2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Tiger
The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species
and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable Tiger

for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white Temporal range:
underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates
such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a
solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas
of habitat, which support its requirements for prey and
rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for
about two years, then become independent and leave their
mother's home range to establish their own.
A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger
The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758 and once Reserve, India
ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west
to the Amur River basin in the east, and in the south from Conservation status
the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands.
Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at
least 93% of their historic range and have been extirpated
from Western and Central Asia, the islands of Java and Bali,
Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China.
Today, the tiger's range is fragmented, stretching from CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests
on the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and Sumatra. Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. As
of 2015, the global wild tiger population was estimated to Phylum: Chordata
number between 3,062 and 3,948 mature individuals, with Class: Mammalia
most of the populations living in small isolated pockets.
India currently hosts the largest tiger population. Major Order: Carnivora
reasons for population decline are habitat destruction, Suborder: Feliformia
habitat fragmentation and poaching. Tigers are also victims
of human–wildlife conflict, particularly in range countries Family: Felidae
with a high human population density. Subfamily: Pantherinae
The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the Genus: Panthera
world's charismatic megafauna. It featured prominently in
Species: P. tigris
the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout
its historic range, and continues to be depicted in modern Binomial name
films and literature, appearing on many flags, coats of arms
and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the national Panthera tigris

animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea. (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]

Subspecies

Contents P. t. tigris
Etymology P. t. sondaica
†P. t. acutidens
Taxonomy and genetics
Subspecies †P. t. soloensis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 1/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Evolution †P. t. trinilensis

Hybrids
Description
Size
Colour variations
Distribution and habitat
Behaviour and ecology
Social and daily activities
Hunting and diet
Enemies and competitors
Tiger's historical range in about 1850
Reproduction and life cycle
(pale yellow), excluding that of the
Conservation
Caspian tiger, and in 2006 (in
Relation with humans green).[3]
Tiger hunting
Body part use Synonyms
Man-eating tigers
Felis tigris Linnaeus, 1758
In captivity
Tigris striatus Severtzov, 1858
Cultural depictions
Myth and legend Tigris regalis Gray, 1867
Literature and media
Heraldry and emblems
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris.
This was a borrowing of Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris', a foreign borrowing of unknown origin
meaning 'tiger' and the river Tigris.[4]
The origin may have been the Persian word tigra meaning
'pointed or sharp', and the Avestan word tigrhi 'arrow', perhaps referring to the speed of the tiger's
leap, although these words are not known to have any meanings associated with tigers.[5]

The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera, and the Ancient Greek word
πάνθηρ 'panther'.[6]
The Sanskrit word पाण्डर pāṇḍ-ara means 'pale yellow, whitish, white'.[7]

Taxonomy and genetics

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific
name Felis tigris.[2] In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the
species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.[8][9]

Subspecies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 2/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Following Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several

tiger specimens were described and proposed as subspecies.[11]
The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999.
Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th
centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and
colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence
characteristics that vary widely within populations.
Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and
gene flow between populations in those regions is considered
to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was
proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid,
namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the
Greater Sunda Islands.[12]
Phylogenetic relationship of tiger
Results of craniological analysis of 111 tiger skulls from populations based on Driscoll et al.
(2009).[10]
Southeast Asian range countries indicate that Sumatran tiger
skulls differ from Indochinese and Javan tiger skulls, whereas
Bali tiger skulls are similar in size to Javan tiger skulls. The
authors proposed to classify the Sumatran and Javan tigers as distinct species, P. sumatrae and P.
sondaica, with the Bali tiger as subspecies P. sondaica balica.[13]

In 2015, morphological, ecological, and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were
analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups
continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P.
t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger
populations, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations. The
authors also noted that this reclassification will affect tiger conservation management. The
nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades:[14]

a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations

a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations.

One conservation specialist welcomed this proposal as it would make captive breeding
programmes and future rewilding of zoo-born tigers easier. One geneticist was sceptical of this
study and maintained that the currently recognised nine subspecies can be distinguished
genetically.[15]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy
and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda
Islands as P. t. sondaica.[16] This two-subspecies view has been largely rejected by researchers.
Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 specimens support six monophyletic tiger clades
corresponding with the living subspecies and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived
about 110,000 years ago.[17][18]
The following tables are based on the classification of the species
Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World.[11] It also reflects the classification
used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 3/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]

Populations Description Image
Bengal tiger Linnaeus's scientific description of the tiger was based on
descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner
and Ulisse Aldrovandi.[2] Bengal tiger skins in the
collection of the Natural History Museum, London vary
from light yellow to reddish yellow with black stripes.[9]

†Caspian Illiger's description was not based on a particular

tiger formerly specimen, but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian
P. t. virgata area differ from those elsewhere.[19] It was later described
(Illiger, as having narrow and closely set stripes.[20] The size of its
1815)[19] skull did not differ significantly from that of the Bengal
tiger.[12] According to genetic analysis, it was closely
related to the Siberian tiger.[10] It had been recorded in the
wild until the early 1970s and is considered extinct since
the late 20th century.[21]

Siberian Temminck's description was based on an unspecified

tiger formerly number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that
P. t. altaica were traded between Korea and Japan. He assumed they
(Temminck, originated in the Altai Mountains.[22] The Siberian tiger was
1844)[22] later described as having pale coats with few dark brown
stripes.[20]

South China Hilzheimer's description was based on five tiger skulls

tiger formerly purchased in Hankou, southern China. These skulls
P. t. amoyensis differed in the size of teeth and jaw bones by a few cm
(Hilzheimer, from skulls of tigers from India.[23] Skins of tigers from
1905)[23] southern China in the fur trade were said to be vivid
orange in colour with rhombus-like stripes. Because of
differences in the shape of skulls, it was long thought to
constitute the most ancient variety.[24] It was noted to have
a unique mtDNA haplotype.[16]

Indochinese Mazák's description was based on 25 specimens in

tiger formerly museum collections that were smaller than tigers from
P. t. corbetti India and had smaller skulls.[25]
Mazák,
1968[25]

Malayan It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of

tiger formerly mtDNA and micro-satellite sequences that differ from the
P. t. jacksoni Indochinese tiger.[26] In pelage colour or skull size, it does
Luo et al., not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers.[27] There is
2004[26] no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in
northern Malaysia and southern Thailand.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 4/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Panthera tigris sondaica (Temminck, 1844)[16]

Populations Description Image
†Javan tiger Temminck based his description on an unspecified number
of tiger skins with short and smooth hair.[22] Tigers from
Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian
mainland.[27]

†Bali tiger Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an

formerly P. t. adult female tiger from Bali. He argued that its fur colour is
balica brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java.[28][29]
(Schwarz, A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital
1912)[28] plane, which is analogous with the shape of skulls of
Javan tigers.[30]

Sumatran Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as

tiger formerly the type specimen that had numerous and densely-set
P. t. sumatrae broad stripes. Its skull was a little larger than the skull of a
Pocock, Bali tiger.[31] It is the smallest of all living tigers.[24] The
1929[31] reasons for its small size compared to mainland tigers are
unclear, but probably the result of insular dwarfism,
especially competition for limited and small prey.[12] The
population is thought to be of mainland Asian origin and to
have been isolated about 6,000 to 12,000 years ago after
a rise in sea-level created Sumatra.[27][32]

Evolution

The tiger's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion, leopard
and jaguar. Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the
snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species, and that both may be more
closely related to each other than to the lion, leopard and jaguar.[33][34]
The geographic origin of
the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The tiger–snow leopard lineage dispersed in
Southeast Asia during the Miocene.[35]

Panthera zdanskyi is considered to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger. It lived at the beginning
of the Pleistocene about two million years ago, its fossil remains were excavated in Gansu of
northwestern China. It was smaller and more "primitive", but functionally and ecologically similar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 5/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

to the modern tiger. It is disputed as to whether it had the striping

pattern. Northwestern China is thought to be the origin of the tiger
lineage. Tigers grew in size, possibly in response to adaptive
radiations of prey species like deer and bovids, which may have
occurred in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene.[36]

Panthera tigris trinilensis lived about 1.2  million years ago and is
known from fossils excavated near Trinil in Java.[37] The Wanhsien,
Ngandong, Trinil, and Japanese tigers became extinct in prehistoric
times.[38] Tigers reached India and northern Asia in the late
Pleistocene, reaching eastern Beringia, Japan, and Sakhalin. Some
fossil skulls are morphologically distinct from lion skulls, which could
indicate tiger presence in Alaska during the last glacial period, about
100,000 years ago.[39]

In the Ille Cave on the island of Palawan, two articulated phalanx Restoration of a Panthera
bones were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and zdanskyi skull, an extinct
stone tools. They were smaller than mainland tiger fossils, possibly tiger relative whose fossil
due to insular dwarfism.[40] It has been speculated that the tiger parts remains were found in
were either imported from elsewhere, or that the tiger colonised northwest China
Palawan from Borneo before the Holocene.[41][42] Fossil remains of
tigers were also excavated in Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Sarawak
dating to the Late Pliocene, Pleistocene and Early Holocene.[39][43] The Bornean tiger was
apparently present in Borneo between the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, but whether it went
extinct in prehistoric or recent times has not been resolved.[43][44]

Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000
to 72,000 years ago.[26] The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was
predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records
combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last
Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The Caspian
tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below
elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Hindu Kush. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands
and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods.[45]

The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have similar repeat
composition to other cat genomes and an appreciably conserved synteny.[46]

Hybrids

Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. They share physical and
behavioural qualities of both parent species. Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the
emphasis on conservation.[47]
The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Ligers are
typically between 10 and 12 ft (3.0 and 3.7 m) in length, and weigh between 800 and 1,000 lb (360
and 450  kg) or more.[48] Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the
corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than
either parent species.[49]

The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger.[47] Because the male tiger
does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene,
tigons are around the same size as their parents.[49] Some females are fertile and have occasionally
given birth to litigons when mated to a male Asiatic lion.[50]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 6/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Description
The tiger has a muscular body with powerful forelimbs, a large head
and a tail that is about half the length of its body. Its pelage is dense
and heavy, and colouration varies between shades of orange and
brown with white ventral areas and distinctive vertical black stripes;
the patterns of which are unique in each individual.[51][24] Stripes are
likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass
with strong vertical patterns of light and shade.[52][53] The tiger is one
of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns
and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among
felids.[54] The orange colour may also aid in camouflage as the tiger's
prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and
blended in with the vegetation.[55]

A tiger's coat pattern is still visible when it is shaved. This is not due to
skin pigmentation, but to the stubble and hair follicles embedded in Siberian tiger in Aalborg
Zoo, Denmark
the skin.[56] It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck
and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males. The pupils are
circular with yellow irises. The small, rounded ears have a
prominent white spot on the back, surrounded by black.[24]
These spots are thought to play an important role in
intraspecific communication.[57]

The tiger's skull is similar to a lion's skull, with the frontal

region usually less depressed or flattened, and a slightly longer
postorbital region. The lion skull shows broader nasal
openings. Due to the variation in skull sizes of the two species,
the structure of the lower jaw is a reliable indicator for their
identification.[20] The tiger has fairly stout teeth; its somewhat
curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown
height of up to 90 mm (3.5 in).[24]

Size

There is notable sexual dimorphism between male and female

tigers, with the latter being consistently smaller. The size Bengal tiger skeleton on display at
difference between them is proportionally greater in the large the Museum of Osteology
tiger subspecies, with males weighing up to 1.7 times more
than females. Males also have wider forepaw pads, enabling
sex to be identified from tracks.[58] It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger
populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's
rule, or by distribution and size of available prey species.[24][59]

