Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES SUR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGES

College of Health Care Technology
Nabua, Camarines Sur

E-PORTFOLIO
IN BIOCHEMISTRY
1ST SEMESTER

Prepared by: Elijah Belle B. Tercenio, BSN 1E

Instructor: Mr. Jaymark Samson

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have best
owned upon me their blessing and the heart pledged support, this time I am
utilizing to thank all the people who have been concerned with this output.

I am grateful to Almighty for giving me the strength to successfully finish this project.

Then, I would like to thank my biochemistry professor Mr. Jaymark Samson

for helping me understand different principles on this subject matter.

Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, friends and classmates who have
helped me with their suggestions and guidance.

ACKOWLEDGEMENT
Your Name Your Name
As Our Sponsor As Our Sponsor
 Chapter FIVE: Lipids
Cover page Chapter SIX: Metabolism of Lipids
Acknowledgement
Chapter SEVEN: Proteins
Introduction
Chapter EIGHT: Metabolism of Protein
Chapter ONE: History and
Development of Biochemistry Chapter NINE: Nucleic Acid
Chapter TWO: Carbohydrates Chapter TEN: Enzymes
Chapter THREE: Digestion and
Absorption of Carbohydrates Chapter ELEVEN: Vitamins

Chapter FOUR: Metabolism of Carbohydrates

 Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to
living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science that brings together biology and chemistry. By using
chemical knowledge and techniques, people can understand and solve biological problems.

The contents of this e-portfolio cover the last five months of online learning in one of the major
subjects in nursing, Biochemistry, at Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges as well as the many activities that
the students did. The student presented a range of documentation that demonstrates one’s own
understanding of the subject matter. Many of these documents show the knowledge acquired during the
course of the discussion.

The purpose of this portfolio is to showcase certain skills and comprehension on this course as well
as to assess the learner’s abilities in terms of depth, broadness and growth. With this material, the student is
capable to share one’s learning with other students.

The contents of this portfolio are the topics: History and Development of Biochemistry,
Carbohydrates, Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Lipids,
Metabolism of Lipids, Protein, Metabolism of Proteins, Nucleic acid, Enzymes and Vitamins.
 CHAPTER

ONE
History and Development of Biochemistry
 BROADENING
VOCABULARY

biochemistry - branch of science that explores the chemical

processes within and related to living organisms

anabolism - builds complex molecules from simpler ones

catabolism - breaks large molecules into smaller ones

Meaningful insights
SUPPORTING
ACTIVITY
 current trends
Now a research team at the Sloan Kettering Institute led by immunologist Ming Li offers a new
answer, based on a hefty set of genetic and biochemical experiments and published in the
journal Science. It comes down to a previously unappreciated link between Warburg
metabolism and the activity of a powerhouse enzyme in the cell called PI3 kinase. "PI3 kinase is
a key signaling molecule that functions almost like a commander-in-chief of cell metabolism," Li
says. "Most of the energy-costly cellular events in cells, including cell division, occur only when
PI3 kinase gives the cue.“ As cells shift to Warburg metabolism, the activity of PI3 kinase is
increased, and in turn, the cells' commitment to divide is strengthened. It's a bit like giving the
commander-in-chief a megaphone. The findings revise the commonly accepted view among
biochemists that sees metabolism as secondary to cell signaling. They also suggest that
targeting metabolism could be an effective way to thwart cancer growth.

