing period (from the inflow hydrograph readings) as
12 hr = 1/2 day. Compute C0, C1 and C2 as follows:
1
1.5 0.15 0.5
C0 Kx 0.5t 2
0.02
K Kx 1.5 12 0.15 0.5
0.5t 1
2
1
1.5 0.15 0.5
Kx 0.5t 2 0.31
C1
K Kx 1.5 12 0.15 0.5
1
0.5t
2
15 1.5 0.15
1 0.5
K Kx 0.5t 2 0.67
C
1.5 12 0.15 0.5
1
2
K Kx 0.5t
2
Check: C0 + C1 + C2 = 0.02 + 0.31 + 0.67 = 1
O2 = 0.02 I2 + 0.31 I1 + 0.67 O1
In the table, I1, I2 are known from the inflow hydrograph, and O1 is taken as I1 at the beginning
of the flood since the flow is almost steady.
0.02 I2 0.31 I1 0.67 O1 Outflow O
Time (hr) Inflow I (cumec)
(cumec) (cumec) (cumec) (cumec)
0 42 - - - 42*
12 45 0.90 13.0 28.2 42.1
24 88 1.76 14.0 28.3 44.0
36 272 5.44 27.3 29.5 62.2
48 342 6.84 84.3 41.7 132.8
60 288 5.76 106.0 89.0 200.7
72 240 4.80 89.2 139.0 233.0
84 198 3.96 74.4 156.0 234.0
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96 162 3.24 61.4 157.0 221.6
108 133 2.66 50.2 148.2 201.0
120 110 2.20 41.2 134.5 178.9
132 90 1.80 34.1 119.8 155.7
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144 79 1.58 27.9 104.0 133.5
156 68 1.36 24.4 89.5 115.3
163 61 1.22 21.1 77.4 99.7
180 56 1.12 18.9 66.8 86.8
192 54 1.08 17.4 58.2 76.7
204 51 1.02 16.7 51.4 69.1
216 48 1.00 15.8 46.3 63.1
228 45 0.90 14.8 42.3 58.0
240 42 0.84 13.9 38.9 53.6
*O1 is assumed equal to I1 = 42 cumec
O2 = 0.02 × 45 + 0.31 × 42 + 0.67 × 42 = 42.06 cumec
This value of O2 becomes O1 for the next routing period and the process is repeated till the
flood is completely routed through the reach. The resulting outflow hydrograph is plotted as
shown in the figure. The reduction in peak is 108 cumec and the lag time is 36 hr, i.e., the
peak outflow is after 84 hr (= 3.5 days) after the commencement of the flood through the reach.
71. The following is a record of the mean monthly discharges of a river in a dry year.
The available fall is 80 m.
Determine
(i) the minimum capacity of a reservoir if the entire annual inflow is to be drawn off at a
uniform rate (with no flow going into waste over the spillway).
(ii) the amount of water which must be initially stored to maintain the uniform draw off.
(iii) the uniform power output assuming a plant efficiency of 70%.
(iv) If the amount of water initially stored is 125 Mm3, the maximum possible draw off
rate and the amount of water wasted over the spillway (assuming the same reservoir
capacity determined in (i) above.
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(v) if the largest reservoir that can be economically constructed is of capacity 125 Mm 3,
the maximum possible output and the amount of water wasted over the spillway.
(vi) the capacity of the reservoir to produce 22.5 megawatts continuously throughout
the year.
month Mean flow (cumec) month Mean flow (cumec)
Jan 29.7 July 68.0
Feb 75.3 Aug 50.2
March 66.8 Sept 74.5
April 57.2 Oct 66.8
May 23.2 Nov 40.5
june 26.3 dec 26.3
Take each month as 30 days for convenience; 1 month = 30 days × 86400 sec = 2.592 × 106
sec. Inflow volume in each month = monthly discharge × 2.592 Mm 3; and monthly inflow and
cumulative inflow are tabulated in the table.
Inflow Cumulative inflow Inflow Cumulative inflow
Mean flow Mean flow
month volume (Mm3) month volume (Mm3)
(cumec) (Mm3) (cumec) (Mm3)
Jan 29.7 77 77 July 68.0 176 897
Feb 75.3 195 272 Aug 50.2 130 1027
March 66.8 173 445 Sept 74.5 193 1220
April 57.2 148 593 Oct 66.8 173 1393
May 23.2 60 653 Nov 40.5 105 1498
June 26.3 68 721 dec 26.3 68 1566
Plot the mass curve of flow as cumulative inflow vs month as shown in the figure.
(i) Join OA by a straight line; the slope of OA, i.e., 1566 Mm 3/yr or (1566 × 106)m3/(365 ×
86400) sec = 49.7 cumec is the uniform draw off throughout the year with no spill over the
spillway. Draw BC || OA, GH || OA, B, G being the crests of the mass curve; EH = FG
Minimum capacity of reservoir = DE + EH = 150 + 20 = 170 Mm3
Note If the capacity is less than this, some water will be wasted and if it is more than this, the
reservoir will never get filled up.
(ii) Amount of water to be initially stored for the uniform draw off of 49.7 cumec = DE= 150
Mm3 gQH
iii Continuous uniform power output in kW, P w
1000 0
1000 9.81 49.7 80
P 1000 0.70 27.4 MW
(iv) If the amount of water initially stored is only 125 M.m 3, measure DI = 125 M.m 3, join BI
and produce to J. The slope of the line BJ is the maximum possible draw off rate. Let the line
BJ intersect the ordinate through O (i.e., the cumulative inflow axis) at K. The vertical
intercept KJ′ = 1430 Mm3 and the slope of this line = 1430 Mm 3/yr = 45.4 cumec which is the
maximum possible draw off rate.
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To maintain the same reservoir capacity of 170 M.m 3, draw the straight line HL || KJ
intersecting the mass curve of flow at M and N. Draw the straight line GT || HL. The
vertical intercept PM gives the amount of water wasted over the spillway (during the time
period MN) which is 40 Mm3.
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(v) If the reservoir capacity is limited to 125 M.m 3 from economic considerations, the line KJ
intersects the mass curve of flow at R. Let the vertical at R meet the line GT (GT || KJ) at S.
In this case the amount of water wasted over the spillway = RS = 85 Mm3. The maximum
possible output in this case for a uniform draw off rate of 45.4 cumec is
45.4
P' 27.4 25 MW
49.7
(vi) For a continuous power output of 22.5 MW the uniform draw off rate can be determined
from the equation
1000 9.81 Q 80
22500 kW 0.70 Q 40.8 cumec
1000
which can also be calculated as 49.7 ×22 5/27 4= 40.8 cumec = 40.8 (365 × 86400 sec) =
1287 Mm3/yr.
On the 1-year base, draw the ordinate at the end of December = 1287 M.m 3 and join the line
OQ (dashed line). The slope of this line gives the required draw off rate (40.8 cumec) to produce
a uniform power output of 22.5 mW. Through B and D, i.e., the crest and the trough draw
tangents parallel to the dashed line OQ (BV || OQ). The vertical intercept between the two
tangents DZ gives the required capacity of the reservoir as 100 Mm3.
72. The following data are obtained from the records of the mean monthly flows of a
river for 10 years. The head available at the site of the power plant is 60 m and the plant
efficiency is 80%.
Mean monthly flow range (cumec) No. of occurrences (in 10 yr period)
100-149 3
150-199 4
200-249 16
250-299 21
300-349 24
350-399 21
400-499 20
450-499 9
500-549 2
(a) Plot
(i) The flow duration curve (ii) The power duration curve
(b) Determine the mean monthly flow that can be expected and the average power that
can be developed.
(c) Indicate the effect of storage on the flow duration curve obtained.
(d) What would be the trend of the curve if the mean weekly flow data are used instead
of monthly flows.
The mean monthly flow ranges are arranged in the ascending order as shown in the table.
The number of times that each mean monthly flow range (class interval, C.I.) has been
equalled or exceeded (m) is worked out as cumulative number of occurrences starting from
the bottom of the column of number of occurrences, since the C.I. of the monthly flows, are
arranged in the ascending order of magnitude. It should be noted that the flow values are
arranged in the ascending order of magnitude in the flow duration analysis, since the
minimum continuous
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flow that can be expected almost throughout the year (i.e., for a major percent of time) is
required particularly in drought duration and power duration studies, while in flood flow
analysis the CI may be arranged in the descending order of magnitude and m is worked out
from the top as cumulative number of occurrences since the high flows are of interest. The
percent of time that each CI is equalled or exceeded is worked out as the percent of the total
number of occurrences (m) of the particular CI out of the 120 (= 10 yr × 12 = n) mean
monthly flow values, i.e., =(m/n)× 100. The monthly power developed in megawatts,
gQH
P
9.81 60 0.80 Q
1000 0 1000
where Q is the lower value of the CI Thus, for each value of Q, P can be calculated.
(i) The flow duration curve is obtained by plotting Q vs. percent of time, (Q = lower value of the
CI).
(ii) The power duration curve is obtained by plotting P vs. percent of time.
(b) The mean monthly flow that can be expected is the flow that is available for 50% of the
time i.e., 357.5 cumec from the flow duration curve drawn. The average power that can be
developed i.e., from the flow available for 50% of the time, is 167 MW, from the power
duration curve drawn.