Generally, males vary in total length from 250 to 390 cm (98 to 154 in) and weigh between 90 and
300 kg (200 and 660 lb) with skull length ranging from 316 to 383 mm (12.4 to 15.1 in). Females
vary in total length from 200 to 275 cm (79 to 108 in), weigh 65 to 167 kg (143 to 368 lb) with skull
length ranging from 268 to 318 mm (10.6 to 12.5 in). In either sex, the tail represents about 0.6 to
1.1  m (2  ft 0  in to 3  ft 7  in) of the total length. The Bengal and Siberian tigers are amongst the
tallest cats in shoulder height. They are also ranked among the biggest cats that have ever existed
reaching weights of more than 300 kg (660 lb).[24] The tigers of the Sunda islands are smaller and
less heavy than tigers in mainland Asia, rarely exceeding 142 kg (313 lb) in weight.[27]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 7/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Colour variations

There are three other colour variants – white, golden and

nearly stripeless snow white – that are now virtually non-
existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger
populations, but continue in captive populations. The white
tiger has white fur and sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger
has a pale golden pelage with a blond tone and reddish-brown
stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint
stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail. Both snow white
and golden tigers are homozygous for CORIN gene White tigers in Haifa Zoo
mutations.[60] A black tiger is a colour variant due to pseudo-
melanism. They have thick stripes close together so that the
background colour is barely visible between stripes.[61]

The white tiger lacks pheomelanin (which creates the orange colour), and has dark sepia-brown
stripes and blue eyes. This altered pigmentation is caused by a mutant gene that is inherited as an
autosomal recessive trait, which is determined by a white locus. It is not an albino, as the dark
pigments are scarcely affected.[62][60] The mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter
protein SLC45A2. Both parents need to have the allele for whiteness to have white cubs.[63]
Between the early and mid 20th century, white tigers were recorded and shot in the Indian states
of Odisha, Bihar, Assam and in the area of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. The local maharaja started
breeding tigers in the early 1950s and kept a white male tiger together with its normal-coloured
daughter; they had white cubs.[64]
To preserve this recessive trait, only a few white individuals
were used in captive breeding, which led to a high degree of inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is
the main reason for many health problems of captive white tigers, including strabismus, stillbirth,
deformities and premature death.[65]
Other physical defects include cleft palate and scoliosis.[66]

The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers, alleging they are of
mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage. The genes responsible for white colouration are
represented by 0.001% of the population. The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers
points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals. This would lead to inbreeding
depression and loss of genetic variability.[67]

Distribution and habitat

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and
Transcaucasia to the coast of the Sea of Japan, and from South
Asia across Southeast Asia to the Indonesian islands of
Sumatra, Java and Bali.[51] Since the end of the last glacial
period, it was probably restricted by periods of deep snow
lasting longer than six months.[68][69] Currently, it occurs in
less than 6% of its historical range, as it has been extirpated
from Southwest and Central Asia, large parts of Southeast and Historical distribution of the tiger[10]
East Asia. It now mainly occurs in the Indian subcontinent, the
Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra and the Russian Far East. In
China and Myanmar, breeding populations appear to rely on immigration from neighbouring
countries while its status in the Korean Peninsula is unknown.[1][70]

The tiger is essentially associated with forest habitats.[43][71] Tiger populations thrive where
populations of wild cervids, bovids and suids are stable.[72]
Records in Central Asia indicate that it
occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests along the Atrek, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Hari, Chu and
Ili Rivers and their tributaries. In the Caucasus, it inhabited hilly and lowland forests.[20]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 8/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Historical records in Iran are known only from the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and adjacent
Alborz Mountains.[73] In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf
and mixed forests, where riparian forests provide food and water, and serve as dispersal corridors
for both tiger and ungulates.[69][74]
On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and
subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests and the swamp
forests of the Sundarbans.[75] In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate
forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan and of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi
Hills.[76][77] In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests.[78] In Laos, 14 tigers were
documented in semi-evergreen and evergreen forest interspersed with grassland in Nam Et-Phou
Louey National Protected Area during surveys from 2013 to 2017.[79] In Sumatra, tiger
populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests.[80]

Behaviour and ecology

Social and daily activities

When not subject to human disturbance, the tiger is mainly

diurnal.[81] It does not often climb trees but cases have been
recorded.[52] It is a strong swimmer and often bathes in ponds, lakes
and rivers, thus keeping cool in the heat of the day.[82] Individuals can
cross rivers up to 7  km (4.3  mi) wide and can swim up to 29  km
(18 mi) in a day.[83] During the 1980s, a tiger was observed frequently
hunting prey through deep lake water in Ranthambhore National
Park.[81]

The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over

distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other Tigers are comfortable in
water and frequently bathe
areas.[84] Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan National Park started
dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months. Four
females dispersed between 0 and 43.2  km (0.0 and 26.8  mi),
and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi). None
of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than
10 km (6.2 mi) wide, but moved through forested habitat.[85]

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and

maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within
which they roam. Resident adults of either sex generally
confine their movements to their home ranges, within which
Tiger scent marking its territory
they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs.
Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other's
movements and activities.[86] The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance,
geographic area and sex of the individual.[52][24] In India, home ranges appear to be 50 to
1,000  km2 (19 to 386  sq  mi) while in Manchuria, they range from 500 to 4,000  km2 (190 to
1,540 sq mi). In Nepal, defended territories are recorded to be 19 to 151 km2 (7.3 to 58.3 sq mi) for
males and 10 to 51 km2 (3.9 to 19.7 sq mi) for females.[83]

Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother's. The overlap between the
female and her mother's territory reduces with time. Males, however, migrate further than their
female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area. A young male
acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers, or by living as a

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 9/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

transient in another male's territory until he is older and

strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males
seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest
mortality rate (30–35% per year) amongst adult tigers.[87]

To identify his territory, the male marks trees by spraying

urine,[88][89] anal gland secretions, marking trails with feces
and marking trees or the ground with their claws. Females also
use these "scrapes", urine and fecal markings. Scent markings
of this type allow an individual to pick up information on
another's identity, sex and reproductive status. Females in Female cubs playing in
oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more Ranthambore Tiger Reserve
frequently and increasing their vocalisations.[52]

Although for the most part avoiding each other, tigers are not always territorial and relationships
between individuals can be complex. An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with
others, even those who may not be related to them. George Schaller observed a male share a kill
with two females and four cubs. Unlike male lions, male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on
the kill before the male is finished with it; all involved generally seem to behave amicably, in
contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride.[90] Stephen Mills described a social
feeding event in Ranthambore National Park:

A dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250  kg (550  lb) male nilgai – a very
large antelope. They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14-month-old
cubs, and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours. During this period the
family was joined by two adult females and one adult male, all offspring from
Padmini's previous litters, and by two unrelated tigers, one female the other
unidentified. By three o'clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill.[87]

Male tigers are generally more intolerant of other males within their territories than females are of
other females. Territory disputes are usually solved by displays of intimidation rather than
outright aggression. Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger
yielded defeat by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture.[91] Once
dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as
they do not live in too close quarters.[87] The most aggressive disputes tend to occur between two
males when a female is in oestrus, and sometimes results in the death of one of the males.[87][91]

Facial expressions include the "defense threat", where an individual bares its teeth, flattens its ears
and its pupils enlarge. Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace,
when sniffing urine markings, but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the
markings made by tigresses in oestrus. Like other Panthera, tigers roar, particularly in aggressive
situations, during the mating season or when making a kill. There are two different roars: the
"true" roar is made using the hyoid apparatus and forced through an open mouth as it
progressively closes, and the shorter, harsher "coughing" roar is made with the mouth open and
teeth exposed. The "true" roar can be heard at up to 3 km (1.9 mi) away and is sometimes emitted
three or four times in succession. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but more
subdued and made when the mouth is partially or completely closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m
(1,300  ft) away.[24] Chuffing—soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats—is
heard in more friendly situations.[92] Other vocal communications include grunts, woofs, snarls,
miaows, hisses and growls.[24]

Hunting and diet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 10/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

In the wild, tigers mostly feed on large and medium-sized mammals,

particularly ungulates weighing 60–250  kg (130–550  lb). The most
significantly preferred species are sambar deer, wapiti, barasingha
and wild boar. Tigers are capable of taking down larger prey like adult
gaur[93] and wild water buffalo but will also opportunistically eat
much smaller prey, such as monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based
birds, hares, porcupines, and fish.[52] They also prey on other
predators, including dogs, leopards, pythons, bears, and
crocodiles.[94] Tigers generally do not prey on fully grown adult Asian
elephants and Indian rhinoceros but incidents have been
reported.[95][96][97] More often, it is the more vulnerable small calves
that are taken.[98] When in close proximity to humans, tigers will also
sometimes prey on such domestic livestock as cattle, horses, and
donkeys. Although almost exclusively carnivorous, tigers will
occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow Tiger in Kanha National
Park showing flehmen
match tree.[94]

Tigers are thought to be mainly nocturnal predators,[71] but in

areas where humans are absent, remote-controlled, hidden
camera traps recorded them hunting in daylight.[99] They
generally hunt alone and ambush their prey as most other cats
do, overpowering them from any angle, using their body size
and strength to knock the prey off balance. Successful hunts
usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its
quarry, knock it over, and grab the throat or nape with its
teeth.[83] Despite their large size, tigers can reach speeds of An adult tiger showing incisors,
about 49–65  km/h (30–40  mph) but only in short bursts; canines and part of the premolars
consequently, tigers must be close to their prey before they and molars
break cover. If the prey senses the tiger's presence before this,
the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than chase prey or
battle it head-on. Horizontal leaps of up to 10  m (33  ft) have
been reported, although leaps of around half this distance are
more typical. One in 2 to 20 hunts, including stalking near
potential prey, ends in a successful kill.[83][71]

When hunting larger animals, tigers prefer to bite the throat

and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey, often
simultaneously wrestling it to the ground. The tiger remains
latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation.[90] Bengal tiger subduing an Indian
By this method, gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton boar at Tadoba National Park
have been killed by tigers weighing about a sixth as much. [100]
Although they can kill healthy adults, tigers often select the
calves or infirm of very large species.[101] Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to
tackle, as long, strong horns, legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger. No other extant
land predator routinely takes on prey this large on its own.[20][102]

With smaller prey, such as monkeys and hares, the tiger bites the nape, often breaking the spinal
cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery.[103] Though
rarely observed, some tigers have been recorded to kill prey by swiping with their paws, which are
powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle,[94] and break the backs of sloth bears.[104]

After killing their prey, tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetative cover, usually pulling it
by grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite. This, too, can require great physical
strength. In one case, after it had killed an adult gaur, a tiger was observed to drag the massive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 11/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

carcass over a distance of 12  m (39  ft). When 13 men

simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later, they were
unable to move it.[83] An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks
without eating, then gorge on 34 kg (75 lb) of flesh at one time.
In captivity, adult tigers are fed 3 to 6  kg (6.6 to 13.2  lb) of
meat a day.[83]

Enemies and competitors

Tigers usually prefer to eat self-killed prey, but eat carrion in

times of scarcity and also steal prey from other large Dentition of tiger above, and of
carnivores. Although predators typically avoid one another, if a Asian black bear below. The large
prey item is under dispute or a serious competitor is canines are used for killing, and the
encountered, displays of aggression are common. If these are carnassials for tearing flesh.
not sufficient, the conflicts may turn violent; tigers may kill or
even prey on competitors such as leopards, dholes, striped
hyenas, wolves, bears, pythons, and mugger crocodiles on
occasion.[29][104][105][106][107] Attacks on smaller predators,
such as badgers, lynxes, and foxes, are almost certainly
predatory. Crocodiles, bears, and large packs of dholes may
win conflicts against tigers and, in the cases of crocodiles and
bears, even can kill them.[29][20][108][109]
Bengal tiger attacking a sambar in
The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from
Ranthambore Tiger Reserve
tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting
different prey.[110] In India's Nagarhole National Park, most
prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg (66 to 386 lb)
against a preference for prey weighing over 176 kg (388 lb) in
the tigers. The average prey weight in the two respective big
cats in India was 37.6  kg (83  lb) against 91.5  kg
(202  lb).[111][112] With relatively abundant prey, tigers and
leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive
exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be
more common to the African savanna, where the leopard exists
with the lion.[111] Golden jackals may feed on the tiger's
Tiger hunted by wild dogs,
kills.[113] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest Illustration in Samuel Howett &
while smaller predators like leopards and dholes are pushed Edward Orme, Hand Coloured,
closer to the fringes.[114] Aquatint Engravings, 1807