Scientists Solve 100-

year-old Cancer
Mystery

SOURCE: SCIENCE DAILY

misconceptions
 REFLECTION
Biochemistry, in my own understanding, is a science that deals with the chemistry of life- composition, structure
and the chemical processes of living organisms only, non- living excluded. Due to the fact that it is associated with life,
every discovery is then, part of its history. Biochemistry encompasses every life form, when there are chemical processes
taking place, there is biochemistry. Its scope is broad which means it gives off a lot of contribution in every part of the
industry- from the field of medicine, agriculture and even veterinary. It became the language of science as it elaborately
explains all phenomenon in the world.
Let’s tackle this layer by layer. The Living Organism. Living matter can be distinguished based from these seven
properties namely: organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, response and evolution. As long as a
matter have these things, it is categorized as living things, if not it is under the non-living. A living organism has
elements in them, the most abundant ones are the: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. If these elements linked
together, they form an organic compound. The four organic compounds in a living matter are: carbohydrates, lipids, protein
and nucleic acid. On a closer look, a matter is composed of different cells. A cell is composed of three major parts: the cell
membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus. Withing the cytoplasm lies the organelles- mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosome, ribosome and other parts.
Throughout the discussion, I have learned that Biochemistry is a complex science as every living organism is being
studied. The first chapter serves as an introductory to the subject matter, an overview.
ABSTRACT REPRESENTATION
SLIDESMANIA.
SLIDESMANIA.
 CHAPTER

TWO
Carbohydrates
BROADENING
VOCABULARY

stereochemistry - is the study of the

three‐dimensional structure of molecules
stereoisomers - are isomers that differ
in spatial arrangement of atoms
reducing sugar - is any sugar that is capable of acting as a
reducing agent (has a free aldehyde/ketone group)
non-reducing sugar - is a carbohydrate that is not
oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent
Meaningful insights
 SUPPORTING
ACTIVITY
01 02 03
University of Adelaide researchers have discovered a new
complex carbohydrate in barley. The first of its kind to be

current trends
discovered in over 30 years, the cereal polysaccharide has
potential applications in food, medicine and cosmetics.

The new polysaccharide is a mix of glucose, commonly found in

cellulose, and xylose, which is found in dietary fibre. Based on the
relative proportions of each sugar, the hybrid polysaccharide has
the potential to behave as a structural component of the wall
providing strength or conversely as a viscous gel.
Further research is required to understand the new
polysaccharide's potential uses. Existing polysaccharides have a
wide range of uses. They improve the quality of dietary fibre in
porridge and are also used extensively in biomedical and cosmetic
applications.

SOURCE: SCIENCE DAILY

misconceptions
 REFLECTION
Carbohydrates is a group of organic compounds occurring in living tissues and foods in the form of
starch, cellulose, and sugars. The ratio of oxygen and hydrogen in carbohydrates is the same as in water i.e. 2:1.
It typically breaks down in the animal body to release energy. Carbohydrates can be classified according to the
number of sugar units: monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the
simplest group of carbohydrates, often called as simple sugar as it contains only one sugar molecule. glucose,
fructose, erythrulose, and ribulose are its example. Disaccharides yields two sugar molecules, it includes: sucrose,
maltose, and lactose. Oligosaccharides have two to ten sugar molecules, it includes: raffinose and stachyose.
Polysaccharides have ten or more sugar molecules, it includes: starch, glycogen and cellulose. Another
classification of carbohydrates is according to its functional group: reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar.
Reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it has a free aldehyde group or
a free ketone group. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, along with some disaccharides, some
oligosaccharides, and some polysaccharides. A non-reducing sugar is a carbohydrate that is not oxidized by a weak
oxidizing agent (an oxidizing agent that oxidizes aldehydes but not alcohols, such as the Tollen’s reagent) in
basic aqueous solution. The presence of sugar can be determined using these tests: Molisch’s test, Fehling’s test,
Benedict’s test, Tollen’s test and Iodine test.
 REFLECTION

Carbohydrates are used as accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions. They form structural
and protective components such as the cell wall in plants. They are also associated with lipids and
proteins to form surface antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics. They are essential to
life.
Stereochemistry is a branch of science that deals with structure in three dimensions. It studies of
the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their
manipulation. Stereoisomers molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms
(constitution), but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space.
ABSTRACT REPRESENTATION
SLIDESMANIA.
SLIDESMANIA.
 CHAPTER