(c) The effect of storage is to raise the flow duration curve on the dry weather portion and lower
it on the high flow portion and thus tends to equalise the flow at different times of the year,
as indicated in the figure.
(d) If the mean weekly flow data are used instead of the monthly flow data, the flow duration
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curve lies below the curve obtained from monthly flows for about 75% of the time towards the
drier part of the year and above it for the rest of the year as indicated in the figure.
In fact the flow duration curve obtained from daily flow data gives the details more accurately
(particularly near the ends) than the curves obtained from weekly or monthly flow data but the
latter provide smooth curves because of their averaged out values. What duration is to be used
depends upon the purpose for which the flow duration curve is intended.
St. No 1 Year 2 Cumec 3 June 4 Dt. 5 July 6 Dt. 7 Aug. 8 Dt. 9 Sept. 10 Dt. 11 Oct. 12 Dt. 13
1 1885 Q 5814 16 7241 9
x 1481 2908
2 1886 Q 4665 15 9163 5 6018 2
x 332 4831 1685
Q 4848 22
x 515
Q 4369 27
x 36
3 1887 Q 5882 2
x 1549
Q 7404 22
x 3074
4 1888 Q 5417 22 4848 2 5417 3
x 1084 515 1084
Q 5034 27 6870 20
x 701 2537
Q 4909 31
x 576
5 1889 Q 5680 25 7936 7 7546 3 4971 9
x 1374 3603 3213 638
Q 4848 17 9855 15
x 515 5522
Q 8827 29 7857 29
x 4494 3524
6 1890 Q 5841 19
x 1481
Q 11887 30 6508 7
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x 7554 2175
Q 9249 19
x 4916
Q 5417 31
x 1084
7 1891 Q 4786 26 8827 14
x 453 4494
8 1892 Q 4605 26 5747 15 4971 3
x 272 1414 608
Q 7546 25
x 3213
9 1893 Q 5287 29 5482 26 6087 4 8498 5 5128 19
x 955 1149 1754 4165 795
Q 6870 10
x 2537
10 1894 Q 5160 8 10032 6 7376 6
x 827 5699 3043
Q 6018 21 9680 12
x 1685 5347
Q 9767 27 16757 26
x 5434 12424
Q 13179 30
x 8846
11 1895 Q 5747 2 9680 13
x 1414 5347
12 1896 Q 14336 10
x 10003
13 1897 Q 7623 22 7407 5 4427 3
x 3290 3074 94
Q 8174 23
x 3841
14 1898 Q 5814 10 8953 12 6366 7
x 1481 4620 2033
Q 5882 24 7241 18
x 1549 2908
15 1899 Q 7546 23
x 3213
16 1900 Q 4486 17 6651 11 5950 6
x 153 2318 1617
Q 5097 26 4786 12
x 764 453
17 1901 Q 4427 19 7700 8
x 94 3367
Q 11409 24
x 7076
18 1902 Q 9163 3 4848 14
x 4830 515
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19 1903 Q 7407 14
x 3074
Q 6296 27
x 1963
20 1904 Q 8579 29 7092 3
x 4246 2759
Q 7091 12
x 2758
Q 7017 21
x 2684
21 1905 Q 9362 13
x 5029
22 1906 Q 7092 28 6870 3 6226 16
x 2759 2537 1893
Q 5950 19
x 1617
23 1907 Q 7546 30 7241 3
x 3213 2908
24 1908 Q 6651 13 11504 2
x 2318 7171
Q 5949 21
x 1616
Q 6018 29
x 1685
25 1909 Q 6870 16 7407 12
x 2537 3074
Q 8335 21 6724 20
x 4002 2391
Q 5949 27
x 1616
26 1910 Q 10121 28 7469 3 6156 11 15077 3
x 5788 3136 1823 10744
Q 11887 13
x 7554
Q 7091 18
x 2759
27 1911 Q 6943 18 4369 13
x 2610 36
28 1912 Q 7700 16 8335 2
x 3367 4002
29 1914 Q 5417 2 9249 19
x 1084 4916
Q 6018 28
x 1685
30 1915 Q 6579 2
x 2246
Q 7407 13
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x 3074
Q 4725 29
x 392
31 1916 Q 4725 26
x 392
32 1917 Q 8416 11 5352 5 5482 9
x 4083 1019 1149
Q 6870 25 4909 23
x 2537 576
33 1918 Q 4665 22
x 332
34 1919 Q 6296 13 5160
x 1963 827
35 1920 Q 4848 23 8174 14
x 515 3841
36 1921 Q 5680 26 7623 4 6508 9
x 1347 3290 2175
9079 18 5950 15
4746 1617
37 1922 Q 5814 20 7407 17 5034 3
x 1481 3074 701
38 1923 Q 5482 5
x 1149
39 1924 Q 5160 27 6087 3 4848 5
x 827 1754 515
Q 5097 19 19136 29
x 764 14803
40 1925 Q 5160 21 9670 12
x 827 5347
41 1927 Q 7236 5
x 2903
Q 7241 20
x 2908
42 1929 Q 4545 15
x 212
43 1930 Q 5443 27 5997 21
x 1110 1664
44 1932 Q 5532 14
x 1199
6155 24
1822
45 1933 Q 4692 25 5267 15
x 359 934
46 1934 Q 6193 21
x 1860
47 1935 Q 5289 4
x 956
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48 1942 Q 4887 24 6650 9
x 554 2317
49 1943 Q 4442 22
x 109
50 1945 Q 4836 19 5101
x 503 768
51 1946 Q 4629 28
x 296
52 1947 Q 4345
x 12
53 1948 Q 4890 25
x 557
54 1950 Q 4562 26 5899 18
x 229 1566
55 1951 Q 4458 22 4339
x 125 6
56 1953 Q 5470 13
x 1137
57 1954 Q 5978 20
x 1645
58 1955 Q 4644 5
x 311
59 1956 Q 6381 11
x 2048
60 1957 Q 4548 15
x 213
61 1959 Q 4493 3
x 160
62 1961 Q 4855 17
x 522
63 1962 Q 5760 28
x 1427
64 1963 Q 5574 21 9192 17
x 1241 4859
65 1966 Q 4741 26
x 408
66 1967 Q 5919 27
x 1586
67 1969 Q 4546 20
x 213
68 1971 Q 4542 7
x 209
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73. The available flow for 97% of the time (i.e., in a year) in a river is 30 cumec. A run-
of-river plant is proposed on this river to operate for 6 days in a week round the
clock. The plant supplies power to a variable load whose variation is given below:
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(i) 7 days flow has to be used in 6 days
Average flow available for power development
7
Q 30 35 cumec
6
Since maximum allowable fluctuation of pond level is 1 m, average head
16 15
H 15.5 m
2
The average load that can be developed
gQH
P
9.81 0.80 4.27 MW
1000 0
1000
average
ii Daily load factor 1
load 1.5 0.67
peak load
(iii) Plant capacity = 4.27 × 1.5 = 6.4 MW
(iv) Weekly energy output = Average load in kW × No. of working hours = (4.27 × 1000)(6 × 24)
= 6.15 × 105 kWh
It should be noted that the installed capacity has to be equal to the peak load and the
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number of units (kWh) generated will be governed by the average load.
(v) Pondage required
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(a) to store the idle day’s flow = 30 × 86400 = 2.592 × 106 m3, or 2.592 Mm3
(b) to store the excess flow during low loads to meet the peak load demand. Since power
developed is proportional to discharge (assuming constant average head of 15.5 m), flow
required during peak load periods of 6.00 to 12.00 hr is (1.4 – 1) 35 cumec and from 12.00 to
18.00 hr is (1.5 – 1) 35 cumec.
pondage to meet peak load demand= (0.4 + 0.5) 35 cumec for 6 hr= (0.9 × 35)(6 × 60 × 60)=
6.81 × 105 m3
(c) pondage to cover inflow fluctuations= (0.20 × 30) 86400= 5.18 × 105
m3 Total of (a), (b) and (c) = 3.791 Mm3
Add 10% for wastage and spillage = 0.379 Mm3
Total pondage required = 4.170 Mm3
Since the maximum fluctuation of pond level is 1 m
the surface area of pond = 4.170 × 106 m2
74. A run-of-river hydroelectric plant with an effective head of 22 m and plant
efficiency of 80% supplies power to a variable load as given below:
Time (hr) Load (1000 Kw) Time (hr) Load (1000 Kw)
MN 0-2 11.4 12-14 44.2
2-4 5.6 14-16 44.4
4-6 25.6 16-18 74.2
6-8 53.2 18-20 37.8
8-10 44.8 20-22 30.0
N 10-12 39.4 22-24 18.0
Draw the load curve and determine:
(i) the minimum average daily flow to supply the indicated load.
(ii) pondage required to produce the necessary power at the peak.
(iii) the plant load factor.
