The

Language
of Light

www.konicaminolta.eu

From perception
to instrumentation
 C ontents
1 Introduction
1.1 What is light? 2
1.2 What can be measured? 2

2 Concepts
2.1 Radiometry 3
2.1.1 Radiant Flux 3
2.1.2 Radiant Intensity 3
2.1.3 Irradiance 4
2.1.4 Radiance 4
2.2 Spectroradiometry 4
2.2.1 Spectral Radiance 4
2.2.2 Spectral Irradiance 4
3 Instrumentation 2.3 Photometry 5
3.1 Radiometer 15 2.3.1 Luminous Flux 6
3.1.1 Applications of Radiometers 15 2.3.2 Luminous Intensity 6
3.2 Photometer 16 2.3.3 Illuminance 6
3.2.1 Sensors 16 2.3.4 Luminance 7
3.2.2 Calibration Methods 17 2.4 Colorimetry 7
3.2.2.1 Colour Correction Factor 17 2.4.1 Colour 7
3.2.3 Applications of Photometers 18 2.4.2 Colour Perception 7
3.2.3.1 Luminance Meter 18 2.4.3 Mixing of Colours 8
3.2.3.2 Illuminance Meter 19 2.4.4 Light Source Colour Specification 9
3.2.3.3 Luminous Flux Meter 20 2.4.4.1 Tristimulus Colorimetry 9
3.2.3.4 Luminous Intensity Meter 20 2.4.4.1.1 CIE 1931 Yxy Chromaticity Chart 9
3.3 Three-filter Colorimeter 21 2.4.4.1.2 CIE 1976 UCS Chromaticity Chart 10
2.4.4.1.3 Helmholtz Coordinates 11
3.4 Spectroradiometer 23 2.4.4.2 Colour Temperature 13
3.5 Summary 24 2.4.4.2.1 Correlated Colour Temperature 14
2.4.4.3 Spectroradiometry 14

4 Conclusion
24

5 References
25

1
1 I ntroduction

Light is necessary for vision. To most of us, it provides a world of visual information. The forms and colours
around us are visible only when light from objects around us reaches our eye and triggers the sensation of
sight.

Human beings can perceive specific

1.1 WHAT IS LIGHT? wavelengths as colours.
Light is a form of energy and is part of a
broader range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electrical, radio waves and microwaves to
gamma rays form this electromagnetic
spectrum. The visible light spectrum is a
relatively small portion of this spectrum,
between 380 nm and 760 nm. In general,
light is often defined as including the infrared
and ultraviolet regions too.

The detection of light is a fundamental process

and to measure it requires great understanding.
A least understood subject in the field of
optics, a probable reason is the introduction
of new terminology and concepts.

The measurement of light can be a challenge

especially in deciding what to measure and
how to measure. • The Electromagnetic Spectram.

Sources of Light

1.2 WHAT CAN BE MEASURED?

Generally, the total light energy emitted from a source or falling on a
surface can be measured. This total energy can cover a portion of the
visible spectrum including ultraviolet and infrared energy. Energy at
individual wavelength or over a range of wavelength can be measured.

Another area of interest is colour. Colour is a property of light and

can be measured and quantified.

The science of light measurement is known as photometry and is a

subset of the broader field of radiometry - the measurement of radiation
outside the visible spectrum.

2
 2 C oncepts

2.1 RADIOMETRY
Radiometry is the science of the measurement of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The broader spectrum
covered by the science of radiometry is based on physical constants.

The properties of concern to us here are radiated power and its spatial and angular distributions.
The four basic concepts are:

• Radiant Flux

• Radiant Intensity

• Radiance

• Irradiance

2.1.1 RADIANT FLUX

This is the total radiant power emitted from a source or received by a
surface. It can also be defined as the rate of flow of radiant energy through
a certain area or out of a certain solid angle.

The SI unit of radiant flux is the Watt.

Radiant Flux
Total Power (Watts)

2.1.2 RADIANT INTENSITY

It is defined as the directed angular density of radiation from a source.
The radiant intensity in a given direction is the sum of the power contained
in all the rays (cones) emitted in that direction by the entire source (i.e.,
power per solid angle).

The SI unit for radiant intensity is Watt/Steradian (Watt/sr). Radiant Intensity

Power/Solid Angle

3
 2.1.3 IRRADIANCE
This is a measure of radiant flux incident on an object’s surface
(radiant flux per unit area).