THREE
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
 BROADENING
VOCABULARY

amylase - is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of

starch into sugars
gastric juice - is a variable mixture of water, hydrochloric
acid, electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate,
sulfate, and bicarbonate), and organic substances (mucus,
pepsins, and protein)
bilirubin - is a yellowish substance in your blood
defecation - is the final act of digestion, by which
organisms eliminate solid, semisolid, or liquid waste
material from the digestive tract via the anus
Meaningful insights
SUPPORTING
ACTIVITY
Co-author OSU's Natalia Shulzhenko says, "Some studies suggest dysbiosis is caused by

current trends
complex changes resulting from interactions of hundreds of different microbes. However,
our study and other studies suggest that individual members of the microbial community,
altered by diet, might have a significant impact on the host.“ The researchers used
transkingdom network analysis, a recently developed data-driven, systems-biology
methodology, to examine host-microbe interactions, looking for specific microbe species that
might be involved in dysbiosis. In fact, they found some. "The analysis pointed to specific
microbes that potentially would affect the way a person metabolizes glucose and lipids,"
explains Morgun. "Even more importantly, it allowed us to make inferences about whether
those effects are harmful or beneficial to the host. And we found links between those
microbes and obesity." The first step was identifying four groups of closely related species, or
operational taxonomical units (OTUs), that appeared to be associated with glucose
management, and that may play a role in obesity as a precursor of type 2 diabetes.

4 microbes may lead

to new type 2
diabetes probiotics

SOURCE: BIG THINK

misconceptions
 REFLECTION
Digestion is the process of breaking down food by mechanical and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal into
substances that can be used by the body. There are three phases of digestion: the salivary digestion, the gastric digestion and
intestinal digestion. The first level in digestion is the salivary digestion- the change of starch into maltose by saliva. When
food entered the mouth, it is coated by saliva. Saliva is released from the salivary glands and begins chemical digestion of
starches. Saliva contains the enzyme, salivary amylase which breaks down starches into simpler carbohydrates. After food is
grinded by the teeth, it will be swallowed into the pharynx, and into the esophagus until it reaches the stomach. There, the
second level of digestion will start. Gastric digestion is the digestion by the action of gastric juice. Gastric juice is responsible
for further breaking down food eaten. Its main function is to inactivate swallowed microorganism so that it won’t infect
the intestine. From the stomach, food will enter the intestines where the last level of digestion will take place. Intestinal
digestion is the digestion by the action of intestinal juices. neutralizes hydrochloric acid coming from the stomach; releases
gastrointestinal hormones into the bloodstream; and contains digestive enzymes that facilitate the digestion and
absorption of food.
Absorption refers to the movement of nutrients, water and electrolytes from the lumen of the small intestine
into the cell, then into the blood. It can occur through five mechanism: active transport, passive diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, co-transport, and endocytosis.
 REFLECTION
Food that is not used by the body will be secreted by the body. Undigested food goes from the
ascending colon to the transverse colon and into descending colon. When it reached the lumen, it turns
into feces. By the time feces reach the sigmoid colon, it is quite compact and dry. The sigmoid colon is
designed to slow down the movement of feces until it is ready to be eliminated. The brown color of
feces is due to the action of bacteria on bilirubin, which is the end product of the breakdown of
hemoglobin (red blood cells).
Improper digestion and absorption of carbohydrates can cause a lot of implications.
Carbohydrate malabsorption occurs when the main dietary carbohydrates, sugars and starches, are not
absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The clinical symptoms of carbohydrate malabsorption
include flatulence, abdominal cramps and pain, diarrhea, and sometimes even headache, usually after
the ingestion of a product containing the incompletely absorbed sugar.
ABSTRACT REPRESENTATION
SLIDESMANIA.
SLIDESMANIA.
 CHAPTER