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Total of loads at 2 hr intervals = 428.6 kW
428.6 1000kW 2hr
Average load 35.72 1000 kW
24 hr
Flow (Q) required to develop the average load
1000 9.81 Q 22
0.8 35.72 1000 kW Q 207 cumec
1000
(ii) Flow required to produce the required load demand
207
Q 35.72 Load in 1000 kW
To determine the pondage capacity the following table is prepared:
Time (hr) Load (1000 kW) P Required flow (cumec) Deviation from the average flow of 207 cumec)
5.8 P
Deficiency (cumec) Excess (cumec)
MN 0-2 11.4 66.10 140.90
2-4 5.6 32.46 174.54
4-6 25.6 148.40 58.60
6-8 53.2 308.20 101.20
8-10 44.8 260.00 53.00
N 10-12 39.4 228.50 21.50
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12-14 44.2 256.00 49.00
14-16 44.4 257.00 50.40
16-18 74.2 430.00 223.00
18-20 37.8 219.40 12.40
20-22 30.0 174.00 33.00
22-24 18.0 104.30 102.70
TOTAL 428.6 510.50 509.74
Total deficiency = total excess = 510 cumec
Pondage capacity required = 510 cumec for 2 hr= 510 (2 × 60 × 60) = 3.67 Mm3
average peak 35.72
iii Plant Load factor 48.2%
peak load 74.20
75. A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 400 ha-m. The catchment area is 130
km2 and the annual stream flow averages 12.31 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment
production is 0.03 ha-m/km2, what is the probable life of the reservoir before its capacity
is reduced to 20% of its initial capacity by sediment deposition. The relation between
trap efficiency and capacity-inflow ratio is given below.
The useful life may be computed by determining the number of years required for each
incremental loss of reservoir capacity (i.e., for the decreasing values of capacity-inflow ratios)
upto the critical storage volume of 400 × 0.20 = 80 ha-m as tabulated below:
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76. Annual rainfall and runoff data for the Damodar river at Rhondia (east India)
for 17 years (1934-1950) are given below. Determine the linear regression line between
rainfall and runoff, the correlation coefficient and the standard error of estimate.
year Rainfall (mm) Runoff(mm)
1934 1088 274
35 1113 320
36 1512 543
37 1343 437
38 1103 352
39 1490 617
40 1100 328
41 1433 582
42 1475 763
43 1380 558
44 1178 492
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45 1223 478
46 1440 783
47 1165 551
48 1271 565
49 1443 720
1950 1340 730
The regression line computations are made in the table and is given by
R = 0.86 P – 581
where P = rainfall (mm) and R = runoff (mm)
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The correlation coefficient r = 0.835, which indicates a close linear relation and the straight
line plot is shown in the figure, the relation is very close.
Standard error of estimate
S y, x y 1 r 2
y y y n
1 y
2 2
40.10 104
n1 17 1
S 1601 0.835 2 90.24 mm
y, x
77. The following are the data of the monthly Ground Water Table (GWT) fluctuations,
precipitation and ground water pumping in the Cauvery delta in Thanjavur, TN Obtain
the regression line connecting GWT fluctuations with the precipitation and pumping.
month GWR below MP (m) Precipitation G.W. pumping rate (Mm3)
Jan 3.60 30 14.0
Feb 4.05 52 23.4
March 4.12 95 32.4
April 4.57 90 51.2
May 4.80 200 62.3
June 4.95 280 79.5
July 5.02 168 61.4
Aug 4.80 51 47.4
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Sept 4.42 18 34.4
Oct 4.20 27 18.9
Nov 3.90 52 1.8
dec 3.30 57 5.2
The regression line computations are made in the table and the normal equations are given
below:
12a + 1120b + 432c = 51.73
1120a + 17.15 × 104b + 5.83 × 104c = 5138.8
432a + 5.83 × 104b + 1.68 × 104c = 1997.1
Simultaneous solution of the three equations gives
a = 4.02, b = 0.00865, c = – 0.0144
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and the regression line is given by
x1 = 4.02 + 0.00865x2 + 0.0144x3
or calling GWT as y (m), precipitation as P (mm) and pumping rate Q (Mm3), the linear multiple
regression line is given by
y = 4.02 + 0.00865 P + 0.0144 Q
from which the GWT corresponding to a known precipitation and pumping rate can be
computed.
To compute the multiple correlation coefficient r1.23
r12
x1x2 nx1 x2
5138.8 124.3193.33
0.66
n 1 1 2 12 1 0.545 81
r13
x1x3 nx1 x3 1997.1 124.3136 0.92
n 1 1 3 12 1 0.545 24.6
r23 2 3
x x nx2 x3 5.83 104 1293.3336
0.82
n 1 2 12
3 18124.6
r1.23 0.662 0.922 20.660.920.82 0.94
1 0.82 2
r1.23 = 0.94 indicates a close linear correlation
r1.23
1 1 0.662 1 0.92 2 0.95
The standard error of estimate
S 1r2
1.23 0.5451 0.94 2 0.2
1.23 1
78. The API for a station was 50 mm on 1st July 1995; 40 mm rain fell on 6th July,
25 mm on 8th July and 30 mm on 9th July. Assuming a recession constant of 0.9,
compute the API
(i) on 15th July.
(ii) on 15th July, assuming no rainfall during 1-15 July.
It = I0 Kt, I0 = 50 mm, K = 0.9
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on 6-July, I6–1 = 50 × 0.95 + 40 = 69.52 mm
on 8-July, I8–6 = 69.52 × 0.92 + 25 = 81.31 mm
on 9-July, I9–8 = 81.31 × 0.9 + 30 = 103.18 mm
on 15-July, I15–9 = 103.18 × 0.96 = 54.84 mm = API
(ii) I15–1 = 50 × 0.914 = 11.44 mm = API
Depending upon the API, the time of the year, duration and magnitude of the storm and
the altitude, the estimation of runoff can be made by following the data as indicated by the
dotted line on the graphical plot for the Monacacy river, USA. Thus, a catchment with an API
of 2.5 cm, in the 10th week of the year with the occurrence of storm of 24 hr duration and
12 cm depth of precipitation, will yield a runoff of 3.6 cm. This graphical approach is called
coaxial correlation and is preferred to the multivariate linear correlation since many complex
characteristics of the basin and storm is involved.
Another coaxial graphical correlation for estimating the monthly runoff from a catchment of
the river Kallada in south Kerala (south India) as given by Pillai N.N. (1964) is shown in the
figure. Here the API has been taken as the precipitation of the previous month and the runoff
for a particular month can be read on the graphical plot if the precipitation in the previous
month is known. Thus, if the surface runoff in the month of July (7th month) is required, given
the rainfalls for the months of June and July as 49.5 cm and 67.0 cm, respectively, then the
runoff during the month of July is 41.3 cm, as indicated by the dotted line. If however, the total
yield from the catchment is to be found out, the base flow (estimated as 30 cm) is to be added
to the cumulative surface runoff of the whole year.
Though the correlation graph was developed for river Kallada (basin area = 874 km 2) during
1952-57, it was also applied to compute the yield of river Pamba (basin area = 1700 km2) in
1953 and of river Achenkoil (basin area = 847 km2) in 1955 and was found to be within ±4%
of the observed yield.
79. Rainfall (P) and Runoff (R) data for a small catchment are given below:
P (mm) 22 26 14 4 30 12
R (mm) 6 12 4 0 18 6
Develop a linear regression equation and find the coefficient of correlation; write a
computer program in C-language.
R = aP + b x = P, y = R, m = no. of data pairs = 6
m. xy x.
a
y m. x 2
2
x
b
y a x
m
m xy 2 x. y
y
2
m x 2 x m y 2
r
Σx = 108, Σy = 46, (Σx)2 = 11664, (Σy)2 = 1116
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Σx2 = 484 + 676 + 196 + 16 + 900 + 144 = 2416
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Σy2 = 36 + 144 + 16 + 0 + 324 + 36 = 556
Σxy = 132 + 312 + 56 + 0 + 540 + 72 = 1112
a = 0.6, b = – 3.16, r = 0.917 → 1, Good fit
Regression equation: R = 0.6P = 3.16
80. For the grouped data of the annual floods in the river Ganga at Hardwar (1885-
1971), find the mean, median, and mode. Determine the coefficients of skew and the
coefficient of variation.
Class interval (1000 cumec) Frequency
0-2* 0
2-4* 17
4-6 27
6-8 18
8-10 18
10-12 3
12-14 0
14-16 2
16-18 1
18-20 1
*from 0 to <2
From 2 to <4 and like that.
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(i) Mean x = 6.6 tcm
(ii) Standard deviation, σ = 3.16 tcm
n 87
iii Median L 2 CF CI 4 2 17 2 6 tcm
md
f md 27
d 10
iv Mode L mo 1 CI 4 2 5 tcm
d d 10 9
1 2
(v) Coefficients of skew (Cs)
Pearsons first coefficient, x mode 6.6 5
C 0.507
s1 3.16
Pearsons sec ond coefficient, Cs 2
3 x median 36.6 6 0.57
3.16
3
f xx
For 3818.55 1.4
CS flood data (Foster), n 1 3 87
1 3.163
Adjustment for the period of record,
k 6
C
C 1 1.4 1 1.5
sadj s n 87
All the coefficients of skew are positive and the skew is to the right; if the coefficients were
negative, the skew would have been to the left.
vi Coefficient 3.16
of variation, C 100 100 47.8%
v
x 6.6
81. Flood data in the form of Partial-Duration Series and Annual-Flood Peaks for
the Ganga river at Hardwar for a period of 87 years (1885-1971) are given in the tables.