The SI units for irradiance is Watt/square meter (Watt/m2)

Irraddiance
Power/Unit Area

2.1.4 RADIANCE
This is a measure of the total radiant intensity per unit projected area.

The SI units for radiance is Watt/square meter Steradian (Watt/m2 sr)

Plane normal to rays

Radiance
Power/Solid Angle/Projected Area

2.2 SPECTRORADIOMETRY
Spectroradiometry is the measurement of light energy at individual wavelengths within the electromagnetic
spectrum. It can be measured over the entire spectrum or within a specific band of wavelengths.

2.2.1 SPECTRAL RADIANCE

The radiance of a light source is a single value which is the sum of all energy measured over a spectrum.
The individual energy values at a particular wavelength in nanometer (nm) can be determined by a spectral
radiance measurement.

The SI units for spectral radiance is Watt/square meter Steradian nanometer (Watt/m2 sr nm).

2.2.2 SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE

This is a measure of radiant flux at particular wavelength incident on per unit area.

The SI units for spectral radiance is Watt/square meter nanometer (Watt/m2 nm).

4
 2.3 PHOTOMETRY
Photometry involves measurement of the psychophysical attributes of electromagnetic energy that
is visible to the human eye. The use of the term 'luminous', which refers to visible light, defines
photometry in terms of human perception.

Scotopic Curve Photopic Curve

1.0
Relative sensitivity of the eye

0.9
0.8
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength (nm)

Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Fig. 2.3a Approximate relative sensitivity of the average human eye to different wavelength

Photometry becomes a modern science in 1942, when Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) met
to define the response of the average human eye. CIE measured the light-adapted eyes of a sizeable sample
group, and compile the data into the CIE Standard Luminosity Function (widely known as photopic curve -
chromatic perception at normal state, and scotopic curve - achromatic perception at low level of illuminance.
– see Fig.2.3a).

The photometric quantities are related to the corresponding radiometric quantities by the CIE Standard Luminosity
Function. We can think of the luminosity function as the transfer function of a filter which approximates the
behaviours of the average human eye (Fig. 2.3b).

Radiometric CIE Standard Luminosity Photometric

Quantity Function (V λ)Filter Quantity

Fig. 2.3b - Relationship between radiometric units and photometric units

Photometry consists of four basic concepts, namely the luminous flux, luminous intensity, illuminance, and
luminance.

5
 2.3.1 LUMINOUS FLUX
A source of light radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
We speak of light energy as ‘flux’ and luminous flux is a measure of the
flow of light energy emitted by a source, or received by a surface. The
quantity is derived from the radiant flux, W (in Watts), by evaluating the
radiation in accordance with the relative luminous efficiency of the ‘standard
eye’ (CIE Standard Luminosity Function, V∗).
Luminous Flux
Total Power (lumen)
The unit is lumen (lm). "Light Power"
lm = 683 x W (Watt) x V∗

2.3.2 LUMINOUS INTENSITY

This expresses the power of a light source. It is defined as the quantity of
luminous flux emitted in a given direction per solid angle (in steradian).

The unit is candela (cd).

1 cd = 1 lumen per steradian. (For practical purposes, one candela Luminous Intensity
Total Power/Solid Angle
power.) "Candle Power"

2.3.3 ILLUMINANCE
This is a measure of the concentration of luminous flux falling upon a surface.
It is expressed in lumens per unit area.

The unit is lux (lx).

1 lx = 1 lumen per square meter (lm/m2)
The original non-metric British unit is the foot-candle. Illuminance
1 foot-candle = 1 lumen per square foot (lm/ft2) Total Power/Unit Area
"Illumination"

6
2.3.4 LUMINANCE
Also known as photometric brightness, luminance is a measure of the flux emitted from, or reflected by, a relatively
flat and uniform surface. Luminance may be thought of as luminous intensity per unit area. Plane normal to rays

The unit is candelas per square meter (cd/m2), or nit.

The original non-metric British unit is the footlambert (fL)
1 fL = 1 candela/∗ ft2

Luminance
Total Power/Solid Angle/Projected Area
"Brightness"

2.4 COLORIMETRY
2.4.1 COLOUR
Colour is a characteristic of light determined by the light’s spectral composition and the interaction with the
human eye. Hence, colour is a psychophysical phenomenon, and perception of colour is subjective.