Reproduction and life cycle

The tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with a second
peak in September. Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days. A
female is only receptive for three to six days.[115] Mating is frequent and noisy during that time.[51]
The female gives birth in a sheltered location such as in tall grass, in a dense thicket, cave or rocky
crevice. The father generally takes no part in rearing.[20] Litters consist of two or three cubs, rarely
as many as six. Cubs weigh from 780 to 1,600 g (28 to 56 oz) each at birth, and are born with eyes
closed. They open their eyes when they are six to 14 days old.[115] Their milk teeth break through at
the age of about two weeks. They start to eat meat at the age of eight weeks. At around this time,
females usually shift them to a new den.[51] They make short ventures with their mother, although

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 12/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they
are older. Females lactate for five to six months.[115] Around the
time they are weaned, they start to accompany their mother on
territorial walks and are taught how to hunt.[81]

A dominant cub emerges in most litters, usually a male. The

dominant cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in
their play, eventually leaving its mother and becoming
Tiger family in Kanha Tiger
independent earlier.[81] The cubs start hunting on their own Reserve
earliest at the age of 11 months, and become independent around
18 to 20 months of age.[90] They separate from their mother at
the age of two to two and a half years, but continue to grow until
the age of five years.[51] Young females reach sexual maturity at
three to four years, whereas males at four to five years.[20]
Unrelated wandering male tigers often kill cubs to make the
female receptive, since the tigress may give birth to another litter
within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost. The Tiger family in Tadoba Andhari
mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50% in the first two years. Tiger Reserve
Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and
ferocity of the mother. Apart from humans and other tigers,
common causes of cub mortality are starvation, freezing, and accidents.[102] Generation length of
the tiger is about eight years.[116]
The oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years.[83]

Occasionally, male tigers participate in raising cubs, usually their own, but this is extremely rare
and not always well understood. In May 2015, Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in
the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve. The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by, followed by a female
and three cubs within the span of about two minutes.[117]
In Ranthambore, a male Bengal tiger
raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness. The cubs
remained under his care, he supplied them with food, protected them from his rival and sister, and
apparently also trained them.[118]

Conservation
In the 1990s, a new approach to tiger conservation was developed: Tiger Conservation Units
(TCUs), which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat
types within five bioregions. Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and
integrity of habitat, poaching pressure and population status. They range in size from 33 to
155,829 km2 (13 to 60,166 sq mi).[75]

In 2016, an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3,890 individuals was
presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation.[120][125] The WWF
subsequently declared that the world's count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a
century.[126]

Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur
and body parts, which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild.[1] In
India, only 11% of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation.[127] Demand
for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger
populations.[128][129][130] Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2,500 mature breeding
individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 13/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

India is home to the world's largest population of wild Global wild tiger population
tigers.[120] A 2014 census estimated a population of Country Year Estimate
2,226, a 30% increase since 2011.[131] On International
Tiger Day 2019, the 'Tiger Estimation Report 2018' was India 2019 2,603–3,346[119]
released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The report Russia 2016 433[120]
estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25%
increase since 2014. Modi said "India is one of the safest China 2016 34[121]
habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of Vietnam 2016 <5[120]
doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967
in 2019".[132] Laos 2016 14[79]

Cambodia 2016 0[1]

In 1973, India's Project Tiger, started by Indira Gandhi,
established numerous tiger reserves. The project was Thailand 2016 189[120]
credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers Malaysia 2014 80–120[122]
from some 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s, but
a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back Myanmar 2014 85[1]
to about 1,400 tigers because of poaching. [133][134][135]
Bangladesh 2014 300–500[1]
Following the report, the Indian government pledged
$153 million to the initiative, set up measures to combat Bhutan 2015 89–124[123]
poaching, promised funds to relocate up to 200,000 Nepal 2018 220–274[124]
villagers in order to reduce human-tiger
interactions,[136] and set up eight new tiger Indonesia 2016 371[120]
reserves. [137] India also reintroduced tigers to the Total 4,423–5,495
Sariska Tiger Reserve[138] and by 2009 it was claimed
that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park.[139]

In the 1940s, the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals
remaining in the wild in Russia. As a result, anti-poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet
Union and a network of protected zones (zapovedniks) were instituted, leading to a rise in the
population to several hundred. Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s, when the economy
of Russia collapsed. The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory
individual tigers require (up to 450  km2 needed by a single female and more for a single
male).[140] Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO's in concert with
international organisations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife
Conservation Society.[141] The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian
conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats. Tigers have less impact on ungulate
populations than do wolves, and are effective in controlling the latter's numbers.[142] In 2005,
there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia, though these exhibited little genetic
diversity.[143] However, in a decade later, the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540
individuals.[144]

In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where
suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural
areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the
population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001.[145][146]
Having earlier rejected the Western-led environmentalist movement, China changed its stance in
the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty. By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts,
and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine.[147] The Tibetan
people's trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers. The pelts were used in clothing, tiger-
skin chuba being worn as fashion. In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the
issue. Since then there has been a change of attitude, with some Tibetans publicly burning their
chubas.[148]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 14/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

In 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy

addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra. The
Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in June 1995 in and
around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term
viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on
tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of
wild populations.[149] By August 1999, the teams of the STP
had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung
Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain
Camera trap image of wild
tigers.[150] In the framework of the STP a community-based
Sumatran tiger
conservation programme was initiated to document the tiger-
human dimension in the park to enable conservation
authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than
anecdotes and opinions.[151]

The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers
Forever, with field sites including the world's largest tiger reserve, the 21,756 km2 (8,400 sq mi)
Hukaung Valley in Myanmar. Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, the Russian Far East covering in total about 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi).[152]

Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques. Tiger population have been
estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks, although this method was criticized as being
inaccurate.[153] More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from
tiger scat, while radio-collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild.[154] Tiger spray has been
found to be just as good, or better, as a source of DNA than scat.[155]

Relation with humans

Tiger hunting

The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals
of Asia. Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early
19th and 20th centuries, being a recognised and admired sport
by the British in colonial India, the maharajas and aristocratic
class of the erstwhile princely states of pre-independence
India. A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill
over a hundred tigers in their hunting career.[83] Tiger hunting
was done by some hunters on foot; others sat up on machans
Tiger hunting on elephant-back in
with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait; yet others on elephant-
India, 1808
back.[156]

Historically, tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their

famous striped skins could be collected. The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s, just before
international conservation efforts took effect. By 1977, a tiger skin in an English market was
considered to be worth US$4,250.[83]

Body part use

Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the
fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools. This, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones,
and the use of fire, suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones,[40] and the condition
of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 15/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal
fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been
exposed to light and air. Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th
centuries in Butuan, Mindanao.[41][42]

Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that
various tiger parts have medicinal properties, including as pain
killers and aphrodisiacs.[157] There is no scientific evidence to
support these beliefs. The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical
drugs in China is already banned, and the government has
made some offences in connection with tiger poaching
punishable by death. Furthermore, all trade in tiger parts is
illegal under the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic
trade ban has been in place in China since 1993.[158] A hunting party poses with a killed
Javan tiger, 1941
However, the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major
black market industry and governmental and conservation
attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date.[83] Almost all black marketers engaged in the
trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within in their own country or into
Taiwan, South Korea or Japan.[83] The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by
killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s.[83]
Contributing to the illegal trade, there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in
breeding them for profit. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 captive-bred, semi-tame
animals live in these farms today.[159][160][161] However, many tigers for traditional medicine black
market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger's
remaining range (from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra). In the Asian black
market, a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around $300 U.S. dollars. In the years of 1990
through 1992, 27  million products with tiger derivatives were found.[83] In July 2014 at an
international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative
admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in
China.[162]

Man-eating tigers

Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans

actively avoid interactions with them. However, tigers cause
more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild
mammal.[83] Attacks are occasionally provoked, as tigers lash
out after being injured while they themselves are hunted.
Attacks can be provoked accidentally, as when a human
Stereographic photograph (1903),
surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and
captioned "Famous 'man-eater' at
her young,[164] or as in a case in rural India when a postman
Calcutta—devoured 200 men,
startled a tiger, used to seeing him on foot, by riding a
women and children before capture
bicycle.[165] Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey.
—India"[163]
Such attacks are most common in areas where population
growth, logging, and farming have put pressure on tiger
habitats and reduced their wild prey. Most man-eating tigers are old, missing teeth, and unable to
capture their preferred prey.[52] For example, the Champawat Tiger, a tigress found in Nepal and
then India, had two broken canines. She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths, the
most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal, by the time she was shot in 1907 by

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 16/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Jim Corbett.[166] According to Corbett, tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime, when
people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch.[167] Early writings tend to describe man-
eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics.[168]

Man-eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh, especially
in Kumaon, Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers
have hunted humans. Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change, tiger attacks have
increased in the Sundarbans.[169] The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from
1969 to 1971. In the 10 years prior to that period, about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans,
with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s.[83] Unusually, in some years in the
Sundarbans, more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa.[83] In 1972, India's production of
honey and beeswax dropped by 50% when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were
devoured.[83] In 1986 in the Sundarbans, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks
with human faces were worn on the back of the head, on the theory that tigers usually do not
attack if seen by their prey. This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily. All other
means to prevent attacks, such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies, did
not work as well.[170]

In captivity

In Ancient Roman times, tigers were kept in menageries and

amphitheatres to be exhibited, trained and paraded, and were
often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic
beasts.[171][172] Since the 17th century, tigers, being rare and
ferocious, were sought after to keep at European castles as
symbols of their owners' power. Tigers became central zoo and
circus exhibits in the 18th century: a tiger could cost up to
4,000 francs in France (for comparison, a professor of the
Beaux-Arts at Lyons earned only 3,000 francs a year),[173] or Publicity photo of animal trainer
up to $3,500 in the United States, where a lion cost no more Gunther Gebel-Williams with several
than $1,000.[174] of his trained tigers, promoting him
as "superstar" of the Ringling
In 2007, over 4,000 captive tigers lived in China, of which Brothers and Barnum and Bailey
3,000 were held by about 20 larger facilities, with the rest held Circus circa 1969.
by some 200 smaller facilities.[175] In 2011, 468 facilities in the
USA kept 2,884 tigers.[176] Nineteen US states banned private
ownership of tigers, fifteen require a license, and sixteen states have no regulation.[177] Genetic
ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty-nine animals
belonged distinctly to five subspecies; fifty-two animals had mixed subspecies origins.[178] Many
Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers.[179]

Cultural depictions
Tigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient
times, and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs. They are also
considered one of the charismatic megafauna, and are used as the face of conservation campaigns
worldwide. In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving
more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with
21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.[180]

Myth and legend

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 17/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

In Chinese myth and culture, the tiger is

one of the 12 animals of the Chinese
zodiac. In Chinese art, the tiger is
depicted as an earth symbol and equal
rival of the Chinese dragon – the two
representing matter and spirit
respectively. The Southern Chinese
martial art Hung Ga is based on the
movements of the tiger and the crane. Bronze Tiger Tally "Jie" with Gold
In Imperial China, a tiger was the Inlay from Tomb of Zhao Mo
personification of war and often
represented the highest army general
Tiger and magpie in (or present day defense secretary),[181] while the emperor and empress were
the Minhwa, late represented by a dragon and phoenix, respectively. The White Tiger
19th century. (Chinese: 白虎; pinyin: Bái Hǔ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese
constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (Chinese:
西方白虎), and it represents the west and the autumn season.[181]

The tiger's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea, it being generally
inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail.[182][183] In Korean myth and culture, the tiger is regarded as
a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of
courage and absolute power. For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea, the tiger
considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals. So, Koreans also called
the tigers "San Gun" (산군) means Mountain Lord.[184]