The base flow for the partial duration series may be taken as 4333 cumec (which was
accepted as the bankfull discharge in the design of weir at Bhimgoda).
Derive the flood-frequency curves based on the two series by using the stochastic models.
Make a comparative study with the other methods based on annual floods discussed
earlier.
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Ann. Peak Q, Ann. Peak Q
Sl No. year Log10 Q Sl No. year Log10 Q
cumec cumec
1 1885 7241 3.8598 45 1929 4545 3.6576
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2 1886 9164 3.9621 46 1930 5998 3.7780
3 1887 7407 3.8696 47 1931 3470 3.5403
4 1888 6870 3.8370 48 1932 6155 3.7893
5 1889 9855 3.9936 49 1933 5267 3.7216
6 1890 11887 4.0752 50 1934 6193 3.7919
7 1891 8827 3.9458 51 1935 5289 3.7223
8 1892 7546 3.8777 52 1936 3320 3.5211
9 1893 8498 3.9293 53 1937 3232 3.5095
10 1894 16757 4.2242 54 1938 3525 3.5471
11 1895 9680 3.9859 55 1939 2341 3.3694
12 1896 14336 4.1565 56 1940 2429 3.3854
13 1897 8174 3.9124 57 1941 3154 3.4989
14 1898 8953 3.9518 58 1942 6650 3.8228
15 1899 7546 3.8777 59 1943 4442 3.6476
16 1900 6652 3.8229 60 1944 4229 3.6262
17 1901 11409 4.0573 61 1945 5101 3.7077
18 1902 9164 3.9621 62 1946 4629 3.6654
19 1903 7404 3.8694 63 1947 4345 3.6380
20 1904 8579 3.9335 64 1948 4890 3.6893
21 1905 9362 3.9714 65 1949 3619 3.5586
22 1906 7092 3.8507 66 1950 5899 3.7708
23 1907 7546 3.8777 67 1951 4458 3.6492
24 1908 11504 4.0607 68 1952 3919 3.5932
25 1909 8335 3.9209 69 1953 5470 3.7380
26 1910 15077 4.1783 70 1954 5978 3.7766
27 1911 6943 3.8416 71 1955 4644 3.6669
28 1912 8335 3.9209 72 1956 6381 3.8049
29 1913 3579 3.5538 73 1957 4548 3.6579
30 1914 9299 3.9684 74 1958 4056 3.6081
31 1915 7407 3.8696 75 1959 4493 3.6525
32 1916 4726 3.6744 76 1960 3884 3.5893
33 1917 8416 3.9251 77 1961 4855 3.6861
34 1918 4668 3.6698 78 1962 5760 3.7604
35 1919 6296 3.7991 79 1963 9192 3.9634
36 1920 8147 3.9124 80 1964 3024 3.4806
37 1921 9079 3.9580 81 1965 2509 3.3994
38 1922 7407 3.8696 82 1966 4741 4.6759
39 1923 5482 3.7390 83 1967 5919 3.7725
40 1924 19136 4.2818 84 1968 3798 3.5795
41 1925 9680 3.9859 85 1969 4546 3.6577
42 1926 3698 3.5680 86 1970 3842 3.5845
43 1927 7241 3.8598 87 1971 4542 3.6573
44 1928 3698 3.5680
The histogram of annual flood peaks for the Ganga river at Hardwar for the period 1885-
1971, 87 years, is shown in the figure. The computation of the cumulative frequency curve is
made in the table.
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It is seen that the distribution of floods do not have the normal bell-shaped curve but they
are skewed. However, the data can be transformed by plotting the common logarithm of the
flood peaks so that the distribution density curve is approximately normal as shown in the
figure. This is then called a log normal distribution and the standard deviation is in
logarithmic units. The histogram of the partial-duration series of the flood peaks above the
selected base of 4333 cumec is shown in the figure, which also represents skewed data.
(a) Partial duration series. There are 175 flood exceedances (above Q b) during 87 years. Average
number of exceedances per year.
175
2.01
87
Parameter β is estimated in the following table.
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The average value
□ 4.05 104
of QT Qb xT 4
10
QT 4333 ln 2.01T ln ln 2.01T
4.05
ANNUAL FLOOD PEAKS—RIVER GANGA
(i) Gumbel’s method
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QT Q K
Q 6635.63 cumec
3130.8 cumec
y yn
K
n
For n 87, yn 0.55815, n 1.1987
(ii) Stochastic Method
Qmin 2341 cumec; Q 6635.63 cumec; 77
nf
nf
Q Q 2.3 Q Q
log
T 2341 2.36635.63 2341log
77
T
T min min
n 87
T-yr 0.885 T Log (0.885 T) 9890 log (0.885 T) QT cumec
1000 885 2.947 29200 31541
500 442.5 2.646 26200 28541
200 177 2.248 22200 24541
100 88.5 1.947 19200 21541
50 44.25 1.646 16260 18601
(iii) Log-Pearson Type III distribution.
Mean : log x
f log x 67.3856 0.7750
f 87
3.3315
Std. dev. 87 1
f log x log 0.1962
log x
2
x n1
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Skew : g
n f log x log 870.5165
3 0.81
x
3
87 187 2 0.1962
3
n 1n 2 log x
log QT log Q K log Q
and QT for any desired T can be computed by knowing the value of K for g = 0.81 and desired
T from the table.
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The flood frequency curves by the above four methods have been plotted on semi-log paper. It
can be seen that the highest annual flood peak of 19136 cumec during a period of 87 years (T=
(87+1)/1=88-yr) has exceeded the 100-yr flood given by Gumbel’s method and that computed
by the new stochastic model based on the partial duration series. However, in this case, the
stochastic method using annual flood data and Log-Pearson Type-III distribution give safe
design values.
82. A catchment of area 1040 km 2 is divided into 9-hourly divisions by isochrones
(lines of equal travel time) in the figure. From the observation of a hydrograph due to a
short rain on the catchment, ti = 9 hr and K = 8 hr. Derive: (a) the IUH for the catchment.
(b) a 3-hr UG.
(i) It will be assumed that the catchment is divided into sub-areas such that all surface runoff
from each of these areas will arrive during a 1-hr period at the gauging point. The areas are
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measured by planimetering each of the hourly areas as:
Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Area (km2) 40 100 150 180 160 155 140 80 35
(ii) The time-area graph (in full lines) and the distribution graph of runoff (in dotted lines) are
drawn as shown in the figure. The dotted lines depict the non-uniform areal distribution of
rain.
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Plot col (1) vs. col (5) to get the IUH, and col (1) vs. col (6) to get the 3-hr UGO, as shown in
the figure.
(iii) O2 = C′I + C2O1
t 1 1
C' 1 0.1177
K 8.5
1
t 8 1
2 2
1 1
K t 8 1 7.5
C2 2 2 0.882, Check : C ' C 2 1
1 1 5
K t 8 1
2 2
Hence, the routing equation becomes
O2 = 0.1177 I + 0.882 O1
O2 vs. time gives the required synthetic IUH from which the 3-hr UGO are obtained as computed
in the table. The conversion constant for Col (3) is computed as
6 2
210 10 3
1 cm rain on 1 km in 1 hr 2.78 m / s
3600
The 3-hr UGO is obtained by averaging the pair of IUH ordinates at 3-hr intervals and writing
at the end of the intervals.
83. The mean monthly flow data for a proposed reservoir site are given below:
Month jan feb mar april may June
Mean monthly flow (cumec) 6 3 1 2 7 1
month july aug sept oct nov dec
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Mean monthly flow (cumec) 27 29 30 27 31 15
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Determine the average discharge that can be expected throughout the year. Draw the
residual mass curve and obtain an expression for the range as developed by Hurst on the
basis of the monthly flow data.
Cumulative mean flow
Mean monthly flow, x Monthly flow volume Cumulative monthly Residual mass
month throughout the year
(cumec) (ha-m) inflow (ha-m) curve (ha-m)
(ha-m)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Jan 6 1575 1575 3931 -2356
Feb 3 790 2365 7862 -5497
Mar 1 262 2627 11793 -9166
April 2 525 3152 15725 -12573
May 7 1840 4992 19656 -14664
June 1 262 5254 23587 -18333
Nuly 27 7100 12354 27518 -15164
Aug 29 7750 20104 31450 -11346
Sept 30 7880 27984 35381 -7397
Oct 27 7100 35084 39312 -4228
Nov 31 8150 43234 43243 -0009
dec 15 3940 47174 47174 0
n= 179 47174
179
x 15 cumec
12
47174
Mean flow ( per month) throught the year 3931.2 ha m
12
The average discharge that can be expected throughout the year
47174 104 m3
Q 15 cumec x
365 86400 S
The residual mass curve is plotted in Fig. 16.16 and the range, R = 18333 ha-m, which is the
storage capacity of the reservoir to maintain the mean flow of 15 cumec throughout the year.
x: 6 3 1 2 7 1 27 29 30 27 31 15
x- x̄ : -9 -12 -14 -13 -8 -14 12 14 15 12 16 0
( x- x̄ )2: 81 144 196 169 64 196 144 196 225 144 256 0
Σ( x- x̄ )2 = 1815
x x 2 n 12
1815
1
1 12.84 cumec
k
n
Let R 2 k
12
k 0.945
18333 104 12.8430.4 24 60 60
2
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Thus, the expression for range (on the basis of 12 months data) is
0.945
n
R
2
Usually k varies from 0.5 to 1.0, the average value being 0.73. Usually, a number of years of
observation are required.
