UPSC Civil Services Main 2005 - Mathematics

Algebra
Sunder Lal
Retired Professor of Mathematics
Panjab University
Chandigarh

December 16, 2007

Question 1(a) If M and N are normal subgroups of a group G such that M ∩ N = {e},
show that every element of M commutes with every element of N .

Solution. Let x ∈ M, y ∈ N . We consider the element α = xyx−1 y −1 . Now x−1 ∈ M

and y ∈ N ⊆ G, and M is a normal subgroup of G, therefore yx−1 y −1 ∈ M , consequently
α ∈ M . Similarly since N is a normal subgroup of G and y ∈ N , xyx−1 ∈ N , hence
α = xyx−1 y −1 ∈ N . Thus α ∈ M ∩ N , which means that α = xyx−1 y −1 = e ⇒ xy = yx i.e.
every element of M commutes with every element of N .

Question 1(b) Show that (1 + i) is a prime element in the ring R of Gaussian integers.

Solution. The ring of Gaussian integers is a Euclidean domain with Euclidean function
N (a + ib) = a2 + b2 , therefore any two elements α, β ∈ R have a GCD (greatest common
divisor). If d is the GCD of α, β, then there exist γ, δ ∈ R such that αγ + βδ = d. Moreover
α is a unit in R if and only if N (α) = 1, because if N (α) = 1 then αα = 1, implying that
α is a unit, and conversely, if α is a unit, then there exist β ∈ R such that αβ = 1, and
therefore N (αβ) = N (α)N (β) = 1 ⇒ N (α) = N (β) = 1 as both are positive integers.
First of all we prove that 1 + i is an irreducible element (note that it is not a unit as
N (1 + i) = 2). Let 1 + i = αβ. Taking norm of both sides, we get N (αβ) = N (α)N (β) =
2 ⇒ N (α) = 1 or N (β) = 1, so either α is a unit or β is a unit. Thus 1 + i is an irreducible
element.
Let 1 + i divide αβ and assume that 1 + i does not divide α. We shall show that 1 + i
divides β. Since the only divisors of 1 + i are 1 + i and units, and 1 + i does not divide α, it
follows that GCD of α and 1 + i is 1. Thus there exists γ, δ ∈ R such that γ(1 + i) + δα = 1
or γβ(1 + i) + δαβ = β. Since (1 + i) divides the left hand side of this equation, it follows
that 1 + i divides β. Hence 1 + i is a prime element in R.

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Question
p 2(a) p H and K be two subgroups of a finite group G, such that |H| >
1. Let
|G| and |K| > |G|. Prove that H ∩ K 6= {e}.

2. If f : G −→ G0 is an isomorphism, prove that the order of a ∈ G is equal to the order

of f (a).

Solution.
|H||K|
1. We prove that |HK| = |H∩K|
.
If H ∩ K = {e}, then hk = h1 k1 ⇔ h−1 1 h = k1 k
−1
⇔ h−1 1 h, k1 k
−1
∈ H ∩ K ⇔ h−11 h =
k1 k −1 = e ⇔ h = h1 , k = k1 . Thus there are no repetitions in HK = {hk | h ∈
|H||K|
H, k ∈ K}, so |HK| = |H||K| = |H∩K| . (This is sufficient to prove the result, but for
completeness we show the result when H ∩ K 6= {e}.)
If H ∩ K 6= {e}, then hk = h1 k1 ⇔ h−1 1 h, k1 k
−1
∈ H ∩ K ⇔ h−11 h = k1 k
−1
=u∈
−1
H ∩ K ⇔ h = h1 u, k = u k1 with u ∈ H ∩ K. Thus hk is duplicated at least |H ∩ K|
times as hk = (hu)(u−1 k) with u ∈ H ∩K. It is duplicated no more than |H ∩K| times,
|H||K|
because hk = h1 k1 ⇒ h = h1 u, k = u−1 k1 with u ∈ H ∩ K. Hence |HK| = |H∩K| .
√ √
|H||K| |G| |G|
Now |G| ≥ |HK| = |H∩K| ≥ |H∩K| Thus |H ∩ K| > 1, so |H ∩ K| = 6 {e}.