2.4.2 COLOUR PERCEPTION

The eye acts much like a camera, with the lens forming the image of the scene on the light-sensitive retina.
There are several kinds of light detectors, called rods and cones. The cones are grouped into three types, each
responds to a portion of the spectrum, with peak responses corresponding to blue, green, and red light. The
interaction of these groups is then responsible for the stimulus which is interpreted by the brain as colour. This
widely accepted theory on colour vision is known as Trichromatic Theory.

Vitreous
Retina Lens

Cornea

Pupil

Iris

Anterior Chamber

Fig. 2.4.2 - Human Eye

7
 2.4.3 MIXING OF COLOURS
Issac Newton first demonstrated and explained the composition of white light, by refracting it through a glass
prism into its constituent spectral colours. If coloured lights are added, this implies that different lights with
different spectral colours composition are added. The resultant effect on the brain can be any of the spectral
colours located in the visible spectrum, for example, yellow, or a non-spectral colour which does not appear
in the spectrum as monochromatic light, for example, purple. Creation of colours by addition of coloured
lights is known as additive mixing. It is found that the eye behaves as though the ‘outputs’ of the three types
of cones are additive.

Figure 2.4.3a illustrates the resultant colour effect of mixing three coloured lights, red, green, and blue. The
red, green, and blue can be called the primaries and the resulting yellow, cyan, and magenta the secondaries.

CYAN BLUE
RED BLUE CYAN MAGENTA
WHITE BLACK

YELLOW MAGENTA RED GREEN

GREEN YELLOW

Fig. 2.4.3a - Additive Mixing Fig. 2.4.3b - Simple Subtractive Mixing

The colour of an object is determined by pigments. These are chemicals which create a given colour by
subtracting parts of the spectrum of the incident light. The remaining light is reflected and this gives the object
its colour characteristic.

Making colours by mixing paint pigments may therefore be described as a process of subtractive mixing (refer
to fig. 2.4.3b), since each added pigment subtracts more from the incident light and leaves less to be reflected
into the eye. Following are some examples (the incident light in this example is white):

YELLOW = WHITE – BLUE

MAGENTA = WHITE – GREEN

CYAN = WHITE – RED

8
2.4.4 LIGHT SOURCE COLOUR SPECIFICATION
In the past, various people have devised methods to quantify colour so that communication of colour becomes
easier and more accurate. These methods attempt to provide a way of expressing colour numerically, in much
the same way we express length and weight.

Light source colour specification and measurement can be categorised into three major colorimetric methods.
They are:
• Tristimulus colorimetry
• Colour temperature
• Spectroradiometry

2.4.4.1 TRISTIMULUS COLORIMETRY

Tristimulus colorimetry is based on the three component theory of colour vision, which states that the eye
possesses receptors for three primary colours (red, green, blue) and that all colours are seen as mixtures of
these three primary colours. The most important system is the 1931 Commission Internationale I’Eclairage (CIE)
system, which defined the Standard Observer to have colour-matching functions x(∗), y(∗), and z(∗) as shown
in Fig. 2.4.4.1. The XYZ tristimulus values are calculated using these three standard observer colour matching
functions. XYZ tristimulus values and the associated Yxy colour space form the foundation of the present CIE
colour space.

Color-matching functions

2.0

1.5
Tristimulus values

1.0

0.5

0
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 2.4.4.1 - Colour Matching Functions
9
 2.4.4.1.1 CIE 1931 Yxy CHROMATICITY CHART y
The tristimulus values XYZ are useful for defining a colour, but 0.8

the results are not easily visualised. Because of this, CIE defined 0.7

a colour space in 1931 for graphing colour into two dimensions

independent of lightness; this is the Yxy colour space, in which 0.6

Y is the lightness and x and y are the chromaticity coordinates 0.5

calculated from the tristimulus value XYZ.The x and y chromaticity

0.4
coordinates are calculated from the XYZ tristimulus values
according to the following formulae: 0.3

0.2

X Y
0.1
x = —————– y = ————––
X+Y+Z X+Y+Z 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 x
Fig. 2.4.4.1.1 - 1931 x,y Chromaticity Diagram
The principal drawback of the 1931 system is that equal
distances on the chart do not represent equal perceived colour
differences because of non-linearities in the human eye.