In Buddhism, the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolising anger, with the
monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness.[181] The Tungusic peoples considered the
Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and
Nanai called it "Amba". The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as "Hu Lin," the king.[58] In
Hinduism, the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin.[185] The ten-armed warrior goddess Durga
rides the tigress (or lioness) Damon into battle. In southern India the god Ayyappan was
associated with a tiger.[186] The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in
Asia;[187] in India they were evil sorcerers, while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat
more benign.[188] In Greco-Roman tradition, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god
Dionysus.[189]

Literature and media

In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion.[190] William
Blake's poem in his Songs of Experience (1794), titled "The Tyger", portrays the tiger as a
menacing and fearful animal.[191] In Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book, the tiger, Shere
Khan, is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist, Mowgli.[191] Yann Martel's 2001 Man Booker
Prize winning novel Life of Pi, features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a
small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten. The story was adapted in Ang Lee's
2012 feature film of the same name.[192]

More benign tiger characters include Tigger in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and Hobbes of the
comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, both of whom are represented as simply stuffed animals come to
life.[193] Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes, known for
his catchphrase "They're Gr-r-reat!".[194]

Heraldry and emblems

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 18/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

The tiger is one of the animals

displayed on the Pashupati seal of
the Indus Valley Civilisation. The
tiger was the emblem of the Chola
Dynasty and was depicted on
coins, seals and banners.[195] The
seals of several Chola copper coins
An early silver coin of king Uttama
show the tiger, the Pandyan
Chola found in Sri Lanka shows the
Chola Tiger sitting between the
emblem fish and the Chera
emblems of Pandyan and Chera
emblem bow, indicating that the
Cholas had achieved political
supremacy over the latter two
dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of
Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct
marks.[196] The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the William Blake's first printing
unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence
of The Tyger, 1794
movement.[197] The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and
Bangladesh.[198] The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of
Malaysia.[199] The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea.

The tyger, a depiction of tigers as they were understood by European artists, is among the
creatures used in charges and supporters in European heraldry. This creature has several notable
differences from real tigers, including absent stripes, a leonine tufted tail, and a head terminating
in large, pointed jaws. A more realistic version of the tiger entered the heraldic armory through the
British Empire's expansion into Asia, and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its
older counterpart. The Bengal tiger is not a very common creature in heraldry, but is present as a
supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras.[200]

See also
Siegfried & Roy, two famous tamers of tigers
List of largest cats
Tiger King, a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet trade
Tiger versus lion

References
1. Goodrich, J.; Lynam, A.; Miquelle, D.; Wibisono, H.; Kawanishi, K.; Pattanavibool, A.; Htun, S.;
Tempa, T.; Karki, J.; Jhala, Y.; Karanth, U. (2015). "Panthera tigris" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/
species/15955/50659951). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T15955A50659951.
doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T15955A50659951.en (https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.
UK.2015-2.RLTS.T15955A50659951.en). Retrieved 15 January 2022.
2. Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Felis tigris" (https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000798865#page/41/
mode/2up). Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines,
genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. Tomus I
(decima, reformata ed.). Holmiae: Laurentius Salvius. p. 41.
3. Dinerstein, E.; Loucks, C.; Wikramanayake, E.; Ginsberg, J.; Sanderson, E.; Seidensticker, J.;
Forrest, J.; Bryja, G.; Heydlauff, A. (2007). "The Fate of Wild Tigers" (https://academic.oup.co
m/bioscience/article-pdf/57/6/508/19418796/57-6-508.pdf) (PDF). BioScience. 57 (6): 508–
514. doi:10.1641/B570608 (https://doi.org/10.1641%2FB570608). S2CID 85748043 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85748043).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 19/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

4. Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). "τίγρις" (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pers

eus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dti%2Fgris). A Greek-English Lexicon, revised and
augmented. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
5. Harper, D. (2001–2011). "Tiger" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tiger). Online
Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
6. Harper, D. (2001–2011). "Panther" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=panther).
Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
7. Macdonell, A. A. (1929). "पाण्डर pând-ara" (https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/macdon
ell_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E
0%A4%B0&searchhws=yes). A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation,
and etymological analysis throughout. London: Oxford University Press. p. 95.
8. Pocock, R. I. (1929). "Tigers" (https://archive.org/details/journalofbomb33341929bomb/page/n
133). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 33 (3): 505–541.
9. Pocock, R. I. (1939). "Panthera tigris" (https://archive.org/stream/PocockMammalia1/pocock1#
page/n247/mode/2up). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia:
Volume 1. London: T. Taylor and Francis, Ltd. pp. 197–210.
10. Driscoll, C. A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Bar-Gal, G. K.; Roca, A. L.; Luo, S.; MacDonald, D. W. &
O'Brien, S. J. (2009). "Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct
Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC2624500). PLOS ONE. 4 (1): e4125. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4125D (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/2009PLoSO...4.4125D). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004125 (https://doi.org/1
0.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004125). PMC 2624500 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC2624500). PMID 19142238 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19142238).
11. Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Species Panthera tigris" (http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biol
ogy/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000259). In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.).
Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (http://www.google.co
m/books?id=JgAMbNSt8ikC&pg=PA546) (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 546.
ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62265494).
12. Kitchener, A. (1999). "Tiger distribution, phenotypic variation and conservation issues" (https://
books.google.com/books?id=dbQ8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19). In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S.;
Jackson, P. (eds.). Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–39. ISBN 978-0521648356.
13. Mazák, J. H. & Groves, C. P. (2006). "A taxonomic revision of the tigers (Panthera tigris) of
Southeast Asia". Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 71 (5): 268–287.
doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2006.02.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mambio.2006.02.007).
14. Wilting, A.; Courtiol, A.; Christiansen, P.; Niedballa, J.; Scharf, A. K.; Orlando, L.; Balkenhol,
N.; Hofer, H.; Kramer-Schadt, S.; Fickel, J. & Kitchener, A. C. (2015). "Planning tiger recovery:
Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC4640610). Science Advances. 11 (5): e1400175.
Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0175W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015SciA....1E0175W).
doi:10.1126/sciadv.1400175 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.1400175). PMC 4640610 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4640610). PMID 26601191 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/26601191).
15. Kupferschmidt, K. (2015). "Controversial study claims there are only two types of tiger" (http://n
ews.sciencemag.org/biology/2015/06/controversial-study-claims-there-are-only-two-types-tige
r). Science. doi:10.1126/science.aac6905 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aac6905).
Retrieved 27 June 2015.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 20/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

16. Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.;
Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.;
Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.;
Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae:
The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (https://r
epository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?s
equence=1&isAllowed=y#page=66) (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 66–68.
17. Liu, Y.-C.; Sun, X.; Driscoll, C.; Miquelle, D. G.; Xu, X.; Martelli, P.; Uphyrkina, O.; Smith, J. L.
D.; O’Brien, S. J. & Luo, S.-J. (2018). "Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of natural history
and adaptation in the world's tigers" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.09.019). Current
Biology. 28 (23): 3840–3849. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.019 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.
2018.09.019). PMID 30482605 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30482605).
18. Liu, Y.; Sun, X.; Driscoll, C.; Miquelle, D.; Xu, X.; Martelli, P.; Uphyrkina, O.; Smith, J.; O'Brien,
S.; Luo, S. (2018). "Genome-Wide Evolutionary Analysis of Natural History and Adaptation in
the World's Tigers" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.09.019). Current Biology. 28 (13):
3840–3849. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.019 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.09.019).
PMID 30482605 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30482605).
19. Illiger, C. (1815). "Überblick der Säugethiere nach ihrer Verteilung über die Welttheile" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20190608070026/http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/bbaw/bibliothek-digital/digitale
quellen/schriften/anzeige/index_html?band=07-abh%2F18041811&seite%3Aint=195).
Abhandlungen der Königlichen Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1804–
1811: 39–159. Archived from the original (http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/bbaw/bibliothek-digital/digit
alequellen/schriften/anzeige/index_html?band=07-abh/18041811&seite:int=195) on 8 June
2019. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
20. Heptner, V. G. & Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Tiger" (https://archive.org/stream/mammalsofso
v221992gept#page/94/mode/2up). Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia
Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)].
Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 95–202.
21. Jackson, P. & Nowell, K. (2011). "Panthera tigris ssp. virgata" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/speci
es/41505/10480967). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2011: e.T41505A10480967.
22. Temminck, C. J. (1844). "Aperçu général et spécifique sur les Mammifères qui habitent le
Japon et les Iles qui en dépendent"
(https://archive.org/details/faunajaponicasi00sieb/page/43). In Siebold, P. F. v.; Temminck, C.
J.; Schlegel, H. (eds.). Fauna Japonica sive Descriptio animalium, quae in itinere per
Japoniam, jussu et auspiciis superiorum, qui summum in India Batava imperium tenent,
suscepto, annis 1825 – 1830 collegit, notis, observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit Ph.
Fr. de Siebold. Leiden: Lugduni Batavorum.
23. Hilzheimer, M. (1905). "Über einige Tigerschädel aus der Straßburger zoologischen
Sammlung" (https://archive.org/details/zoologischeranze28deut/page/596). Zoologischer
Anzeiger. 28: 594–599.
24. Mazák, V. (1981). "Panthera tigris" (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3504004). Mammalian Species.
152 (152): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3504004 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3504004). JSTOR 3504004
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/3504004).
25. Mazák, V. (1968). "Nouvelle sous-espèce de tigre provenant de l'Asie du sud-est". Mammalia.
32 (1): 104–112. doi:10.1515/mamm.1968.32.1.104 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fmamm.1968.3
2.1.104). S2CID 84054536 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84054536).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 21/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

26. Luo, S.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W. E.; van der Walt, J.; Martenson, J.; Yuhki, N.; Miquelle, D.
G.; Uphyrkina, O.; Goodrich, J. M.; Quigley, H. B.; Tilson, R.; Brady, G.; Martelli, P.;
Subramaniam, V.; McDougal, C.; Hean, S.; Huang, S.-Q.; Pan, W.; Karanth, U. K.; Sunquist,
M.; Smith, J. L. D. & O'Brien, S. J. (2004). "Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers
(Panthera tigris)" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534810). PLOS Biology. 2
(12): e442. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.002044
2). PMC 534810 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534810). PMID 15583716 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15583716).
27. Mazák, J. H. & Groves, C. P. (2006). "A taxonomic revision of the tigers (Panthera tigris)" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20070906122850/http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/tiger%20SEAsia%20M
azak.pdf) (PDF). Mammalian Biology. 71 (5): 268–287. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2006.02.007 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mambio.2006.02.007). Archived from the original (http://arts.anu.ed
u.au/grovco/tiger%20SEAsia%20Mazak.pdf) (PDF) on 6 September 2007.
28. Schwarz, E. (1912). "Notes on Malay tigers, with description of a new form from Bali" (https://ar
chive.org/stream/annalsmagazineof8101912lond#page/324/mode/2up). Annals and Magazine
of Natural History. Series 8 Volume 10 (57): 324–326. doi:10.1080/00222931208693243 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F00222931208693243).
29. Mazak, V. (2004). Der Tiger (in German). Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben.
ISBN 978-3-89432-759-0.
30. Mazák, V.; Groves, C. P.; Van Bree, P. (1978). "Skin and Skull of the Bali Tiger, and a list of
preserved specimens of Panthera tigris balica (Schwarz, 1912)". Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde
– International Journal of Mammalian Biology. 43 (2): 108–113.
31. Pocock, R. I. (1929). "Tigers" (https://archive.org/details/journalofbomb33341929bomb/page/n
185). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 33: 505–541.
32. Cracraft, J.; Feinstein, J.; Vaughn, J. & Helm-Bychowski, K. (1998). "Sorting out tigers
(Panthera tigris): mitochondrial sequences, nuclear inserts, systematics, and conservation
genetics" (http://research.amnh.org/vz/ornithology/pdfs/1998c.%20tiger%20conservation.pdf)
(PDF). Animal Conservation. 1 (2): 139–150. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.1998.tb00021.x (https://
doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-1795.1998.tb00021.x).
33. Johnson, W. E.; Eizirik, E.; Pecon-Slattery, J.; Murphy, W. J.; Antunes, A.; Teeling, E.; O'Brien,
S. J. (2006). "The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment" (https://se
manticscholar.org/paper/473f6d3685451ace84ebc51ac3ab21ab9923f54d). Science. 311
(5757): 73–77. Bibcode:2006Sci...311...73J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311...
73J). doi:10.1126/science.1122277 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1122277).
PMID 16400146 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16400146). S2CID 41672825 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:41672825).
34. Davis, B. W.; Li, G.; Murphy, W. J. (2010). "Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve
phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, Panthera (Carnivora: Felidae)". Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution. 56 (1): 64–76. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.036 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2Fj.ympev.2010.01.036). PMID 20138224 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2013822
4).
35. Tseng, Z. J.; Wang, X.; Slater, G. J.; Takeuchi, G. T.; Li, Q.; Liu, J.; Xie, G. (2014). "Himalayan
fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3843846). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences. 281 (1774): 20132686. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2686 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsp
b.2013.2686). PMC 3843846 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3843846).
PMID 24225466 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24225466).
36. Mazák, J. H.; Christiansen, P.; Kitchener, A. C. (2011). "Oldest Known Pantherine Skull and
Evolution of the Tiger" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189913). PLOS ONE.
6 (10): e25483. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625483M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoS
O...625483M). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025483 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.002
5483). PMC 3189913 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189913).
PMID 22016768 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22016768).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 22/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