84. Given in the table (Col. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6) are the monthly inflows during low
water period at the site of a proposed dam, the corresponding monthly precipitation
and pan evaporation at a nearby station, and the estimated monthly demand for water.
Prior water rights downstream require a special release of 6 cumec or the natural inflow,
whichever is less. Assuming that only 24% of the rainfall on the land area to be flooded
by the proposed reservoir has reached the stream in the past, reservoir area as 6000 ha
on an average, and a pan coefficient of 0.7, construct the sequent peak alogrithm and
determine the required storage capacity of the reservoir.
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Since 24% of the rainfall (P) is runoff, which is already included in the monthly inflows
into the reservoir, only 100 – 24 = 76% of the rainfall on the reservoir area is to be included.
Reservoir evaporation = 0.7 × Pan Evaporation (EP). (0.76P – 0.7 Ep) values have to be multiplied
by the average reservoir area at the beginning and end of each month.
The monthly change in storage and cumulative storage (at the end of each month) are
worked out in the table and the sequent peak algorithm is drawn as shown in the figure and
the required storage capacity of the Reservoir (difference between the initial peak and the
lowest trough in the interval) is 13045 ha-m, which is also indicated in the col. (10) of the
table. Actually this process has to be done for 4-5 consesecutive years and the difference
between the highest peak and the succeeding lowest trough gives the required storage
capacity to meet the specified demand. The required storage capacity is also equal to the sum
of the negative quantities (ΣDeficit) in Col (8) of the table, which is less than the sum of the
positive quantities (ΣSurplus) col (8), thus ensuring the filler of the reservoir during
monsoons.
85. The effective rainfall due to a 4-hr storm in the successive hours are: 2.6, 2.5,
2.3 and 2.4 cm. The resulting DRO’s in the successive hours are: 3, 15, 26, 40, 50, 35,
25, 20, 15, 10, 7, 4, 3 and 1 cumec. Determine the values of n and k.
Step 1 Evaluate the first and second moments of Pnet about the origin, i.e., t = 0 (commencement
of Pnet and DRO)
MI1 2.6 19.2 cm.hr 2 hr
2.6 2.5 2.3 2.4 9.8 cm 2
2.6 2 2 2 2 cm.hr 2
MI2 5 hr
2.6 2.5 2.3 9.8
2.4 cm
Step 2 Evaluate the first and second moments of Qi about the origin;
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Qi DROi
Qt Q1t1
MQ
Q1t1
1
Q
Q Q1 DRO
2
Qt2 Q 1t 1
Q t 2 11
MQ2
Q
Time t (hr) DRO (cumec) (given) = Q Q x t (cumec-hr) Q x t2 (cumec-hr2)
0 0 0 0
1 3 3 3
2 15 30 60
3 26 78 234
4 40 160 640
5 50 250 1250
6 35 210 1260
7 25 175 1225
8 20- 160 1280
9 15 135 1215
10 10 100 1000
11 7 77 847
12 4 48 576
13 3 39 507
14 1 14 196
15 0 0 0
∑Q = 254 ∑Qt = 1472 ∑Qt2 = 102.93
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1472
MQ1 t 5.8 hr
254
2 10293
MQ2 t 40.5 hr 2
254
nk = MQ1 – MI1 = 5.8 – 2 = 3.8 hr
MQ2 – MI2 = n(n + 1)k2 + 2 nk MI1
40.5 – 5 = nk2 (n + 1) + 2 × 3.8 × 2
35.5 = n2k2 + nk2 + 15.2
nk2 = 35.5 – 15.2 – (3.8)2 = 5.87
nk 2
5.87
k 1.55
nk 3.8
nk 3.8
n 2.45 2 whole number
n 1.55
86. Derive an IUH and a 2-hr UG (UGO at 2-hr intervals) for a catchment of 240 km2,
having n = 3 and k = 5 hr.
t
1
n 1 t 31
t 1 t
u t k 5
e kn e 5
52
k
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Nash, from his study on some gauged catchments in UK, established a correlation between
the IUH parameters n and k, and the basin parameters like length of main stream (L, miles),
slope of the basin (S, parts per 1000) and the area (A, sq. miles), as
0.3
n 2.4L0.1 , K 11A
L0.1S 0.3
Using the above relations, the IUH of any ungauged basin in a hydro meteorologically
homogeneous region can be obtained.
87. The recession ordinates of the flood hydrograph (FHO) for the Lakhwar dam site
across river Yamuna are given below. Determine the value of K.
Time (hr) 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78
FHO(cumec) 1070 680 390 240 150 90 45 30 20
t
t
Qt Q0e , when K
k
Q
ln 0
Qt
‘Q vs. t’ is plotted on the semi-log paper. K is the slope of the recession-flood hydrograph plot.
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t t
K ln 31 59
1.303 12.15, say 12 hr
Q 2.303log
1000 1
100
88. The isochronal map of Lakhwar damsite catchment, the figure has areas between
successive 3 hr isochrones as 32, 67, 90, 116, 135, 237, 586 and 687 km2. Taking k = 12
hr, derive the IUH of the basin by Clark’s approach and hence a 3-hr UG.
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A = ΣAr = 1950 km2
tc = t × N = 3 × 8 = 24 hr, K = 12 hr
No. of isochrones = N – 1 = 8 – 1 = 7#
24 tc
Computation interval t t between successive isochrones 3 hr
c
8 N
Q2 = C′I + C2Q1
t 3 3 0.2222
C' t
k 12
2 2
t 3
k 12
C2 2 2 0.7778
t 3
k 12
2 2
Check: C′ + C2 = 0.2222 + 0.7778 = 1
From the sub areas Ar,
I 2.78 Ar
Ar 2.78
3
t
Clark’s: Q2 = C′I + C2Q1, C2Q1 = 0.7778 Q1 Q2 = IUHO
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C′I = 0.2222 × 0.9267 Ar = 0.203 Ar
Plot Col. (5) vs. col (1) to get IUH, and Col (6) vs. col. (1) to get 3-hr UG. Note that the two peaks
are staggered by 3 hr; i.e., IUH is more skewed.
89. During a snow survey, the data of a snow sample collected are given below:
Depth of snow sample 2 m
Weight of tube and sample 25 N
Weight of sample tube 20 N
Diameter of tube 40 mm
Determine
(i) the density of snow
(ii) the water equivalent of snow
(iii) the quality of snow, if the final temperature is 5 °C when 4 lit. of water at 15 °C is
added.
(i) Density of snow is the same as its specific gravity
Ws 25 20
0.020 2 2
Sp. gr. of snow, G V 0.203
s
s
s
w w 1000 9.81
ii Density of snow,
G Depth of melt water dw
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s
Depth of snow d s
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Water equivalent of snow, dw = Gsds = 0.203 × 2 = 0.406 m
(iii) If the actual weight of ice content in the sample is Wc gm, then
Heat gained by snow = Heat lost by water
Heat required to melt + to rise temperature to 5 °C
Wc 80 5
1000 5 400015 5
9.81
Solving, Wc = 468.2 gm = 0.4682 × 9.81 = 4.6 N
4.6
Quality of snow 0.92
5
90. If the density of a snow pack 1.2 m depth is 20%, determine its weight density,
mass density, sp. gr. and water equivalent.
The density is the percentage of snow volume, which its water equivalent would occupy.
Depth of melt water dw
Snow density
Depth of snow ds
dw
0.20
ds
Water equivalent of snow, dw = 0.20 × 1.2 = 0.24 m
Weirht density, Ws Ww Vww dw 0.201000 9.81 1962 N / m3
s w
Vs Vs Vs ds
Ws
Mass density, Ms g 1962 200 kg / m3
s
s
Vs Vs 9.81
g
Sp. gr., s 1962 0.2
Gs 1000
w 9.81
Note, that the specific gravity is the same as the snow density.
91. The average snow line is at 1400 m elevation and a temperature index station
located at 1800 m elevation indicated a mean daily temperature of 8 °C on a certain
day. Assuming a temperature decrease of 1 °C per 200 m increase in elevation and a
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degree-day factor of 3 mm/degree-day, compute the snowmelt runoff for the day. An
area elevation curve for the snowpack is shown in the figure.
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Freezing occurs at higher altitudes when the temperature falls to 0 °C.
Freezing elevation = 1800 + (8 – 0) × 200 = 3400 m. The area between the snow line elevation
of 1400 m and the freezing elevation of 3400 m is read out from the area-elevation curve, the
figure as 680 km2. The average temperature over this area is
1 0C at 1800 1400
8C 200 1 (0 10) 5C
2 2
freezing elevn. at snow line elevn.
Snowmelt runoff for the day= 0.003 × 5 °C (680 × 106) = 10.2 × 106 m3= 10.2 km2-m
92. Equilibrium overland flow occurs over a rectangular area 100 m long due to a
uniform net rainfall of 50 mm/hr. At what distance from the upper edge of the area
the flow changes from laminar to turbulent if the temperature is 20 °C and the critical
Reynolds number is 800.