2.4.4.1.2 CIE 1976 UCS CHROMATICITY CHART

The Uniform Chromaticity Scale (UCS) was developed to
V'
minimise the limitations of the 1931 system. It was intended
0.6
to provide a perceptually more uniform colour spacing for
colours at approximately the same luminance. The 1976 CIE- 0.5

UCS chart uses u’ and v’ coordinates. The symbols u’ and v’

0.4
were chosen to differentiate from the u and v coordinates of
the similar but short lived 1960 CIE-UCS system. The u’ and 0.3

v’ chromaticity coordinates are also calculated from the XYZ

tristimulus values according to the following formulae: 0.2

0.1

4X 9Y
u’ = ——————–– v’ = —————–––– 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
u'
X + 15Y + 3Z X + 15Y + 3Z
Fig. 2.4.4.1.2 - 1976 UCS Diagram

10
2.4.4.1.3 HELMHOLTZ COORDINATES
An alternative set of coordinates in the CIE system, 1.00

Dominant Wavelength and Purity (also known as Helmholtz

0.90
coordinates), correlate more closely with the visual aspects
of hue and chroma. The dominant wavelength (DW) of 0.80

a colour is the wavelength of the spectrum colour whose

0.70
chromaticity is on the same straight line as the sample
point (S) and the illuminant point (N) (for light source 0.60

measurement, the illuminant point is x=0.333 and 0.50

y=0.333). Purity, also known as excitation purity, is the

0.40
distance from the illuminant point (N) to the sample point
(S), divided by that from the illuminant point (N) to the 0.30

spectrum locus (DW).

0.20

0.10

0.00

Purity = (N—S) / (N—DW)

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Fig. 2.4.4.1.3 - Helmholtz Coordinates

The above method is only applicable to spectral colour, that is colour which appears in visible spectrum.
When measurement of non-spectral colour, that is colour which does not appear in visible spectrum and is
located within the triangle area encompassed by the 3 points N, R and B, is concerned, Complementary
Dominant Wavelength (CDW) is used. This is because the interception point P, which is supposed to be
the Dominant Wavelength has no corresponding wavelength. The line from N to P is extended backward
in order to determine the Complementary Dominant Wavelength (CDW). Purity for non-spectral colour is
calculated from:

Purity = (N—S’) / (N—P)

Dominant wavelength and purity are commonly used in LEDs’ colour specification.

11
 2.4.4.2 COLOUR TEMPERATURE
The concept of colour temperature arises from the apparent colour changes of an object when it is heated to
various temperatures. When the temperature of an object increases, the emitted radiation changes which result
in the change of colour. A special class of incandescent (glow when hot) object emits radiation with 100
percent efficiency when heated; scientists call this ideal full radiator as blackbody radiator.

In particular, an ideal blackbody glows with a colour which depends on its temperature. The range of hues
may be shown on the CIE diagram by a line which is referred to as a blackbody locus (or, Planckian locus).
The colour progresses from a very deep red through orange, yellow, white and finally bluish-white as the
temperature increases. Most of the natural light sources, such as the sun, star, and fire fall very close to the
Planckian locus.

Some light sources have colour which corresponds to that of a full radiator when the latter is held at a particular
temperature. For some purposes, it is convenient to classify such a light source by quoting its colour temperature
(measured in Kelvins). Colour Temperature curves from 1,500K to 10,000K can be supplied. As long as the
light being measured closely approximates a blackbody source, the results are quite accurate. Hence, the
locus is particularly useful in the classification of ‘whites’. Colour temperature is widely used among lamp and
display manufacturers.

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Fig. 2.4.4.2 - Planckian locus plotted on the CIE x,y Chromaticity Diagram.

12
2.4.4.2.1 CORRELATED COLOUR TEMPERATURE
Colour temperature is strictly applicable to light sources which may be precisely matched by a full radiator.
The concept is extended to include sources which give light that can be closely - but not exactly - matched
by a full radiator. The expression Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT) is used to describe the light from such
sources. This is the temperature at which a full radiator produces a light that most nearly matches the light
from the given source. CCT is calculated by determining the isotemperature line on which the colour of the
light source is positioned. Isotemperature lines are straight lines for which all colours on the line appear visually
equal. ∗uv is used to specify the deviation from the blackbody locus. The maximum deviation for ∗uv is set
at ±0.02.