37. Hemmer, H. (1971). "Fossil mammals of Java. II. Zur Fossilgeschichte des Tigers (Panthera
tigris (L.)) in Java". Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen. B. 74 (1): 35–52.
38. Hasegawa, Y.; Tomida, Y.; Kohno, N.; Ono, K.; Nokariya, H.; Uyeno, T. (1988). "Quaternary
vertebrates from Shiriya area, Shimokita Pininsula, northeastern Japan". Memoirs of the
National Science Museum. 21: 17–36.
39. Turner, A.; Antón, M. (1997). The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives: An Illustrated Guide to
Their Evolution and Natural History (https://books.google.com/books?id=66mRJSxIAfoC).
Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10228-5.
40. Piper, P. J.; Ochoa, J.; Lewis, H.; Paz, V.; Ronquillo, W. P. (2008). "The first evidence for the
past presence of the tiger Panthera tigris (L.) on the island of Palawan, Philippines: extinction
in an island population". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 264 (1–2): 123–
127. Bibcode:2008PPP...264..123P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PPP...264..123P).
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.04.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2008.04.003).
41. Van der Geer, A.; Lyras, G.; De Vos, J.; Dermitzakis, M. (2011). "15 (The Philippines); 26
(Carnivores)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=JmSsNuwMAxgC&pg=PT219). Evolution of
Island Mammals: Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands. John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 220–347. ISBN 9781444391282.
42. Ochoa, J.; Piper, P. J. (2017). "Tiger" (https://books.google.com/books?id=e-hyDgAAQBAJ&pg
=PA80). In Monks, G. (ed.). Climate Change and Human Responses: A Zooarchaeological
Perspective. Springer. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-9-4024-1106-5.
43. Kitchener, A. & Yamaguchi, N. (2010). "What is a Tiger? Biogeography, Morphology, and
Taxonomy" (https://books.google.com/books?id=XFIbjBEQolMC&pg=PA53). In Tilson, R. &
Nyhus, P. J. (eds.). Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of Panthera
tigris (Second ed.). London, Burlington: Academic Press. pp. 53–84. ISBN 978-0-08-094751-8.
44. Piper, P. J. & Rabett, R. J. (2007). "Confirmation of the presence of the tiger Panthera tigris (L.)
in Late Pleistocene and Holocene Borneo" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2845063
55). Malayan Nature Journal. 59 (3): 259–267. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
45. Cooper, D. M.; Dugmore, A. J.; Gittings, B. M.; Scharf, A. K.; Wilting, A.; Kitchener, A. C.
(2016). "Predicted Pleistocene–Holocene rangeshifts of the tiger (Panthera tigris)" (https://doi.o
rg/10.1111%2Fddi.12484). Diversity and Distributions. 22 (11): 1–13. doi:10.1111/ddi.12484 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12484).
46. Cho, Y. S.; Hu, L.; Hou, H.; Lee, H.; Xu, J.; Kwon, S.; Oh, S.; Kim, H. M.; Jho, S.; Kim, S.; Shin,
Y. A.; Kim, B. C.; Kim, H.; Kim, C. U.; Luo, S. J.; Johnson, W. E.; Koepfli, K. P.; Schmidt-
Küntzel, A.; Turner, J. A.; Marker, L.; Harper, C.; Miller, S. M.; Jacobs, W.; Bertola, L. D.; Kim,
T. H.; Lee, S.; Zhou, Q.; Jung, H. J.; Xu, X. & Gadhvi, P. (2013). "The tiger genome and
comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC3778509). Nature Communications. 4: 2433. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2433C (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013NatCo...4.2433C). doi:10.1038/ncomms3433 (https://doi.or
g/10.1038%2Fncomms3433). hdl:2263/32583 (https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F32583).
PMC 3778509 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3778509). PMID 24045858 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24045858).
47. Actman, Jani (24 February 2017). "Cat Experts: Ligers and Other Designer Hybrids Pointless
and Unethical" (https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/02/wildlife-watch-liger-tigon-big-cat-
hybrid/). National Geographic.com. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
48. Markel, S.; León, D. (2003). Sequence Analysis in a Nutshell: a guide to common tools and
databases (https://web.archive.org/web/20180827005316/http://ommolketab.ir/aaf-lib/d5qzewc
ba1wb4sk6u293rv2y15u9oa.pdf) (PDF). Sebastopol, California: O'Reily. ISBN 978-0-596-
00494-1. Archived from the original (http://ommolketab.ir/aaf-lib/d5qzewcba1wb4sk6u293rv2y1
5u9oa.pdf) (PDF) on 27 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
49. "Genomic Imprinting" (https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/imprinting/). Genetic
Science Learning Center, Utah.org. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
50. Singh, A. (1985). "Okapis and litigons in London and Calcutta". New Scientist (1453): 7.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 23/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

51. Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1975). "Tiger Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)" (https://archive.org/detail

s/wildcatsofworld00gugg). Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co. pp. 180–215
(https://archive.org/details/wildcatsofworld00gugg/page/180). ISBN 978-0-7950-0128-4.
52. Miquelle, D. (2001). "Tiger". In MacDonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals (2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press. pp. 18–21. ISBN 978-0-7607-1969-5.
53. Godfrey, D.; Lythgoe, J. N.; Rumball, D. A. (1987). "Zebra stripes and tiger stripes: the spatial
frequency distribution of the pattern compared to that of the background is significant in display
and crypsis". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 32 (4): 427–433. doi:10.1111/j.1095-
8312.1987.tb00442.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1987.tb00442.x).
54. Allen, W. L.; Cuthill, I. C.; Scott-Samuel, N. E.; Baddeley, R. (2010). "Why the leopard got its
spots: relating pattern development to ecology in felids" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti
cles/PMC3061134). Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 278 (1710): 1373–1380.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1734 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2010.1734). PMC 3061134 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061134). PMID 20961899 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/20961899).
55. Fennell, J. G.; Talas, L.; Baddeley, R. J.; Cuthill, I. C. & Scott-Samuel, N. E. (2019).
"Optimizing colour for camouflage and visibility using deep learning: the effects of the
environment and the observer's visual system" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
6544896). Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 16 (154): 20190183.
doi:10.1098/rsif.2019.0183 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsif.2019.0183). PMC 6544896 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6544896). PMID 31138092 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/31138092).
56. Langley, L. (2017). "Do Zebras Have Stripes on Their Skin?" (http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/2017/03/animals-skin-colors-zebras-big-cats/). National Geographic.
57. Leyhausen, P. (1979). Cat behavior: the predatory and social behavior of domestic and wild
cats. Berlin: Garland Publishing, Incorporated. p. 281. ISBN 9780824070175.
58. Matthiessen, P.; Hornocker, M. (2008). Tigers in the Snow (reprint ed.). Paw Prints.
ISBN 9781435296152.
59. McNab, B. K. (1971). "On the ecological significance of Bergmann's rule". Ecology. 52 (5):
845–854. doi:10.2307/1936032 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1936032). JSTOR 1936032 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/1936032).
60. Xu, X.; Dong, G. X.; Schmidt-Küntzel, A.; Zhang, X. L.; Zhuang, Y.; Fang, R.; Sun, X.; Hu, X.S.;
Zhang, T. Y.; Yang, H. D.; Zhang, D. L.; Marker, L.; Jiang, Z.-F.; Li, R.; Luo, S.-J. (2017). "The
genetics of tiger pelage color variations" (https://www.luo-lab.org/publications/Xu17-CellRes-G
oldenTiger.pdf) (PDF). Cell Research. 27 (7): 954–957. doi:10.1038/cr.2017.32 (https://doi.org/
10.1038%2Fcr.2017.32). PMC 5518981 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC55189
81). PMID 28281538 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28281538).
61. Barik, Satyasundar (28 July 2015). "Melanistic tigers exhibited in Nandankanan zoo" (https://w
ww.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/melanistic-tigers-exhibited-in-nandankanan-zoo/a
rticle7473887.ece). The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X).
Retrieved 14 February 2020.
62. Robinson, R. (1969). "The white tigers of Rewa and gene homology in the Felidae". Genetica.
40 (1): 198–200. doi:10.1007/BF01787350 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01787350).
PMID 5806538 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5806538). S2CID 40514283 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:40514283).
63. Xu, X.; Dong, G. X.; Hu, X. S.; Miao, L.; Zhang, X. L.; Zhang, D. L.; Yang, H. D.; Zhang, T. Y.;
Zou, Z. T.; Zhang, T. T.; Zhuang, Y.; Bhak, J.; Cho, Y. S.; Dai, W. T.; Jiang, T. J.; Xie, C.; Li, R.;
Luo, S. J. (2013). "The Genetic Basis of White Tigers" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2013.0
4.054). Current Biology. 23 (11): 1031–5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.054 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fj.cub.2013.04.054). PMID 23707431 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23707431).
64. Gee, E. P. (1959). "Albinism and Partial Albinism in Tigers" (https://archive.org/details/journalof
bombay561959bomb/page/580). The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 56: 581–
587.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 24/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