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vd q
Re
800 q
6
q 8 104 cumec / m
110
q inetl
8 104 50
1000 l
l = 57.6 m, beyond which the flow becomes turbulent.
93. A concrete-paved area is 200 m long by 100 m wide and has surface slope of
0.005. The design storm is given by
i=250/t0.4
Construct the outflow hydrograph for a 1-hr storm using Izzard’s method.
Equilibrium discharge, qe = inet (l × 1); for t = 60 min,
250
i 48.5 mm / hr
600.4
Assuming i = inet for the concrete pavement (initially wet),
qe 48.5
200 1 0.0027 cumec / m Kd 3S
1000 60
e
60
1
qe
d
3
e
KS
1 1 1
1
K 3
2.8 10 i C 2.8 10 48.5 0.012
5 5 0.01336
1
0.0027 3
d 0.01336 13.1 mm
e
0.005
2d l 2 0.0131 200
te qe 0.0027 1940 sec
e
Data to plot the rising time Data to plot the recession curve
Q x qeb (x T x te (x 32.33) = q/qe (from (x 0.27) = Q
q/qe t/te ta (min) β= 0.069 ta
0.27) = (m3/s) (min) graph) (m3/s)
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0 0 0 0 5 0.345 0.45 0.121
0.2 0.054 0.31 10.0 7.5 0.517 0.30 0.081
0.4 0.108 0.42 13.6 10 0.690 0.27 0.073
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0.6 0.162 0.52 16.8 15 1.035 0.18 0.049
0.8 0.216 0.67 21.7 20 1.38 0.13 0.035
0.97 0.261 1.00 32.3 25 1.72 0.11 0.030
30 2.07 0.09 0.0243
40 2.76 0.06 0.0162
50 3.45 0.04 0.0108
60 4.14 0.035 0.0094
65 4.50 0.03 0.0081
qeta
d l
KS
K with i
0.012
0.0027
0.012
0.005 0.01175
0.0027 60
0.01175 200
where ta = time after the end of rain in min.
β = 0.69 ta
94. If the depth of surface detention on a smooth surface is 4 mm and the slope is
0.01, determine the wind velocity in the upslope direction required to counterbalance
the component of gravity force down slope, if the rainfall rate is 60 mm/hr.
(a) Let the wind velocity be Vw towards upslope
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Q iA 0.001
0.060 11 m3 / S
60 60 60
Force exerted by wind
Vw
F Q V 1000 N
0.001
V
60 w
60
Force downslope due to gravity
Ws = ΔW sin α = (1 × 1 × de) γw. S= 0.004 (1000 × 9.81) 0.01 = 0.3924 N
Equating F = Ws, velocity of wind
Vw = 0.3924 × 60 = 23.544 m/s
In the case of moderate slopes, such as airport runway surfaces, wind may play an important
part in determining the rate of overland flow.
95. The runoff data for a river during a lean year along with the probable demands
are given below. Can the demands be met with the available river flow? If so, how?
(b) What is the maximum uniform demand that can be met and what is the storage
capacity required to meet this demand?
Month: J F M A M J J A S O N D
river flow (Mm3) 135 23 27 21 40 120 185 112 87 63 42
Demand (Mm3) 60 55 80 102 100 121 38 30 25 59 85 75
(a) Evaporation losses and the prior water rights of the downstream user are not given and
hence not considered. The computation is made in the table. Since the cumulative surplus
is more than the cumulative deficit the demands can be met with the available river flows,
by constructing a reservoir with minimum storage capacity of 352 Mm 3, which is also the
maximum departure of the mass curves (from the beginning of the severe dry period) of
inflow and demand.
Month Inflow Cumulative Demand Cumulative Surplus Cumulative Deficit Cumulative deficit Remarks
(Mm3) inflow (Mm3) (Mm3) demand (Mm3) surplus (Mm3) (Mm3) (Mm3)
(Mm3)
Jan. 135 870 60 830 75 75 Reservoir full by
end of Jan
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Feb. 23 23 55 55 32 Start of dry period
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March 27 50 80 135 53
April 21 71 102 237 81
May 15 86 100 337 85
June 40 126 121 458 81 332 Max. Draft =
storage
July 120 246 38 496 82
Aug. 185 431 30 526 155
Sept. 112 543 25 551 87
Oct. 87 630 59 610 28 352
Nov. 63 693 85 695 22
Dec. 42 735 75 770 33 55
total 870 427 387
In the bar graph, the monthly inflow and demand are shown by full line and dashed line,
respectively. The area of maximum deficit (i.e., demand over surplus) is the storage capacity
required and is equal to 332 Mm3.
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(b) The cumulative inflow in the lean year is 870 Mm 3. The maximum uniform demand that
can be met is 870/12=72.5 Mm 3 per month. In the bar graph, the line of uniform demand is
drawn at 72.5 M.m3/month. The shaded area represents the surplus over the uniform
demand (during the months of January, and July to October), which is the storage capacity
required to meet the uniform demand, and is equal to
(135) + (120 + 185 + 112 + 87) – 72.5 × 5 = 276.5 Mm3
96. The following are the data for a proposed medium size reservoir in Maharashtra.
Determine LSL, FRL, HFL (MWL). What is the total length of the spillway fitted with crest
gates assuming a pier width of 1.5 m (10 m span), flood detention of 4 hr and C = 2.2.
Catchment area 1200 km2
Rainfall of 75% dependability 900 mm
Gross commanded area 25000 ha
Crpping pattern (proposed) and their water requirement (Δ)
(i) Kharif : Jowar—30% (0.45 m), Cotton—15% (0.75 m),
Rice—10% (1.20 m), Sugar cane—10% (1.90 m)
(ii) Rabi: Rice—20% (1.20 m), Wheat—20% (0.45 m)
(iii) Hot Weather: Vegetables—20% (0.60 m)
Area Capacity of Reservoir Site
Contour (m) 471 475 495 500 505
Area (ha) 0 36 178 242 323
Capacity (m3) 0 0.90 19.35 29.85 43.98
Contour (m) 530 535 540 545
Area (ha) 841 1002 1224 1480
Capacity (m3) 186.62 232.69 288.34 355.95
River bed level 471.0
Top of bound level (TBL) 550.0
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Silt load (expected) 250 m3/km2/yr with a life of 100 yr
Evaporation losses 1.5 m over the mean area
Empirical formula for yield and flood of the region Inglis formula
(a) Yield from the basin:
P 17.8 P
Dependable runoff , R
254
90 17.890
P 95 cm, R 25.6 cm
254
Yield = AR = 1200 × 106 (0.256) = 307.2 × 106 m3= 307 Mm3
(b) Irrigation water requirement:
(i) Kharif: Jowar 25000 × 0.3 × 0.45 = 3380 ha-m
Cotton 25000 × 0.15 × 0.75 = 2820 ha-m
Rice 25000 × 0.10 × 1.20 = 3000 ha-m
Sugarcane 25000 × 0.10 × 1.90 = 4750 ha-m
(ii) Rabi: Rice 25000 × 0.20 × 1.20 = 6000 ha-m
Wheat 25000 × 0.20 × 0.45 = 2250 ha-m
(iii) Hot weather:
Vegetables 25000 × 0.20 × 0.60 = 3000 ha-m
Total for the three crop seasons = 25200 ha-m.
Allowing 20% for conveyance losses, 10% for evaporation and seepage losses in the reservoir,
5% for overlap, and 5% as carryover storage-a total of 40%.
Live storage = 25200 × 1.40 = 35280 ha-m or = 352.8 Mm3
While the annual yield is only 307 Mm 3 which limits the area irrigated unless supplemented
by natural rainfall. Hence, a live storage of 307 M.m 3 is possible. Curves of eleven. vs. capacity
and eleven. vs. water spread area are shown in the figure.
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Dead storage = 250 × 1200 × 100 = 30 × 106 m3 or 30 Mm3
for which from the elevn-capacity curve, the lowest sill level of the sluice, LSL = 500.00 m
Gross storage = Dead storage + Live storage = 30 + 307 = 337 Mm3
for which from the elevn-capacity curve, the full reservoir level
FRL = 543.50 m
Allowing a flood lift of 3 m, the maximum water level (MWL) or
HFL = 546.50 m
With a freeboard of 3.5 m, top of bound level or top of dam, TBL or
TOD = 550.00 m
Height of dam = TOD – RBL = 550.00 – 471.00 = 79 m
Length of spillway
Assuming the crest of the spillway is at FRL, the head on the spillway.
HFL – FRL = 546.5 – 543.5 = 3 m
Effective length of spillway per span
Le = L – 0.1 nH= 10 – 0.1 × 2 × 3 = 9.4 m
Discharge over spillway per span
FAC = Capacity at HFL – capacity at FRL= 374–337 = 37 Mm3
Spillway design flood , FAC
QD MPF
T
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where T = flood detention time in the reservoir and usually varies between 2.5 to 16 hr, and
here given as T = 4 hr. The Maximum Flood discharge (MPF) may be calculated from the
Inglis formula applicable for the region.