CCT is not suitable for measuring light sources which have narrow-band spectral emittance curves that do
not approximate any blackbody curve (for example, LED).

y 0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
Fig. 2.4.4.2.1 - xy chromaticity chart indicating the blackbody locus, the isotemperature x
lines and equal ∗uv lines.

13
 2.4.4.3 SPECTRORADIOMETRY
Many different spectral power distribution curves can yield the same visual effect which we call colour. It
means that the colour of a light source does not tell us the nature of its spectral power distribution. In other
words, two different light sources which have the same colour in x,y or colour temperature might not exhibit
the same spectral power distribution. The reverse, however, is true: knowledge of spectral power distribution
of light will enable us to describe the colour (refer to Fig. 2.4.4.3 for the types of spectral power distribution
curve of some common CIE illuminants).

Hence, the spectroradiometric method is the most accurate and complete method of specifying colour. The
spectral data can be analysed visually and/or compared to data from another light source. However, the
best use of spectral data is to calculate the CIE tristimulus values by mathematically integrating the data with
the CIE colour-matching function. The tristimulus values are then used to compute CIE chromaticity coordinates
and luminosity, which provide complete description of the colour.

Standard Illuminant D65: Average

daylight (including ultraviolet
wavelength region) with a correlated
colour temperature of 6504K. 200 – 22a: Standard Illuminants

Standard Illuminant C: Average

daylight (not including ultraviolet
150 –
wavelength region) with a correlated
colour temperature of 6774K.

100 –
Standard Illuminant A:
Incandescent light with a correlated
colour temperature of 2856K.
50 –

0 –| | | | |
300 400 500 600 700

Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 2.4.4.3 - Spectral Distribution of CIE illuminants

14
 3 Instr umentation

3.1 RADIOMETER
Radiometer is a device used to measure the intensity of radiant energy. A majority of radiometers use
only single photocell sensors. In order to measure radiation emitted from a specific spectrum or to
incorporate the radiometer within a certain spectral response, an optical filter is normally used. Such
optical filtering offers a simpler and more cost effective solution.

The industrial applications of radiometer mainly involve irradiance and radiance measurement. In order
to quantify the radiation emission from source, radiance measurement is normally used. On the other
hand, when the level of exposure is of concern, the irradiance or the integrated irradiance measurement
is then carried out.

3.1.1 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOMETER

Radiometer is commonly used in industry to quantify light which is outside the visible spectrum, i.e., ultraviolet
and infrared. Ultraviolet (UV) light is widely used in the industry for various applications, for example,

• Curing of photoresists in semiconductor manufacturing

• Curing of emulsions for printing or plate-making

• Colour-fastness testing

• Biological application

To conduct UV measurement by radiometer, either radiance or irradiance measurement, the spectral response
(wavelength range and peak wavelength) should be specified to match the specific application.

Beside UV, infrared energy is also a common parameter in the field of radiometric measurement. Infrared
measurement is useful as all material emits infrared radiation according to their thermal energies. Infrared
thermometer utilises the principle of infrared radiance measurement to determine the temperature of object by
non-contact means. Hence, such infrared radiometer is also commonly known as “Radiation Thermometer”.
Different filters with specific spectral responses are used for different applications and temperature ranges. For
more details about temperature measurement by infrared detection, please refer to our publication on ‘The
Wonders of Temperature’.

15
 3.2 PHOTOMETER
A photometer can be defined as an instrument for measurement of visible light. Luminance and
illuminance meters are the most common photometers and are easily available as turnkey systems.
Luminous flux meters and luminous intensity meters are not widely available and usually have to be
customised to the specific light measurement application due to the geometry of measurement involved.

The basic difference between radiometer and photometer, is that the latter must respond to light as the
CIE standard observer. In other words, the spectral response of the photometer must follow the CIE
Standard Luminosity Function V∗ curve.