65. Guillery, R. W.; Kaas, J. H. (1973). "Genetic abnormality of the visual pathways in a "white"
tiger". Science. 180 (4092): 1287–1289. Bibcode:1973Sci...180.1287G (https://ui.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/abs/1973Sci...180.1287G). doi:10.1126/science.180.4092.1287 (https://doi.org/10.112
6%2Fscience.180.4092.1287). PMID 4707916 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4707916).
S2CID 28568341 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28568341).
66. Begany, L.; Criscuolo, C. L. (2009). "Accumulation of Deleterious Mutations Due to Inbreeding
in Tiger Population" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150510230909/http://bigcatrescue.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/Accumulation-of-Deleterious-Mutations-Due-to-Inbreeding-in-Tiger-P
opulation.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://bigcatrescue.org/wp-content/uploads/20
14/10/Accumulation-of-Deleterious-Mutations-Due-to-Inbreeding-in-Tiger-Population.pdf)
(PDF) on 10 May 2015.
67. Xavier, N. (2010). "A new conservation policy needed for reintroduction of Bengal tiger-white"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140330113244/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/opinions/545
71689/new-conservation-policy-needed-reintroduction-bengal-tiger-white). Current Science. 99
(7): 894–895. Archived from the original (http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/opinions/5457168
9/new-conservation-policy-needed-reintroduction-bengal-tiger-white) on 30 March 2014.
68. Seidensticker, J. (1986). "Large Carnivores and the Consequences of Habitat Insularization:
ecology and conservation of Tigers in Indonesia and Bangladesh" (https://repository.si.edu/bits
tream/handle/10088/8206/71440cc3-e3f8-487f-981f-2c9a3309783e.pdf) (PDF). In Miller, S. D.;
Everett, D. D. (eds.). Cats of the world: biology, conservation and management. Washington
DC: National Wildlife Federation. pp. 1–41.
69. Miquelle, D. G.; Smirnov, E. N.; Merrill, T. W.; Myslenkov, A. E.; Quigley, H.; Hornocker, M. G.;
Schleyer, B. (1999). "Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and
prey" (http://www.panthera.org/node/342). In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S.; Jackson, P. (eds.).
Riding the Tiger. Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. London: Cambridge
University Press. pp. 71–99. ISBN 978-0521648356.
70. Sanderson, E.; Forrest, J.; Loucks, C.; Ginsberg, J.; Dinerstein, E.; Seidensticker, J.;
Leimgruber, P.; Songer, M.; Heydlauff, A.; O'Brien, T.; Bryja, G.; Klenzendorf, S.;
Wikramanayake, E. (2006). Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild
Tigers: 2005–2015: The Technical Assessment (https://web.archive.org/web/20120118151415/
http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/tigers/WWFBinaryitem9363.pdf) (PDF). New York –
Washington DC: WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF. Archived from the original (http://
www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/tigers/WWFBinaryitem9363.pdf) (PDF) on 18 January
2012. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
71. Sunquist, M. (2010). "What is a Tiger? Ecology and Behaviour" (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=XFIbjBEQolMC&pg=PA23). In R. Tilson; P. J. Nyhus (eds.). Tigers of the World: The
Science, Politics and Conservation of Panthera tigris (Second ed.). London, Burlington:
Academic Press. p. 19−34. ISBN 978-0-08-094751-8.
72. Karanth, K. U.; Sunquist, M. E.; Chinnappa, K. M. (1999). "Long-term monitoring of tigers:
lessons from Nagarahole". In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S.; Jackson, P. (eds.). Riding the
Tiger. Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. London: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 114–122. ISBN 978-0521648356.
73. Faizolahi, K. (2016). "Tiger in Iran – historical distribution, extinction causes and feasibility of
reintroduction". Cat News (Special Issue 10): 5–13.
74. Kerley, L. L.; Goodrich, J. M.; Miquelle, D. G.; Smirnov, E. N.; Quigley, H. G.; Hornocker, M. G.
(2003). "Reproductive parameters of wild female Amur (Siberian) tigers (Panthera tigris
altaica)" (https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282003%29084%3C0288%3ARPOWFA%3E
2.0.CO%3B2). Journal of Mammalogy. 84 (1): 288–298. doi:10.1644/1545-
1542(2003)084<0288:RPOWFA>2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282003%2
9084%3C0288%3ARPOWFA%3E2.0.CO%3B2). JSTOR 1383657 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1383657).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 25/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

75. Wikramanayake, E. D.; Dinerstein, E.; Robinson, J. G.; Karanth, K. U.; Rabinowitz, A.; Olson,
D.; Mathew, T.; Hedao, P.; Connor, M.; Hemley, G.; Bolze, D. (1999). "Where can tigers live in
the future? A framework for identifying high-priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the
wild". In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S.; Jackson, P. (eds.). Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation
in Human Dominated Landscape. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 254–272.
ISBN 978-0521648356.
76. Jigme, K. & Tharchen, L. (2012). "Camera-trap records of tigers at high altitudes in Bhutan".
Cat News (56): 14–15.
77. Adhikarimayum, A. S. & Gopi, G. V. (2018). "First photographic record of tiger presence at
higher elevations of the Mishmi Hills in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot, Arunachal
Pradesh, India" (https://doi.org/10.11609%2Fjott.4381.10.13.12833-12836). Journal of
Threatened Taxa. 10 (13): 12833–12836. doi:10.11609/jott.4381.10.13.12833-12836 (https://d
oi.org/10.11609%2Fjott.4381.10.13.12833-12836).
78. Simcharoen, S.; Pattanavibool, A.; Karanth, K. U.; Nichols, J. D. & Kumar, N. S. (2007). "How
many tigers Panthera tigris are there in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand? An
estimate using photographic capture-recapture sampling" (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS003060
5307414107). Oryx. 41 (4): 447–453. doi:10.1017/S0030605307414107 (https://doi.org/10.101
7%2FS0030605307414107).
79. Rasphone, A.; Kéry, M.; Kamler, J.F. & Macdonald, D.W. (2019). "Documenting the demise of
tiger and leopard, and the status of other carnivores and prey, in Lao PDR's most prized
protected area: Nam Et-Phou Louey" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gecco.2019.e00766).
Global Ecology and Conservation. 20: e00766. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00766 (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.gecco.2019.e00766).
80. Wibisono, H. T.; Linkie, M.; Guillera-Arroita, G.; Smith, J. A.; Sunarto; Pusarini, W.; Asriadi;
Baroto, P.; Brickle, N.; Dinata, Y.; Gemita, E.; Gunaryadi, D.; Haidir, I. A.; Herwansyah (2011).
"Population Status of a Cryptic Top Predator: An Island-Wide Assessment of Tigers in
Sumatran Rainforests" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206793). PLOS ONE.
6 (11): e25931. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625931W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoS
O...625931W). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025931 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.00
25931). PMC 3206793 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206793).
PMID 22087218 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22087218).
81. Thapar, V. (1994). The Tiger's Destiny. London: Kyle Cathie. pp. 47, 174–175. ISBN 978-1-
85626-142-5.
82. Sunquist, M.; Sunquist, F. (1991). "Tigers". In Seidensticker, J.; Lumpkin, S. (eds.). Great Cats.
Fog City Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-1-875137-90-9.
83. Novak, R. M.; Walker, E. P. (1999). "Panthera tigris (tiger)" (https://books.google.com/books?id
=T37sFCl43E8C&pg=PA825). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press. pp. 825–828. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8.
84. Joshi, A.; Vaidyanathan, S.; Mondol, S.; Edgaonkar, A.; Ramakrishnan, U. (2013).
"Connectivity of Tiger (Panthera tigris) Populations in the Human-Influenced Forest Mosaic of
Central India" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819329). PLOS ONE. 8 (11):
e77980. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...877980J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...877
980J). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077980 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0077980).
PMC 3819329 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819329). PMID 24223132 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24223132).
85. Smith, J. L. D. (1993). "The role of dispersal in structuring the Chitwan tiger population".
Behaviour. 124 (3): 165–195. doi:10.1163/156853993X00560 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568
53993X00560).
86. McDougal, Charles (1977). The Face of the Tiger (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-EHA
QAAMAAJ). London: Rivington Books and André Deutsch. pp. 63–76. ISBN 9780233969466.
87. Mills, S. (2004). Tiger. London: BBC Books. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-55297-949-5.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 26/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

88. Burger, B. V.; Viviers, M. Z.; Bekker, J. P. I.; Roux, M.; Fish, N.; Fourie, W. B.; Weibchen, G.
(2008). "Chemical Characterization of Territorial Marking Fluid of Male Bengal Tiger, Panthera
tigris" (http://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/10019.1/11220/2/burger_chemical_2008.pdf) (PDF).
Journal of Chemical Ecology. 34 (5): 659–671. doi:10.1007/s10886-008-9462-y (https://doi.or
g/10.1007%2Fs10886-008-9462-y). hdl:10019.1/11220 (https://hdl.handle.net/10019.1%2F112
20). PMID 18437496 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18437496). S2CID 5558760 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5558760).
89. Smith, J. L. David; McDougal, C.; Miquelle, D. (1989). "Scent marking in free-ranging tigers,
Panthera tigris". Animal Behaviour. 37: 1–10. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90001-8 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2F0003-3472%2889%2990001-8). S2CID 53149100 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:53149100).
90. Schaller, G. (1967). The Deer and the Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India (https://archive.org/det
ails/in.ernet.dli.2015.553304). Chicago: Chicago Press.
91. Thapar, V. (1989). Tiger: Portrait of a Predator. New York: Smithmark. ISBN 978-0-8160-1238-
1.
92. Peters, G.; Tonkin-Leyhausen, B. A. (1999). "Evolution of Acoustic Communication Signals of
Mammals: Friendly Close-Range Vocalizations in Felidae (Carnivora)". Journal of Mammalian
Evolution. 6 (2): 129–159. doi:10.1023/A:1020620121416 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A10
20620121416). S2CID 25252052 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25252052).
93. Hayward, M. W.; Jędrzejewski, W.; Jędrzejewska, B. (2012). "Prey preferences of the tiger
Panthera tigris". Journal of Zoology. 286 (3): 221–231. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00871.x
(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7998.2011.00871.x).
94. Perry, R. (1965). The World of the Tiger. p. 260.
95. "Trouble for rhino from poacher and Bengal tiger" (https://web.archive.org/web/201409270939
27/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080313/jsp/northeast/story_9012303.jsp). The Telegraph.
2008. Archived from the original (http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080313/jsp/northeast/story_9
012303.jsp) on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
96. "Tiger kills elephant at Eravikulam park" (http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article1
03095.ece). The New Indian Express. 2009.
97. "Tiger kills adult rhino in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve" (https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/oth
er-states/tiger-kills-adult-rhino-in-dudhwa-tiger-reserve/article4357638.ece). The Hindu. 29
January 2013 – via www.thehindu.com.
98. Karanth, K. U. & Nichols, J. D. (1998). "Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic
captures and recaptures" (http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11732/758/Estimation%20o
f%20tiger%20densities%20in%20India%20using%20photographic%20captures%20and%20re
captures.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y) (PDF). Ecology. 79 (8): 2852–2862.
doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[2852:EOTDII]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-96
58%281998%29079%5B2852%3AEOTDII%5D2.0.CO%3B2). JSTOR 176521 (https://www.jst
or.org/stable/176521).
99. BBC (2008). Tiger: Spy In The Jungle (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b009smrg). John
Downer Productions
100. Sankhala, p. 17
101. Hunter, Luke (2011). Carnivores of the World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
15228-8.
102. Sunquist, M.; Sunquist, F. (2002). "Tiger Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA344). Wild Cats of the World (https://archive.org/deta
ils/wildcatsofworld00sunq/page/343). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 343–372 (http
s://archive.org/details/wildcatsofworld00sunq/page/343). ISBN 978-0-22-677999-7.
103. Sankhala, p. 23
104. Mills, S. (2004). Tiger. Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-55297-949-5.
105. Sunquist, F. & Sunquist, M. (2002). Tiger Moon. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-
77997-3.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 27/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