2. Let o(a) = order of a = m and order of f (a) = o(f (a)) = n. Then e0 = f (am ) = f (a)m ,
where e0 is the identity of G0 , showing that n divides m. Conversely, f (e) = e0 =
f (a)n = f (an ) ⇒ an = e as f is one-one. This means that m divides n. Thus m = n,
which was to be proved.

Question 2(b) Prove that any polynomial ring F [x] over a field F is a UFD.

Solution. We know that F [x] is a Euclidean domain with the Euclidean function being
the degree of the polynomial — the algorithm being: given f (x), g(x) 6= 0 belonging to
F [x], there exist q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] such that f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) where r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Step 1. If f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x], both not 0, then they have a GCD d(x), and there exist
λ(x), µ(x) ∈ F [x] such that d(x) = f (x)λ(x) + g(x)µ(x). Let S = {f (x)a(x) + g(x)b(x) |
a(x), b(x) ∈ F [x]}. Then S 6= ∅, as f (x), g(x) ∈ S. Let d(x) be a non-zero polynomial is S
with minimal degree, i.e. deg d(x) ≤ deg h(x) for every nonzero h(x) ∈ S. Clearly if any d0 (x)
divides f (x) and g(x), then d0 (x) divides d(x) because d(x) is of the form f (x)a(x)+g(x)b(x).
Moreover d(x) divides both f (x) and g(x), otherwise we have q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] such that
f (x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x) where deg r(x) < deg d(x), but this is not possible as r(x) ∈ S as it is
of the form f (x)a(x) + g(x)b(x) so deg r(x) ≥ deg d(x). So d(x) divides f (x), and similarly
d(x) divides g(x).

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 Step 2. An irreducible element of F [x] is a prime element i.e. if f (x) is irreducible and
f (x) | g(x)h(x) and f (x) - g(x) then f (x) | h(x).
If f (x) - g(x), then f (x) is irreducible implies its only divisors are units or associates of
f (x). Therefore the GCD of f (x) and g(x) is 1. By Step 1, we have 1 = f (x)a(x) + g(x)b(x)
for some a(x), b(x) ∈ F [x]. Thus h(x) = h(x)f (x)a(x) + h(x)g(x)b(x). Clearly f (x) divides
the right hand side, so f (x) | h(x), as required.
Step 3. Every non-zero non-unit element in F [x] can be written as the product of
irreducible elements in F [x].
The proof is by induction on the degree of f (x). If deg f (x) = 0, then f (x) is a non-zero
constant, therefore a unit in F [x], so we have nothing to prove.
Let the result be true for all polynomials whose degree is < deg f (x). If f (x) is irre-
ducible, we have nothing to prove. If f (x) is not irreducible, then there exist g(x), h(x),
1 ≤ deg g(x), deg h(x) < deg f (x) such that g(x)h(x) = f (x). Now by induction both g(x)
and h(x) are products of irreducible elements, therefore f (x) is the product of irreducible
elements.
Step 4: Uniqueness. If possible let

f (x) = cf1 (x) . . . fr (x) = dg1 (x) . . . gs (x)

where f1 , . . . , fr , g1 , . . . , gs are irreducible, and c, d ∈ F . We will show that r = s and that

the gi ’s can be reordered such that each fi is the associate of gi .
Now f1 (x) divides g1 (x) . . . gs (x), therefore by step 2, f1 (x) must divide one of g1 (x), . . . , gs (x).
Let us assume without loss of generality that f1 (x) | g1 (x), but g1 (x) is also irreducible and
f1 (x) is not a unit, therefore f1 (x) and g1 (x) are associates. Thus we get

c0 f2 (x) . . . fr (x) = d0 g2 (x) . . . gs (x)

If r < s, then after r steps we shall get gr+1 (x) . . . gs (x) = 1, which is not possible, hence
r ≥ s, similarly s ≥ r so r = s. Now by relabelling g1 , . . . , gr we get each fi (x) is an associate
of gi (x), 1 ≤ i ≤ r. Hence F [x] is a UFD.