3.2.1 SENSORS The spectral

luminous efficiency V(∗)
The sensor of the photometer, which decides Minolta Illuminance
Meters T-10
the conformity to the CIE V∗ curve, is critical
100
to the accurate performance of the photometer.
90
Non-filtered and filtered sensors have been 80
Relative sensitivity (%)

used in photometers. 70

60

50
Non-filtered sensors, such as the selenium and 40

cadmium sulfide, inherit a natural spectral 30

20
response which approximate the V∗ curve.
10
However, its deviation from the V∗ curve makes 0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
it impractical for accurate photometry Wavelength (nm)
measurement and it is more commonly used
Fig. 3.2.1 - Relative spectral response
in automatic light switches applications. Most
modern filtered photometers use silicon
photodiodes which incorporate optical filters in front of the sensor so that the transmission of the filter and the
spectral response of the sensor can be combined to closely match the CIE V∗ curve.

CIE recognised the need for a meaningful and internationally applicable method of specifying the quality of
a photometric sensor. Hence, f1 value is developed for this purpose. The f1 value, specified in percentage
error, represents the degree to which the relative spectral responsivity matches CIE V∗ curve.

16
3.2.2 CALIBRATION METHOD
Beside f1 value, the calibration method of the photometer is also an important factor when deciding its suitability
to a specific application. For example, a photometer with a relative large f1 value can still achieve good
accuracy when the measured light source and the standard lamp used during the calibration process is similar.

There are two basic methods of calibrating photometers. The first and the most common method is using a
standard lamp (usually tungsten lamp). These lamps are certified and traceable to national standard
laboratories/institutions. The photometers will be adjusted until the measurement reading matches the certified
output of the standard lamp. The second calibration method is to use standard detectors. Such detectors have
built-in sensors where the spectral responses perfectly match the CIE V∗ curve. In such calibrations, a lamp is
still required but output can be varied but must be stable. The standard detector first measures the output of
the lamp, and is substituted by the photometer and will be adjusted until the measurement give similar readings
as the standard detector. Such detectors can also be certified and traceable to national standards.

3.2.2.1 COLOUR CORRECTION FACTOR

The correction of the detector-filter combination to the CIE V∗ curve is generally poor at the end of the visible
spectral range. Hence, the colour temperature of the lamp used during calibration is critical. As most of the
photometers are calibrated by a tungsten lamp, measurement of incandescent, halogen searchlights and sunlight
generally give good accuracy. However, these photometers are not suitable for measurement of monochromatic
light or narrowband emitters, e.g., blue and white LEDs. Measurement error will also be significant in discharge
lamps, e.g., luminescent tubes, which show clear peaks (i.e. spectral lines) in the visible spectrum.

For this reason, modern photometers have incorporated a Colour Correction Factor feature to compensate the
error caused by this spectral response difference between the sensor and the CIE V∗ curve. The CCF value
can be calculated when both the spectral response of the sensor and the spectral power distribution of the
light source is known. An alternate and easier method is to transfer the measurement data of a primary standard
(for example, data taken from a spectroradiometer) to the photometer is by varying the CCF value. CCF can
also be used as a user-calibration feature, which is particularly useful if in-house standards' traceability is
necessary.

17
 3.2.3 APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOMETERS
There are a multitude of light measurements to be made. Not surprisingly, misapplication of photometric
instrument by user can become a common source of error. For many users, the main obstacle to effective light
measurement is the lack of understanding of the characteristics of the type of measurement required. Attempts
to convert between units will lead to gross errors. For example, the most common mistake encountered is
attempting to use illuminance meter (lumen/m2) to determine luminuos flux (lumen), or, to use luminance meter
(candela/m2) to determine the luminous intensity (candela).

There are four main photometric instruments, namely the luminance meter, illuminance meter, luminous flux meter,
and luminous intensity meter.

3.2.3.1 LUMINANCE METER

The visible energy output of a light source can be determined with a luminance measurement. Luminance is
a directional quantity and, hence, we have to specify the acceptance angle of the instrument, measured area,
and measurement geometry with respect to the source, in order to communicate the luminance measurements
effectively. These factors are important as most light sources are not perfect lambertian sources (luminance is
the same in all direction) and might not be uniform in luminance throughout the sources.

Since measurement is targeted at the source, such measurement can be achieved by using a optical lens
system. Both the angular field of view and the angle subtended by the objective lens should be limited to
avoid collecting light from parts of the display at slightly different angles.

Luminance Meter
Measuring Area Measurement Geometry

Lens

Sensor

Acceptance Angle

Fig. 3.2.3.1 - Luminance measurement technique involving the use of lens.

Luminance measurement are important for products, such as traffic lights, televisions, and tail lights of automobiles.