106. Mills, Gus; Hofer, Heribert (1998). Hyaenas: status survey and conservation action plan (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20130506084714/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/1998-013.pdf).
IUCN/SSC Hyena Specialist Group. ISBN 2-8317-0442-1.
107. Miquelle, D.G., Stephens, P.A., Smirnov, E.N., Goodrich, J.M., Zaumyslova, O.Yu. &
Myslenkov, A.I. (2005). Tigers and Wolves in the Russian Far East: Competitive Exclusion,
Functional Redundancy and Conservation Implications (https://books.google.com/books?id=nd
b0QOvq2LYC&pg=PA179). In Large Carnivores and the Conservation of Biodiversity. Ray,
J.C., Berger, J., Redford, K.H. & Steneck, R. (eds.) New York: Island Press. pp. 179–207
ISBN 1-55963-080-9.
108. Goldsmith, O. (2010). A History of the Earth, And Animated Nature, Volume 2. Nabu Press.
p. 297. ISBN 978-1-145-11108-0.
109. Mills, S. (2004). Tiger. Richmond Hill: Firefly Books. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-55297-949-5.
110. "Sympatric Tiger and Leopard: How two big cats coexist in the same area" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20080213000715/http://www.ecology.info/tiger-leopard.htm). Archived from the
original (http://www.ecology.info/tiger-leopard.htm) on 13 February 2008. Ecology.info
111. Karanth, K. U. & Sunquist, M. E. (2000). "Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger
(Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Nagarahole, India".
Journal of Zoology. 250 (2): 255–265. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x (https://doi.org/
10.1111%2Fj.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x).
112. Karanth, K. U. & Sunquist, M. E. (1995). "Prey Selection by Tiger, Leopard and Dhole in
Tropical Forests". Journal of Animal Ecology. 64 (4): 439–450. doi:10.2307/5647 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F5647). JSTOR 5647 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/5647).
113. Sillero-Zubiri, C., Hoffmann, M. and Macdonald, D.W. (eds). 2004. Canids: Foxes, Wolves,
Jackals and Dogs. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (http://www.carnivoreconserva
tion.org/files/actionplans/canids.pdf). IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK. ISBN 2-8317-0786-2
114. Thinley, P.; Rajaratnam, R.; Lassoie, J. P.; Morreale, S. J.; Curtis, P. D.; Vernes, K.; Leki Leki;
Phuntsho, S.; Dorji, T. & Dorji, P. (2018). "The ecological benefit of tigers (Panthera tigris) to
farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas: Implications for
conservation of large apex predators" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2018.08.007).
Biological Conservation. 219: 119–125. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.007 (https://doi.org/10.10
16%2Fj.biocon.2018.08.007).
115. Sankhala, K. S. (1967). "Breeding behaviour of the tiger Panthera tigris in Rajasthan".
International Zoo Yearbook. 7 (1): 133–147. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1967.tb00354.x (https://d
oi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-1090.1967.tb00354.x).
116. Pacifici, M.; Santini, L.; Di Marco, M.; Baisero, D.; Francucci, L.; Grottolo Marasini, G.; Visconti,
P. & Rondinini, C. (2013). "Generation length for mammals". Nature Conservation (5): 87–94.
117. Wildlife Conservation Society. (2015). Tiger dad: Rare family portrait of Amur tigers the first-
ever to include an adult male (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/03/150306143548.
htm). ScienceDaily, 6 March 2015.
118. "T-25 Dollar- The Famous Tiger of Ranthambore" (https://www.ranthamborenationalpark.com/t
-25.html).
119. Jhala, Y. V.; Qureshi, Q. & Nayak, A. K., eds. (2019). Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in
India 2018. Summary Report. TR No./2019/05. New Delhi, Dehradun: National Tiger
Conservation Authority & Wildlife Institute of India.
120. Global Tiger Forum (2016). "Global wild tiger population status, April 2016" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20180924185944/http://tigers.panda.org/wp-content/uploads/Background-Document
-Wild-Tiger-Status-2016.pdf) (PDF). Global Tiger Forum, WWF. Archived from the original (htt
p://tigers.panda.org/wp-content/uploads/Background-Document-Wild-Tiger-Status-2016.pdf)
(PDF) on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2017.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 28/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

121. Wang, T.; Feng, L.; Mou, P.; Wu, J.; Smith, J.L.; Xiao, W.; Yang, H.; Dou, H.; Zhao, X.; Cheng,
Y.; Zhou, B. (2016). "Amur tigers and leopards returning to China: direct evidence and a
landscape conservation plan". Landscape Ecology. 31 (3): 491–503. doi:10.1007/s10980-015-
0278-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10980-015-0278-1). S2CID 10597364 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:10597364).
122. Kawanishi, K. (2015). "Panthera tigris ssp. jacksoni" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/13689
3/50665029). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T136893A50665029.
123. Dorji, S.; Thinley, P.; Tempa, T.; Wangchuk, N.; Tandin; Namgyel, U. & Tshewang, S. (2015).
Counting the Tigers in Bhutan: Report on the National Tiger Survey of Bhutan 2014 – 2015 (htt
ps://www.researchgate.net/publication/326294374) (Report). Thimphu, Bhutan: Department of
Forests and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.
124. Poudyal, L.; Yadav, B.; Ranabhat, R.; Maharjan, S.; Malla, S.; Lamichhane, B.R.; Subba, S.;
Koirala, S.; Shrestha, S.; Gurung, A.; Paudel, U.; Bhatt, T. & Giri, S. (2018). Status of Tigers
and Prey in Nepal (Report). Kathmandu, Nepal: Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation & Department of Forests and Soil Conservation, Ministry of Forests and
Environment.
125. Howard, B. C. (2016). "Tiger Numbers Rise for First Time in a Century" (http://news.nationalge
ographic.com/2016/04/160410-tiger-numbers-rise-wwf-conservation-double-population/).
National Geographic.
126. Daigle, K. (2016). "World's wild tiger count rising for first time in a century" (http://phys.org/new
s/2016-04-world-wild-tiger-century.html). Phys Org. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
127. Sanderson, E. W.; Forrest, J.; Loucks, C.; Ginsberg, J.; Dinerstein, E.; Seidensticker, J.;
Leimgruber, P.; Songer, M.; Heydlauff, A.; O'Brien, T.; Bryja, G.; Klenzendorf, S.;
Wikramanayake, E. (2010). "Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild
Tigers: 2005–2015" (https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/11080/nzp_9_Sanderson.
pdf?sequence=1) (PDF). In Tilson, R.; Nyhus, P. J. (eds.). Tigers of the World: The Science,
Politics and Conservation of Panthera tigris (Second ed.). London, Burlington: Academic
Press. pp. 143–161. ISBN 978-0-08-094751-8.
128. van Uhm, D.P. (2016). The Illegal Wildlife Trade: Inside the World of Poachers, Smugglers and
Traders (Studies of Organized Crime). New York: Springer.
129. "Traditional Chinese Medicine" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120511171427/http://www.world
wildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/wildlifetrade/traditionalchinesemedicine.html). World Wildlife
Foundation. Archived from the original (http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/wildlifet
rade/traditionalchinesemedicine.html) on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
130. Jacobs, A. (2010). "Tiger Farms in China Feed Thirst for Parts" (https://www.nytimes.com/201
0/02/13/world/asia/13tiger.html?_r=1). The New York Times.
131. Burke, Jason (20 January 2015). "India's tiger population increases by almost a third" (https://
www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jan/20/india-tiger-population-increases-endangered-s
pecies). The Guardian. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
132. "International Tiger Day 2019: PM Modi Releases Report, India counts 2967 Tigers" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20190729094059/https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/international-tig
er-day-2019-pm-modi-releases-report-india-counts-2967-tigers-1564375425-1). Jagran Josh.
2019. Archived from the original (https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/international-tiger-
day-2019-pm-modi-releases-report-india-counts-2967-tigers-1564375425-1) on 29 July 2019.
133. "Front Page : Over half of tigers lost in 5 years: census" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008022
0074725/http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/13/stories/2008021357240100.htm). The Hindu. 13
February 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/13/stories/20080213
57240100.htm) on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
134. Foster, Peter (30 August 2007). "Why the tiger's future is far from bright" (https://www.telegrap
h.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642330/Why-the-tigers-future-is-far-from-bright.html). The
Telegraph. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/co
mment/personal-view/3642330/Why-the-tigers-future-is-far-from-bright.html) from the original
on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 29/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

135. "Tiger Reserves" (http://wiienvis.nic.in/Database/trd_8222.aspx). ENVIS Centre on Wildlife &

Protected Areas. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
136. Page, Jeremy (5 July 2008). "Tigers flown by helicopter to Sariska reserve to lift numbers in
western India" (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4272945.ece). The
Times. London. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
137. "India Reports Sharp Decline in Wild Tigers" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/0
2/080213-AP-india-disap.html). News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
138. "It's the tale of a tiger, two tigresses in wilds of Sariska" (http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/
Earth/Its-the-tale-of-a-tiger-two-tigresses-in-wilds-of-Sariska/rssarticleshow/4212845.cms).
Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
139. "Tigers galore in Ranthambhore National Park" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090311163809/
http://www.hindu.com/2009/03/11/stories/2009031152382000.htm). The Hindu. 11 March 2009.
Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2009/03/11/stories/2009031152382000.htm)
on 11 March 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
140. Goodrich, J.M.; Miquelle, D.G.; Smirnov, E.M.; Kerley, L.L.; Quigley, H.B.; Hornocker, M.G.
(2010). "Spatial structure of Amur (Siberian) tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) on Sikhote-Alin
Biosphere Zapovednik, Russia" (http://www.panthera.org/content/spatial-structure-amur-siberia
n-tigers-panthera-tigris-altaica-sikhote-alin-biosphere-zapove). Journal of Mammalogy. 91 (3):
737–748. doi:10.1644/09-mamm-a-293.1 (https://doi.org/10.1644%2F09-mamm-a-293.1).
141. "Amur (Siberian) tiger" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131125060940/http://wwf.panda.org/wh
at_we_do/endangered_species/tigers/about_tigers/amur_tiger/). World Wildlife Fund. Archived
from the original (http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/tigers/about_tigers/a
mur_tiger/) on 25 November 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2007.
142. Timothy, E.; Fulbright, D.; Hewitt, G. (2007). Wildlife Science: Linking Ecological Theory and
Management Applications. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-7487-6.
143. Miquelle, D.; Darman, Y.; Seryodkin, I. (2011). "Panthera tigris ssp. altaica" (https://www.iucnre
dlist.org/species/15956/5333650). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2011:
e.T15956A5333650. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T15956A5333650.en (https://doi.org/
10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T15956A5333650.en).
144. "Russia Announce Tiger Census Results" (https://tigers.panda.org/news_and_stories/stories/ru
ssia_announce_tiger_census_results.cfm). tigers.panda.org. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
145. Tilson, R.; Defu, H.; Muntifering, J.; Nyhus, P. J. (2004). "Dramatic decline of wild South China
tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves" (https://doi.org/10.101
7%2FS0030605304000079). Oryx. 38 (1): 40–47. doi:10.1017/S0030605304000079 (https://d
oi.org/10.1017%2FS0030605304000079).
146. Nyhus, P. (2008). "Panthera tigris ssp. amoyensis" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15965/
5334628). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2008: e.T15965A5334628.
doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T15965A5334628.en (https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.
2008.RLTS.T15965A5334628.en).
147. Yeh, Emily T. (2012). "Transnational Environmentalism and Entanglements of Sovereignty: The
Tiger Campaign Across the Himalayas". Political Geography. 31 (7): 408–418.
doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2012.06.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.polgeo.2012.06.003).
148. "Animal Skin Clothes Burned in Tibet After Dalai Lamas Call" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
01030121936/http://dalailama.com/news/post/27-animal-skin-clothes-burned-in-tibet-after-dala
i-lamas-call). The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. 17 February 2006. Archived from the
original (http://www.dalailama.com/news/post/27-animal-skin-clothes-burned-in-tibet-after-dalai
-lamas-call) on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
149. Franklin, N., Bastoni, Sriyanto, Siswomartono, D., Manansang, J. and R. Tilson (1999). Last of
the Indonesian tigers: a cause for optimism, pp. 130–147 in: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. and
Jackson, P. (eds). Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-64835-1.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 30/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