124 1200
MPF 124 A
1200 10.24 4280 cumec
A
10.24
37 106
QD 4280 1710 cumec
4 60 60 1710
No. of spans required 15.8, say,16
108
Total length of spillway = 16 × 10 + 1.5 × 15=182.5 m
This length of the spillway can be reduced if the spillway crest (i.e., the sill of the crest gates)
is kept at R.L. 542.50 m, so that the crest gates (height = 4 m) conserve water upto R.L.
543.50 m (FRL) or even above this level, as the floods subside (i.e., towards the end of flood
season).
H = 546.5 – 542.5 = 4 m
q = 2.2 × 9.4 × 43/2 = 165.5 cumec/span
FAC =374 – 322.5 = 51.5 M.m3
(since when the floods are forecast, the FRL is lowered to the spillway crest level by opening
the crest agates)
51.5 106
QD 4280 700 cumec
4 60 60
No. of spans required 700
4.23, say 5 spans
165.5
Total length of spillway = 5 × 10 + 1.5 × 4 = 56 m
The various control levels are shown in the figure.
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The flood absorption capacity thus reduces the peak of the MPF. Actually the MPF
hydrograph into the reservoir (inflow hydrograph) is first obtained and then routed (for an
assumed eleven of spillway crest, RL of sluice outlets) by making use of eleven-capacity-
discharge relationship, and the peak of the outflow hydrograph thus derived gives the
spillway design flood. For small reservoirs (catchment area < 100 km 2) the flood absorbing
capacity is neglected as additional safety factor.
97. A 200 mm-well is pumped at the rate 1150 lpm. The drawdown data on an
observation well 12.3 away from the pumped well are given below. Determine the
transmissibility and storage coefficients of the aquifer. What will be the drawdown at
the end of 180 days (a) in the observation well, (b) in the pumped well? Use the modified
Theis method; under what conditions is this method valid?
Time (min) 2 3 5 7 9 12
Drawdown(m) 2.42 2.46 2.52 2.58 2.61 2.63
Time (min) 15 20 40 60 90 120
Drawdown(m) 2.67 2.71 2.79 2.85 2.91 2.94
The time-drawdown plot is shown in the figure, from which Δs = 0.28 m per log-cycle of t, and
t0 (for s = 0) is 37 × 10–10 min.
2.3Q 2.3
1.150
60 0.0125 m / s
2
T 4s
4 0.28
2.25Tt0 2.250.012537 1010 60
S 4.12 10 11
2 2
r 12.3
(a) Drawdown in the observation well after 180 days,
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2.3Q 2.25Tt
s log , u 0.01
4T r 2S
1.150
2.3
2.250.0125180 86400
60 2 3.89 m
s
log 12.3 4.12
1011
4 0.0125
(b) Drawdown in the pumped well after 180 days
1.150
2.3
2.250.0125180 86400
sw 60 2 5.06 m
log 0.100 4.12
4 0.0125 1011
The Jacob’s method is valid for
u 0.01
r 2S
4Tt 0.01
98. A production well was pumped for 2 hr at a constant rate of 1600 lpm and the
drawdowns in the seven nearby observation wells are given below. Determine the aquifer
constants S and T.
Observation well A B C D E F G
Distance from pumped well (m) 5 10 20 40 80 120 200
Drawdown (m) 5.35 4.35 3.35 2.35 1.4 0.8 0.3
The distance-drawdown plot is shown in Fig. D-4 from which Δs = 3.25 m per log cycle
of r, and r0 (for s = 0) is 210 m.
2.3Q 1.600
2.3 60 2
/ s for 2.6 6
lpd / m
10
T 0.003 m
2s 2 3.25
2.25Tt 2.250.032 60 60
S r02 2102 0.0011
99. A 400-mm well was pumped at the rate of 2000 lpm for 200 min and the
drawdown in an observation well 20 m from the pumping well was 1.51 m. The pumping
was stopped and the residual draw downs during recovery in the observation well for 2
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hr are given below. Determine the aquifer constants S and T.
Time since pumping stopped Time since pumping stopped
Residual drawdown (m) Residual drawdown (m)
(min) (min)
2 0.826 45 0.180
3 0.664 50 0.159
5 0.549 55 0.155
10 0.427 60 0.149
16 0.351 70 0.146
20 0.305 80 0.140
25 0.271 90 0.134
30 0.241 100 0.131
35 0.220 110 0.131
40 0.201 120 0.131
The time-residual drawdown data are processed in the table and the Theis recovery
curve is plotted on a semi-log paper as shown in the figure.
Time since pumping stopped Time since pumping started t=
Residual draw down s’ (m) Ratio (t/t’)
t’ (min) t1 + t’ (min)
2 0.826 202 101
3 0.664 203 68
5 0.549 205 41
10 0.427 210 21
16 0.351 216 13.5
20 0.305 220 11
25 0.271 225 9
30 0.241 230 7.7
35 0.220 235 6.7
40 0.201 240 6
45 0.180 245 5.45
50 0.159 250 5
55 0.155 255 4.65
60 0.149 260 4.33
70 0.146 270 3.86
80 0.140 280 3.5
90 0.134 290 3.22
100 0.131 300 3.00
110 0.131 310 2.82
120 0.131 320 2.66
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From the recovery plot, Δs′ = 0.41 m per log-cycle of t/t′ and
2.3Q 2.000
2.3 60 2 / s 1.284 6
lpd / m
10
T 0.0149 m
4s' 4 0.41
and S can be obtained from s1 = 1.51 m after 200 min of pumping as
2.3Q 2.25Tt
s1 4T log r 2S 1
2.25Tt 4 0.01491.51
log r 2S 1 2.000 3.69
2.3 60
Anti log of 3.69 4898
2.250.0149200 60
202 S 4898
S 0.000206
100. For a particular location the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature
is 28.5 ºC, relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2 m.
Determine the open water evaporation rate in mm/d using the energy method.
Latent heat of vaporization in joules (J) per kg varies with T (℃), or lr = 2.501 ×106 –
2370T, so lr = 2501-2.37×28.5 = 2433 kJ/kg, 𝜌w = 996.3 kg/m3. The evaporation rate by the
energy balance method is determined with R = 185 W/m2:
Er = R/(lr𝜌w) = 185/(2433×103 × 996.3) = 7.63 × 10-8 m/s
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References
1. American Society of Civil Engineers (1996) Hydrology Handbook. ISBN 0784470146, 9780784470145.
2. Anderson, Malcolm G, Tim P Burt (1985) Hydrological Forecasting. Wiley John + Son. The University of Michigan. ISBN
047190614X, 9780471906148.
3. Banihabib, ME, Valipour M, Behbahani SMR, (2012) Comparison of Autoregressive Static and Artificial Dynamic Neural Network for the
Forecasting of Monthly Inflow of Dez Reservoir. Journal of Environmental Sciences and Technology 13: 1-14.
4. Bedient, Philip B, Wayne Charles Huber (2002) Hydrology and floodplain analysis. Prentice Hall. The University of California. ISBN
0130322229, 9780130322227.
5. Beven Keith J (2004) Rainfall - Runoff Modelling: The Primer. Wiley. ISBN 0470866713, 9780470866719.
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0201059223, 9780201059229.
7. Chow, Ven Te (1964) Handbook of applied hydrology: a compendium of water-resources technology, Volume 1. McGraw-Hill. The
University of Michigan.
8. Chow Ven Te, David R Maidment, Larry W Mays (1988) Applied Hydrology. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 007070242X,
9780070702424.
9. Dingman SL (2009) Physical hydrology. Macmillan Pub. Co. the University of California. ISBN 002329745X, 9780023297458.
10. Eagleson Peter S (1970) Dynamic hydrology. McGraw-Hill. The University of California.
11. Gray Donald M (1973) Handbook on the principles of hydrology: with special emphasis directed to Canadian conditions in the discussions,
applications, and presentation of data, Volume 1. Water Information Center, inc. the University of Michigan. ISBN 0912394072,
9780912394077.
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007024782X, 9780070247826.
13. Grigg Neil S (1985) Water resources planning. McGraw-Hill Ryerson, Limited. The University of Michigan. ISBN 0070247714,
9780070247710.
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Society of Agricultural Engineers. The University of Michigan. ISBN 0916150445, 9780916150440.
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ISBN 0070379564, 9780070379565.
20. Loucks Daniel P, Jery R Stedinger, Douglas A Haith (1981) Water resource systems planning and analysis. Prentice-Hall. The University
of California. ISBN 0139459235, 9780139459238.
21. Mays, Larry W (1996) Water Resources Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. ISBN 0070411506, 9780070411500.
22. Mays Larry W, Yeou-Koung Tung (2002) Hydrosystems Engineering and Management. Water Resources Publication. ISBN
1887201327, 9781887201322.
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9780131349582.
25. Maidment David R (1993) Handbook of hydrology. McGraw-Hill, the University of Michigan, ISBN 0070397325, 9780070397323.
26. Němec Jaromír (1972) Engineering hydrology. McGraw-Hill. The University of Wisconsin – Madison.
27. Ponce Victor Miguel (1994) Engineering Hydrology: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 0133154661, 9780133154665.
28. Raghunath HM (2006) Hydrology: Principles Analysis Design. New Age International (P) Ltd. ISBN (13):978-81-224-2332-7.