FOUR
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process that ensures a constant
supply of energy to living cells. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, which can be
broken down via glycolysis, enter into the Kreb's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to
generate ATP. Further important pathways in carbohydrate metabolism include the pentose
phosphate pathway (conversion of hexose sugars into pentoses), glycogenesis (conversion of
excess glucose into glycogen, stimulated by insulin), glycogenolysis (conversion of glycogen
polymers into glucose, stimulated by glucagon) and gluconeogenesis (de novo glucose synthesis).
Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in
maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a
crucial chemical in human metabolism that has been called “chemical currency” because the cells
use it as a direct source of energy. ATP has an important role in nutrient burning and in
cellular signal. The metabolism of carbohydrates in the liver includes glycogenesis,
glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen branches
through catabolic reactions via the sequential removal of glucose monomers via phosphorolysis,
catalyzed by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Glycogen is cleaved from glycogen (n) to
produce glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen (n-1).
Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) then converts glucose-1-phosphate into glucose-6-phosphate,
which then enters the glycolytic pathway. Glycogenolysis takes place in muscle and liver
cells in response to hormonal (i.e., glucagon, insulin, and epinephrine) and neural
signals. Glycogenesis, in contrast, is the process of anabolic synthesis of glycogen.
Glucose molecules are phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate, converted to glucose-1-
phosphate and UDP-glucose, and added to glycogen chains for storage. The hexose
monophosphate shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, is a unique pathway
used to create products essential in the body for many reasons. The HMP shunt is an
alternative pathway to glycolysis and is used to produce ribose-5-phosphate and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The electron transport chain is a
series of electron transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that
shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are
pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced
to form water.
 Blood sugar levels change throughout the day. Typically, blood sugar levels are
at their lowest first thing in the morning or after a period of fasting. Blood sugar
levels increase during and after meals, as the body digests food. Diabetes is a disease in
which the body has an impaired ability to either produce or respond to the hormone,
insulin. A blood sugar level less than 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L) is normal. A reading of
more than 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) after two hours indicates diabetes. Hypoglycemia is the
medical term describing an abnormally high blood glucose level. Blood sugar is measured
in a sample of blood taken from a vein or from a small finger stick sample of blood.
Regulation of blood glucose is largely done through the endocrine hormones of the
pancreas, a beautiful balance of hormones achieved through a negative feedback loop.
The main hormones of the pancreas that affect blood glucose include insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and amylin.
CHAPTER

FIVE
Lipids
 Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the
structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain
vitamins (such as A, D, E and K), hormones and most of the cell membrane that is not made up of
protein. Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body: they serve as
structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as
important signaling molecules.
Saturated fat, a fatty acid in which the hydrocarbon molecules have a hydrogen atom
on every carbon and thus are fully hydrogenated. The molecule is very stable (usually solid at
room temperature) and hard to break up, which allows it to store and ultimately provide more
energy than carbohydrates or proteins and makes it more likely to stick to the body as
cholesterol. Thus, saturated fat is unhealthy. Saturated fats can raise levels of “bad” (LDL)
cholesterol and lower “good” (HDL) cholesterol levels. Unsaturated fat, a fatty acid in which
the hydrocarbon molecules have two carbons that share double or triple bond(s) and are
therefore not completely saturated with hydrogen atoms. Due to the decreased saturation with
hydrogen bonds, the structures are weaker and are, therefore, typically liquid (oil) at room
temperature.
Unsaturated fats are more likely found in vegetables as well as in fish. The difference
between saturated and unsaturated fat lies in the number of double bonds in the
fatty acid chain. Saturated fatty acids lack double bonds between the individual carbon
atoms, while in unsaturated fatty acids there is at least one double bond in the fatty
acid chain.
The prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or
infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness. They control processes
such as inflammation, blood flow, the formation of blood clots and the induction of
labor. Aspirin is a common drug for relieving minor aches, pains, and fevers. Aspirin
works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, the on-off switch in cells that
regulate pain and inflammation, among other things. That's why aspirin stops mild
inflammation and pain.
In order for cholesterol and triglycerides to travel in the blood, they are
often carried by proteins that make the cholesterol and triglycerides more soluble in
blood. This lipid and protein complex is referred to as a lipoprotein.
 CHAPTER