150. Tilson, R. (1999). Sumatran Tiger Project Report No. 17 & 18: July − December 1999. Grant
number 1998-0093-059. Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Steering Committee, Jakarta.
151. Nyhus, P., Sumianto and R. Tilson (1999). The tiger-human dimension in southeast Sumatra,
pp. 144–145 in: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. and Jackson, P. (eds). Riding the tiger: tiger
conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
ISBN 0-521-64835-1.
152. Rabinowitz, A. (2009). "Stop the bleeding: implementing a strategic Tiger Conservation
Protocol" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121109124216/http://www.panthera.org/sites/default/f
iles/Rabinowitz_2009_Stop_the_Bleeding_Tiger_Conservation_Protocol.pdf) (PDF). Cat News
(51): 30–31. ISSN 1027-2992 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1027-2992). Archived from the
original (http://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Rabinowitz_2009_Stop_the_Bleeding_Tiger
_Conservation_Protocol.pdf) (PDF) on 9 November 2012.
153. Karanth, K.U.; Nichols, J.D.; Seidensticker, J.; Dinerstein, E.; Smith, J.L.D.; McDougal, C.;
Johnsingh, A.J.T.; Chundawat, R.S. (2003). "Science deficiency in conservation practice: the
monitoring of tiger populations in India" (https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/338/K
aranth2003.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF). Animal Conservation. 6 (2): 141–146.
doi:10.1017/S1367943003003184 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1367943003003184).
154. Gopalaswamy, A. M.; Royle, J. A.; Delampady, M.; Nichols, J. D.; Karanth, K. U.; Macdonald,
D. W. (2012). "Density estimation in tiger populations: combining information for strong
inference". Ecology. 93 (7): 1741–1751. doi:10.1890/11-2110.1 (https://doi.org/10.1890%2F11-
2110.1). JSTOR 23225238 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23225238). PMID 22919919 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22919919).
155. Caragiulo, A.; Pickles, R. S. A.; Smith, J. A.; Smith, O.; Goodrich, J.; Amato, G. (2015). "Tiger
(Panthera tigris) scent DNA: a valuable conservation tool for individual identification and
population monitoring" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12686-015-0476-9). Conservation
Genetics Resources. 7 (3): 681–683. doi:10.1007/s12686-015-0476-9 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs12686-015-0476-9).
156. Kothari, A.S.; Chhapgar, B.S.; Chhapgar, B.F., eds. (2005). "The Manpoora Tiger (about a
Tiger Hunt in Rajpootanah)". The Treasures of Indian Wildlife. Mumbai: Bombay Natural
History Society. pp. 22–27. ISBN 0195677285.
157. Harding, Andrew (23 September 2006). "Beijing's penis emporium" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5371500.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 7 March
2009.
158. Nowell, K. (2007). "Asian big cat conservation and trade control in selected range States:
evaluating implementation and effectiveness of CITES Recommendations" (http://www.felidae.
org/KNOWELLPUBL/abc_report.pdf) (PDF). TRAFFIC International. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
159. "Chinese tiger farms must be investigated" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070705040424/htt
p://www.wwf.org.uk/news/n_0000003865.asp). WWF. 24 April 2007. Archived from the original
(http://www.wwf.org.uk/news/n_0000003865.asp) on 5 July 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
160. "WWF: Breeding tigers for trade soundly rejected at CITES" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008
0317005011/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/asia_pacific/where/bhutan/inde
x.cfm?uNewsID=106740). Panda.org. 13 June 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.pa
nda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/asia_pacific/where/bhutan/index.cfm?uNewsID=106740)
on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
161. Jackson, Patrick (29 January 2010). "Tigers and other farmyard animals" (http://news.bbc.co.u
k/2/hi/asia-pacific/8487122.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
162. "Conservationists shocked by Chinese admission of tiger skin selling" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20140714140141/http://www.shanghaisun.com/index.php/sid/223750073/scat/b8de8e630
faf3631/ht/Conservationists-shocked-by-Chinese-admission-of-tiger-skin-selling). Shanghai
Sun. Archived from the original (http://www.shanghaisun.com/index.php/sid/223750073/scat/b
8de8e630faf3631/ht/Conservationists-shocked-by-Chinese-admission-of-tiger-skin-selling) on
14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 31/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

163. "Famous 'man-eater' at Calcutta" (http://ogimages.bl.uk/images/019/019PHO000000181U0005

0000%5BSVC2%5D.jpg). Underwood & Underwood. 1903. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
164. Singh, Kesri (1959). The tiger of Rajasthan. Hale.
165. Byrne, Peter (2002). Shikari Sahib. Pilgrims Publishing. pp. 291–292. ISBN 978-81-7769-183-
2.
166. Wood, G. (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats (https://archive.org/details/gui
nnessbookofan00wood). Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
167. Corbett, J. (1944). Man-Eaters of Kumaon
(https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.458957). Bombay: Oxford University Press.
168. The Man-Eater of Segur", from Nine Man-Eaters and One Rogue, Kenneth Anderson, Allen &
Unwin, 1954
169. "Climate change linked to Indian tiger attacks" (http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/38442).
Environmental News Network. 20 October 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
170. Montgomery, Sy (2009). Spell of the Tiger: The Man-Eaters of Sundarbans (https://archive.org/
details/spelloftigermane00mont/page/37). Chelsea Green Publishing. pp. 37–38 (https://archiv
e.org/details/spelloftigermane00mont/page/37). ISBN 978-0-395-64169-9.
171. Auguet, Roland (1994). Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games. Psychology Press. pp. 83–
85. ISBN 978-0-415-10453-1.
172. Baker, William (1988). Sports in the Western World (https://archive.org/details/sportsinwestern
w00bake/page/33). University of Illinois Press. p. 33 (https://archive.org/details/sportsinwester
nw00bake/page/33). ISBN 978-0-252-06042-7.
173. Baratay, Eric (2004). Zoo: A History of Zoological Gardens in the West. Reaktion Books. p. 19.
ISBN 978-1-86189-208-9.
174. Ruppel, Louis (1951). "Collier's, Volume 127". Crowell-Collier Publishing Company: 61.
175. Nowell, K. & Ling, X. (2007). Taming the tiger trade: China's markets for wild and captive tiger
products since the 1993 domestic trade ban (https://web.archive.org/web/20120117222507/htt
p://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/tigers/WWFBinaryitem15400.pdf) (PDF). Hong Kong:
TRAFFIC East Asia. Archived from the original (http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/tiger
s/WWFBinaryitem15400.pdf) (PDF) on 17 January 2012.
176. Wildlife Watch Group (2011). "Less than 3,000 Pet Tigers in America" (http://www.citesnepal.or
g/download.php?id=18). Wildlife Times. 5 (37): 12–13.
177. "Summary of State Laws Relating to Private Possession of Exotic Animals" (http://www.bornfre
eusa.org/b4a2_exotic_animals_summary.php). Born Free USA. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
178. Luo, S.; Johnson, W. E.; Martenson, J.; Antunes, A.; Martelli, P.; Uphyrkina, O.; Traylor-Holzer,
K.; Smith, J. L.D.; O'Brien, S. J. (2008). "Subspecies Genetic Assignments of Worldwide
Captive Tigers Increase Conservation Value of Captive Populations" (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2Fj.cub.2008.03.053). Current Biology. 18 (8): 592–596. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.03.053 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2008.03.053). PMID 18424146 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
18424146). S2CID 16594083 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16594083).
179. Sanderson, J.; Moulton, M. (1998). Wildlife Issues in a Changing World (Second ed.). CRC
Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-4398-3262-2.
180. "Endangered tiger earns its stripes as the world's most popular beast" (https://archive.today/20
080120222416/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20041206/ai_n12814678). The
Independent. 6 December 2004. Archived from the original (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi
_qn4158/is_20041206/ai_n12814678) on 20 January 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
181. Cooper, J. C. (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 161–
62. ISBN 978-1-85538-118-6.
182. "Tiger's Tail" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140329215619/http://history.cultural-china.com/Wi
se/wise173.html). Cultural China. Archived from the original (http://history.cultural-china.com/W
ise/wise173.html) on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 32/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

183. Chan-eung, Par (1999). A Tiger by the tail and other Stories from the heart of Korea. Libraries
Unlimited.
184. Standard Korean Language Dictionary
185. Sivkishen (2014). Kingdom of Shiva. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd. p. 301.
186. Balambal, V. (1997). "19. Religion – Identity – Human Values – Indian Context" (http://www.eub
ios.info/india/BII19.HTM). Bioethics in India: Proceedings of the International Bioethics
Workshop in Madras: Biomanagement of Biogeoresources, 16–19 January 1997. Eubios
Ethics Institute. Retrieved 8 October 2007.
187. Summers, M. (1933). The Werewolf in Lore and Legend (2012 ed.). Mineola: Dover
Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-517-18093-8.
188. Newman, Patrick (2012). Tracking the Weretiger: Supernatural Man-Eaters of India, China and
Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=PdPTM6NitwoC&q=weretiger&pg=PA97).
McFarland. pp. 96–102. ISBN 978-0-7864-7218-5.
189. Dunbabin, Katherine, M. D. (1999). Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=U7Uu_Dq8oY4C). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32, 44.
ISBN 978-0-521-00230-1.
190. Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. "SECTION LXVIII" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m07/m0706
5.htm). The Mahabharata. Translated by Ganguli, K. M. Retrieved 15 June 2016 – via Internet
Sacred Text Archive.
191. Green, S. (2006). Tiger (https://archive.org/details/tigerreaktionboo00gree). Reaktion Books.
pp. 72 (https://archive.org/details/tigerreaktionboo00gree/page/n73)–73, 125–27. ISBN 978-
1861892768.
192. Castelli, Jean-Christopher (2012). The Making of Life of Pi: A Film, a Journey. Harper Collins.
ISBN 978-0062114136.
193. Kuznets, L. R. (1994). When Toys Come Alive: Narratives of Animation, Metamorphosis, and
Development (https://archive.org/details/whentoyscomealiv00kuzn/page/54). Yale University
Press. p. 54 (https://archive.org/details/whentoyscomealiv00kuzn/page/54). ISBN 978-
0300056457.
194. Gifford, C. (2005). Advertising & Marketing: Developing the Marketplace (https://archive.org/de
tails/advertisingmarke0000giff/page/34). Heinemann-Raintree Library. pp. 34–35 (https://archiv
e.org/details/advertisingmarke0000giff/page/34). ISBN 978-1403476517.
195. Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja (2009) Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa:
Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian
Studies, p. 84.
196. Singh, U. (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the
12th Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PAfront). Pearson
Education, India.
197. Daya Somasundaram (11 February 2014) Scarred Communities: Psychosocial Impact of Man-
made and Natural Disasters on Sri Lankan Society, SAGE Publications India, p. 73.
198. "National Animal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120511130405/http://india.gov.in/knowindia/n
ational_symbols.php?id=11). Government of India Official website. Archived from the original
(http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=11) on 11 May 2012.
199. DiPiazza, F. (2006). Malaysia in Pictures (https://archive.org/details/malaysiainpictur0000dipi).
Twenty-First Century Books. p. 14 (https://archive.org/details/malaysiainpictur0000dipi/page/1
4). ISBN 978-0-8225-2674-2.
200. Arthur Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, T.C. and E.C. Jack, London, 1909, 191–
192, https://archive.org/details/completeguidetoh00foxduoft.

Further reading

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 33/34
2/3/22, 10:37 PM Tiger - Wikipedia

Marshall, A. (2010). "Tale of the Cat" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100226173448/http://ww

w.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1964894-1,00.html). Time. Archived from the original
(http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1964894-1,00.html) on 26 February 2010.
Millward, A. (2020). "Indian tiger study earns its stripes as one of the world's largest wildlife
surveys" (https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2020/7/indian-tiger-study-earns-its-stri
pes-as-one-of-the-world%E2%80%99s-largest-wildlife-surve-624966). Guinness World
Records Limited.
Mohan, V. (2015). "India's tiger population increases by 30% in past three years; country now
has 2,226 tigers" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/Indias-tiger
-population-increases-by-30-in-past-three-years-country-now-has-2226-tigers/articleshow/4595
0634.cms). The Times of India.
Porter, J. H. (1894). "The Tiger" (https://archive.org/stream/wildbeastsstud00port#page/239).
Wild beasts: a study of the characters and habits of the elephant, lion, leopard, panther, jaguar,
tiger, puma, wolf, and grizzly bear. New York: C. Scribner's sons. pp. 196–256.
Sankhala, K. (1997). Indian Tiger. New Delhi: Roli Books Pvt Limited. ISBN 978-81-7437-088-
4.
Schnitzler, A.; Hermann, L. (2019). "Chronological distribution of the tiger Panthera tigris and
the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica in their common range in Asia". Mammal Review. 49 (4):
340–353. doi:10.1111/mam.12166 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmam.12166). S2CID 202040786
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202040786).
Yonzon, P. (2010). "Is this the last chance to save the tiger?" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012
1109123729/http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2010/11/19/features/is-this-the-last
-chance-to-save-the-tiger/215040/). The Kathmandu Post. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2010/11/19/features/is-this-the-last-chance-to-save-the-ti
ger/215040/) on 9 November 2012.

External links
Media related to Panthera tigris (category) at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies
Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote
Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage
"Tiger Panthera tigris" (http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=124). Cat Specialist Group.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiger&oldid=1069643771"

This page was last edited on 3 February 2022, at 09:48 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger 34/34