29. Rao K Nageswara (2006) Water resources management: realities and challenges. New Century Publications. ISBN 8177081063,
9788177081060.
30. Raudkivi AJ (1979) Hydrology: an advanced introduction to hydrological processes and modeling. Pergamon Press. The University of
California.
31. Serrano Sergio E (1997) Hydrology for engineers, geologists, and environmental professionals: an integrated treatment of surface,
Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering
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subsurface, and contaminant hydrology. HydroScience. ISBN 0965564398, 9780965564397.
32. Singh VP (1995) Environmental Hydrology. Springer. ISBN 079233549X, 9780792335498.
33. Singh Vijay P (1992) Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall PTR. The University of California. ISBN 0132493845, 9780132493840.
34. Stephenson David (2010) Water Resources Management. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9058095738, 9789058095732.
35. Valipour M, Banihabib ME, Behbahani SMR (2013) Comparison of the ARMA, ARIMA, and the autoregressive artificial neural network
models in forecasting the monthly inflow of Dez dam reservoir. Journal of Hydrology 476: 433-441.
36. Valipour M (2013) INCREASING IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY BY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: CUTBACK AND SURGE
IRRIGATION. ARPN Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science 8(1): 35-43.
37. Valipour M (2013) Necessity of Irrigated and Rainfed Agriculture in the World. Irrigation & Drainage Systems Engineering 9: 1-3.
38. Valipour M (2013) Evolution of Irrigation-Equipped Areas as Share of Cultivated Areas. Irrigation & Drainage Systems Engineering 2(1):
114-115.
39. Valipour M (2013) USE OF SURFACE WATER SUPPLY INDEX TO ASSESSING OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN
COLORADO AND OREGON, US. Advances in Agriculture, Sciences and Engineering Research 3(2): 631-640.
40. Valipour M (2013) Estimation of Surface Water Supply Index Using Snow Water Equivalent. Advances in Agriculture, Sciences and
Engineering Research 3(1): 587-602.
41. Valipour M (2013) Scrutiny of Inflow to the Drains Applicable for Improvement of Soil Environmental Conditions. In: The 1st
International Conference on Environmental Crises and its Solutions, Kish Island, Iran.
42. Valipour M (2013) Comparison of Different Drainage Systems Usable for Solution of Environmental Crises in Soil. In: The 1st International
Conference on Environmental Crises and its Solutions, Kish Island, Iran.
43. Valipour M, Mousavi SM, Valipour R, Rezaei E (2013) A New Approach for Environmental Crises and its Solutions by Computer
Modeling. In: The 1st International Conference on Environmental Crises and its Solutions, Kish Island, Iran.
44. Valipour M, Banihabib ME, Behbahani SMR (2012) Monthly Inflow Forecasting Using Autoregressive Artificial Neural Network.
Journal of Applied Sciences 12(20): 2139-2147.
45. Valipour M, Banihabib ME, Behbahani SMR (2012) Parameters Estimate of Autoregressive Moving Average and Autoregressive Integrated
Moving Average Models and Compare Their Ability for Inflow Forecasting. Journal of Mathematics and Statistics 8(3): 330-338.
46. Valipour M (2012) Critical Areas of Iran for Agriculture Water Management According to the Annual Rainfall. European Journal of
Scientific Research 84(4): 600-608.
47. Valipour M, Montazar AA (2012) Optimize of all Effective Infiltration Parameters in Furrow Irrigation Using Visual Basic and Genetic
Algorithm Programming. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 6(6): 132-137.
48. Valipour M, Montazar AA (2012) Sensitive Analysis of Optimized Infiltration Parameters in SWDC model. Advances in Environmental
Biology 6(9): 2574-2581.
49. Valipour M (2012) Comparison of Surface Irrigation Simulation Models: Full Hydrodynamic, Zero Inertia, Kinematic Wave. Journal of
Agricultural Science 4(12): 68-74.
50. Valipour M (2012) Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation System Design Using Tapered Pipes for Pressure Loss Adjusting. Journal of Agricultural
Science 4(12): 125-133.
51. Valipour M (2012) HYDRO-MODULE DETERMINATION FOR VANAEI VILLAGE IN ESLAM
ABAD GHARB, IRAN. ARPN Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science 7(12): 968-976.
52. Valipour M, Montazar AA (2012) An Evaluation of SWDC and WinSRFR Models to Optimize of Infiltration Parameters in Furrow
Irrigation. American Journal of Scientific Research 69: 128-142.
53. Valipour M (2012) Number of Required Observation Data for Rainfall Forecasting According to the Climate Conditions. American
Journal of Scientific Research 74: 79-86.
54. Valipour M, Mousavi SM, Valipour R, Rezaei E (2012) Air, Water, and Soil Pollution Study in Industrial Units Using Environmental
Flow Diagram. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research 2(12): 12365-12372.
55. Valipour M (2012) Scrutiny of Pressure Loss, Friction Slope, Inflow Velocity, Velocity Head, and Reynolds Number in Center Pivot.
International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research 2(5): 703-711.
56. Valipour M (2012) Ability of Box-Jenkins Models to Estimate of Reference Potential Evapotranspiration (A Case Study: Mehrabad Synoptic
Station, Tehran, Iran). IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) 1(5): 1-11.
57. Valipour M (2012) Effect of Drainage Parameters Change on Amount of Drain Discharge in Subsurface Drainage Systems. IOSR Journal of
Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) 1(4): 10-18.
58. Valipour M (2012) A Comparison between Horizontal and Vertical Drainage Systems (Include Pipe Drainage, Open Ditch Drainage,
and Pumped Wells) in Anisotropic Soils. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) 4(1): 7-12.
Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering
Problems Edited by: Mohammad Valipour
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59. Valipour M, Mousavi SM, Valipour R, Rezaei E (2012) SHCP: Soil Heat Calculator Program. IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-
JAP) 2(3): 44-50.
60. Valipour M (2012) Determining possible optimal values of required flow, nozzle diameter, and wetted area for linear traveling
laterals. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES) 1(1): 37-43.
61. Viessman, Warren, Gary L Lewis, John W Knapp (1989) Introduction to hydrology. Harper & Row. The University of California.
ISBN 006046822X, 9780060468224.
62. Wanielista Martin P (1990) Hydrology and water quantity control, Volume 1. Wiley. The University of Michigan. ISBN 0471624047,
9780471624042.
63. Valipour M (2014) Importance of solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed for calculation of reference
evapotranspiration. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. doi: 10.1080/03650340.2014.925107
64. Valipour M (2014) Temperature analysis of reference evapotranspiration models. Meteorological Applications. doi: 10.1002/ met.1465
65. Valipour M (2014) Handbook of Irrigation Engineering Problems. OMICS.
66. Valipour M (2014) Handbook of Hydraulic Engineering Problems. OMICS.
67. Valipour M (2014) Future of agricultural water management in Americas. Journal of Agricultural Research 54(2):245-268.
68. Valipour M (2014) Land use policy and agricultural water management of the previous half of century in Africa. Applied Water
Science. doi: 10.1007/s13201-014-0199-1
69. Valipour M (2014) Handbook of Water Engineering Problems. OMICS.
70. Valipour M (2014) Future of agricultural water management in Europe based on socioeconomic indices. Acta Advances in
Agricultural Sciences 2(7):1-18.
71. Valipour M (2014) Application of new mass transfer formulae for computation of evapotranspiration. Journal of Applied Water
Engineering and Research 2(1):33-46.
72. Valipour M (2014) Use of average data of 181 synoptic stations for estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration by temperature- based
methods. Water Resources Management. doi: 10.1007/s11269-014-0741-9
73. Valipour M (2014) Study of different climatic conditions to assess the role of solar radiation in reference crop evapotranspiration equations.
Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. doi: 10.1080/03650340.2014.941823
74. Valipour M (2014) Comparison of mass transfer-based models to predict reference crop evapotranspiration Meteorological
Applications. Accepted.
75. Valipour M (2014) Analysis of potential evapotranspiration using limited weather data. Applied Water Science. Accepted.
76. Valipour M (2014) Pressure on renewable water resources by irrigation to 2060. Acta Advances in Agricultural Sciences 2(8).
77. Valipour M (2014) Comparative evaluation of radiation-based methods for estimation of reference evapotranspiration. Journal of Hydrologic
Engineering. Accepted.
78. Valipour M (2014) Drainage, waterlogging, and salinity. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. doi: 10.1080/03650340.2014.905676
79. Valipour M (2013) Need to update of irrigation and water resources information according to the progresses of agricultural knowledge.
Agrotechnology. S10:e001. doi: 10.4172/2168-9881.S10-e001
80. Valipour M, Mousavi SM, Valipour R, Rezaei E, (2013) Deal with environmental challenges in civil and energy engineering projects using a
new technology. Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering S4:127. doi: 10.4172/2165-784X.1000127
81. Valipour M (2014) Future of the area equipped for irrigation. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. doi:
10.1080/03650340.2014.905675
82. Ward (1967) Principles Of Hydrology 4e. McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Limited. ISBN 1259002241, 9781259002243.
Handbook of Hydrologic Engineering
Problems Edited by: Mohammad Valipour
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