SIX
Metabolism of Lipids
 Beta oxidation is a metabolic process involving multiple steps by which fatty
acid molecules are broken down to produce energy. More specifically, beta oxidation
consists in breaking down long fatty acids that have been converted to acyl-CoA chains
into progressively smaller fatty acyl-CoA chains. This reaction releases acetyl-CoA,
FADH2 and NADH, the three of which then enter another metabolic process called citric
acid cycle or Krebs cycle, in which ATP is produced to be used as energy. Beta oxidation
goes on until two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced and the acyl-CoA chain has been
completely broken down. It occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the
cytosol of prokaryotic cells. Beta oxidation takes place in four steps: dehydrogenation,
hydration, oxidation and thyolisis. Each step is catalyzed by a distinct enzyme.
Ketone bodies have an important role as an energy source during starvation.
In the liver, fatty acyl CoA is converted into ketone bodies (3-hydroxybutyrate βOHB]
and acetoacetate AcAc]). The ketone bodies are efficiently metabolized in peripheral
tissues except in the brain.
 Fatty acid oxidation disorders are lipid metabolism disorders that are caused
by a lack or deficiency of the enzymes needed to break down fats, resulting in
delayed mental and physical development. Fatty acid oxidation disorders occur when
parents pass the defective genes that cause these disorders on to their children.
Here is some metabolic disease caused by impaired oxidation of fatty acids: 1) Medium-
chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency 2) Long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA
dehydrogenase (LCHAD) deficiency 3) Very long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase
(VLCAD) deficiency
Lipogenesis is the metabolic process through which acetyl-CoA is converted
to triglyceride for storage in fat. The triglycerides in fat are packaged within
cytoplasmic lipid droplets. The process begins with acetyl-CoA, which is an organic
compound used to transfer energy from metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids,
and ethanol. Through the citric acid cycle, acetyl-CoA is broken down to produce ATP,
which is then an energy source for many metabolic processes, including protein
synthesis and muscle contraction.
CHAPTER

SEVEN
Protein
 Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. The building
blocks of proteins are amino acids, which are small organic molecules that consist of an alpha (central)
carbon atom linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable component
called a side chain. Within a protein, multiple amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, thereby
forming a long chain. Peptide bonds are formed by a biochemical reaction that extracts a water molecule
as it joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of a neighboring amino acid. Proteins
has many functions in the body: 1) enzyme 2) creation of hormones 3) antibody and 4) source of energy.
In general, they are two types of protein molecules fibrous proteins and globular proteins. Fibrous
proteins are insoluble and elongated. Globular proteins are soluble and compact. Fibrous proteins are
insoluble and elongated. Globular proteins are soluble and compact. Fibrous and Globular proteins may
comprise one or four types of protein structures and they include primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary structure. Protein function is directly related to the structure of that protein. A protein's
specific shape determines its function. If the three-dimensional structure of the protein is altered because
of a change in the structure of the amino acids, the protein becomes denatured and does not perform its
function as expected. Two factors that causes denaturation of protein are temperature and pH level.
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body and it has to be acquired through food.
On the other hand, nonessential amino acids are called so because they can be synthesized by the body.
 CHAPTER

EIGHT
Metabolism of Protein
 Nitrogen balance is the difference between nitrogen excreted from the body and
nitrogen ingested in the diet (of which the greater part by far is protein). During growth,
pregnancy, lactation, and recovery from convalescence, the body is in positive nitrogen
balance since it is retaining nitrogen for the purpose of synthesizing new protein tissues.
During dietary deprivation, most illnesses, and certain types of stress, the body loses
nitrogen and is in negative balance. The healthy adult is in nitrogen equilibrium. The basis
of this method of determining nitrogen requirements is to feed the subjects a series of
diets with different levels of protein while measuring nitrogen excretion, then to
interpolate to nitrogen equilibrium (zero nitrogen balance).
The process of protein production is called protein synthesis, and it actually
consists of two processes: transcription and translation
 Urea is the chief nitrogenous end product of the metabolic breakdown of proteins
in all mammals and some fishes. It is naturally produced when the liver breaks down
protein or amino acids, and ammonia. The kidneys then transfer the urea from the blood to
the urine. Extra nitrogen is expelled from the body through urea, and because it is
extremely soluble, it is a very efficient process. Primary urea cycle disorders (UCDs) include
carbamoyl phosphate synthase (CPS) deficiency, ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency,
argininosuccinate synthetase deficiency (citrullinemia), argininosuccinate lyase deficiency
(argininosuccinic aciduria), and arginase deficiency (argininemia).
Heme proteins are constantly synthesized and degraded. The major source of heme
is hemoglobin found in RBC's. When the RBC end its life after 120 days the hemoglobin
molecule is degraded. The amino acids from the globin and iron are recycled while the
porphyrin is degraded. Bilirubin is the end product of heme metabolism.
CHAPTER

NINE
Nucleic Acid
 Nucleic acid, naturally occurring chemical compound that is capable of being
broken down to yield phosphoric acid, sugars, and a mixture of organic bases (purines and
pyrimidines). Nucleic acids are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by
directing the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of
every living thing. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA: each
nucleotide consists of a nucleobase a ribose sugar, and a phosphate group. There are two
differences that distinguish DNA from RNA: (a) RNA contains the sugar ribose, while DNA
contains the slightly different sugar deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen
atom), and (b) RNA has the nucleobase uracil while DNA contains thymine. Unlike DNA, most
RNA molecules are single-stranded and can adopt very complex three-dimensional
structures.
DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to
produce two identical DNA molecules. Replication is an essential process because, whenever a
cell divides, the two new daughter cells must contain the same genetic information, or
DNA, as the parent cell.
 There are several types of ribonucleic acid, or RNA, but most RNA falls into one
of three categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA
(tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell. rRNA
directs the translation of mRNA into proteins. Transfer RNA brings or transfers amino
acids to the ribosome that corresponds to each three-nucleotide codon of rRNA. The amino
acids then can be joined together and processed to make polypeptides and proteins.
Genetic code is the instructions in a gene that tell the cell how to make a specific
protein. A, C, G, and T are the "letters" of the DNA code; they stand for the chemicals
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T), respectively, that make up the
nucleotide bases of DNA. Each gene's code combines the four chemicals in various ways to
spell out three-letter "words" that specify which amino acid is needed at every step in
making a protein.
If a person has an error in a DNA repair gene, mistakes remain uncorrected. Then,
the mistakes become mutations. These mutations may eventually lead to cancer,
particularly mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes. Mutations in DNA repair
genes may be inherited or acquired.
CHAPTER

TEN
Enzymes
BROADENING
VOCABULARY
active site - is the region of an enzyme where
substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical
reaction
substrate - is a molecule upon which an
enzyme act
chymotrypsin - is another serine protease produced by the
pancreas that hydrolyzes the peptide bonds of tryptophan,
leucine, tyrosine, and phenylalanine
protease - is an enzyme that catalyzes (increases the
rate of) proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins into
smaller polypeptides or single amino acids
Meaningful insights
 SUPPORTING
ACTIVITY
01 02 03
 current trends
Newly discovered enzyme helps make valuable
bioactive saponins

Osaka University researchers Soo Yeon Chung and Hikaru Seki, with
collaborators in NARO (Masao Ishimoto et al.), RIKEN, and Chiba
University, studied co-expression gene network of saponin synthesis using
technologies including gene cloning and sequence comparisons, coupled
with biochemical analyses in mutants and genetically modified plants of a
model legume species. They discovered a new enzyme in the CSyGT family
that are similar in structure to the enzymes producing cellulose in plant cell
walls. Unexpectedly, they showed that the new member of the family was
responsible for a key step in saponin synthesis, where a sugar molecule is
attached to the triterpenoid backbone. This discovery challenged the
generally accepted view that a different class of enzyme was probably
involved in this step.
They went on to insert the gene for the newly discovered CSyGT
enzyme, along with genes for other steps in the biochemical pathway, into
yeast cells. The engineered cells successfully produced glycyrrhizin from
simple sugars, indicating a potential route for industrial manufacture of
valuable saponins by growing yeast cells on a large scale.

SOURCE: SCIENCE DAILY

misconceptions
 REFLECTION
Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually
all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are vital for life and serve a wide range of
important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism. Enzymes are divided into six
functional classes and are classified based on the type of reaction in which they are used to catalyze: a)
oxidoreductases which catalyzes the oxidation reaction b) transferases which help in the transportation of the
functional group among acceptors c) hydrolases which catalyze the hydrolysis reaction d) lyases which adds water,
carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds e) isomerases which catalyze the structural shifts present in a
molecule f) ligases which are known to charge the catalysis of a ligation process.
Active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and
residues that catalyze a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site). Enzymes are highly specific which means that
each enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction. There are three factors that affect the enzyme activity: 1) substrate
concentration – at low concentration, the rate of reaction increases 2) temperature – at high temperature,
rate of reaction decreases as the active site becomes denatured and disrupted 3) pH level – high level of pH
makes the enzymes denatured thus, decreasing the rate of reaction.
 REFLECTION
We have two diagrams to make it easier to understand how a substrate bind to an active site. The Lock-
and-Key model suggests that the substrate is completely complementary in shape to the active site, so that it
fits in 'perfectly' - i.e. the way a key (the substrate) fits into a lock (the enzyme). The Induced Fit model on the
other hand, says that enzymes can undergo a change in conformation when they bind substrate molecules, and
the active site has a shape complementary to that of the substrate only after the substrate is bound.
Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A cofactor is essential for the
functioning of an enzyme. There are three kinds of these that are present in enzymes: prosthetic group,
coenzyme and metal ions. These coenzymes and cofactors play an integral role in a number of cellular
metabolism reactions playing both structural and functional roles to aid in the catalysis. There are two
mechanisms by which cells regulate enzyme activity: the competitive inhibitor and the non-competitive inhibitor.
Protease is a kind of enzyme that breaks down protein into amino acids, which are its building blocks.
The three main protease enzymes are trypsin, pepsin, and chymotrypsin. They play a major role in the digestion
and absorption of dietary proteins. They also play a role in blood coagulation, support immunity, activation of
precursor proteins, cell signaling, protein recycling, apoptosis, etc. Enzyme has been proven to be used in the
field of medicine: aiding digestion, can be used as a deworming agent, surface disinfectant, used for diagnosis
purposes and many other more.
ABSTRACT REPRESENTATION
SLIDESMANIA.
SLIDESMANIA.
CHAPTER

ELEVEN
Vitamins
 Vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a
major role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and
tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions. These
essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions. Based on the solubility, Vitamins
have been classified into two different groups: fat soluble vitamins and non-soluble vitamins. Fat-
soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name suggests, these vitamins require fat in
order to be absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins are
not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete through the urine. Therefore, these vitamins need
to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin A, also known as retinol, is a fat-soluble vitamin traditionally associated with
vision and eye health. The most abundant dietary sources of vitamin A are liver, fish liver oil and
butter. It can also be derived from provitamin A carotenoids found in red, yellow and orange
vegetables, as well as some leafy, dark-green vegetables. Deficiency is rare in developed countries,
but is most common among people who follow diets lacking in diversity, especially those dominated by
rice, white potatoes and cassava. Early symptoms of vitamin A deficiency include night blindness, and
severe deficiency may eventually lead to total blindness. Nevertheless, while getting enough
vitamin A is vital, too much may cause harm. Pregnant women should be extra careful not to eat
excessive amounts of vitamin A because of the risk of birth defects.
 Vitamin D is sometimes called the sunshine vitamin. This is because your skin can
produce all the vitamin D you need, given enough sunlight. Nevertheless, most people
don’t get enough vitamin D from sunlight alone. Also, few foods naturally contain high
amounts of vitamin D, making supplements necessary. The richest natural sources of
vitamin D include fatty fish, fish oil and mushrooms that have been exposed to sunlight or
ultraviolet light. Vitamin D deficiency is traditionally associated with osteomalacia in
adults, or rickets in children. Both diseases are characterized by brittle or soft bones.
Vitamin E is a group of powerful antioxidants, the most common of which is
alpha-tocopherol. Its main function is to serve as an antioxidant and protect the body’s
cells against damage by free radicals. The most abundant dietary sources of vitamin E
include vegetable oils, nuts and seeds. Deficiency is very rare in healthy people. While
supplements may provide certain health benefits, not all scientists agree. The long-term
safety of vitamin E supplements is a matter of debate.