18
3.2.3.2 ILLUMINANCE METER
Illuminance is a measure of visible energy falling upon an object’s surface. Illuminance measurements are
particularly susceptible to errors caused by off-axis light. By definition, light at the measurement plane should
be proportional to the cosine of the angle at which the light is incident. However, due to total integration of
the sensor into the detector head or the illuminance meter itself, many illuminance meters do not naturally collect
light correctly according to the cosine law.

Cosine correction feature is included in the illuminance meter by means of a cosine diffuser which is placed
over the sensor and filter. It is important to note that different systems will generate different cosine responses
which result in different cosine errors at different incident angles due to the nature of the system geometry.
Therefore, it is important to understand the system cosine response when comparing illuminance measurements
from different illuminance meters, especially when off-axis light measurement is concerned.

Ideal Curve
0º
100%
20º 20º
Illuminance Meter
40º 80% 40º

60%
60º 60º
40%
Fig. 3.2.3.2 - An example of the cosine response
of an illuminance
80º 20% 80º

Illuminance measurement is widely used in ambient lighting measurement to determine how well the room
is lighted up for ease of reading or working. For example, a comfortably lit desk should be illuminated at
300 lx.

Illuminance meter is sometime used to compute measurement in term of ANSI lumen (especially in projection
system measurement), by simply averaging the nine points illuminance measurement in lux and multiply by the
measurement area in square meter encompassed by the nine points measurement.

19
 3.2.3.3 LUMINOUS FLUX METER
Luminous flux measurement is to determine the total visible energy emitted by a light source. An integrating
sphere is often used to converge all the power emitted by the source to the detector head.

Integrating Sphere

Detector

Light source under measurement

Fig. 3.2.3.3 - Total luminous flux measurement using

an integrating sphere

The integrating sphere has to be large enough to encompass the light source being measured, and as a general
rule, the larger the sphere, the smaller the errors in measuring luminous flux for different light sources. As a
rough example, calibrating a 1.5m tubular lamp in a 2.5m diameter sphere against a small incandescent
standard will produce half the error that would result from calibration the same lamp in a 2m sphere. Calibration
of such integrating sphere can be carried out by means of transfer lamp standards which are traceable to
recognised national standards. A good quality integrating sphere which postulates the performance of an
ideally spherical, evenly coated interior requires a huge investment and usually have to be customised to the
light measurement application. Hence, the existence of a general purpose luminous flux meter is very limited.

3.2.3.4 LUMINOUS INTENSITY METER

Luminous intensity represents the flux flowing out of a source in a given direction per solid angle and it is
used to quantify the power of a light source. As the definition implies, luminous intensity measurement involves
several geometrical intricacies, such as measurement direction and amount of solid angle. Light sources are
rarely spatially homogeneous, leading to the questions on which direction and how much solid angle should
be used to carry out the measurement.

20
Hence, to measure the luminous intensity of a light source meaningfully, an agreed-upon fixture that defines
the solid angle encompassed by the measurement and that orients the light source repeatably in an specified
direction must be used. In other words, such meters have to be configured for the geometry of the source under
test.

Basically, there are no off-the-shelf luminous intensity meters and comparison of measured data from two different
luminous intensity meters serve no purpose, unless their measurement geometries are identical.

Measurement Distance (D)

Light Source

Solid Angle (∗) Detector

Fixture

Fig. 3.2.3.4 - An example of luminous intensity meter set-up

Note: Solid angle can be calculated from the known detector’s area and measurement distance. Detector is used to measure the
flux reading in lumen.

3.3 THREE-FILTER COLORIMETER

Instruments designed for measuring coloured light, which make use of three filters whose spectral sensitivity
are matched to the CIE tri-stimulus colour matching functions, are known as three-filter colorimeters. Besides
chromaticity measurement, these meters usually include one of the four basic photometric measurements, i.e.,
luminance, illuminance, luminous intensity, or luminous flux measurement.

These instruments use detectors which comprise high quality photodiodes with series-connected filters. The
incident light is converted by the detector into signals which directly yield the standard XYZ tristimulus values.

Nevertheless, matching to the standard CIE tristimulus curves can be achieved only with finite accuracy.
Deviations will occur in the defined CIE curves and in the sensitivity curves of the measuring instrument. These
differences are negligible as long as the light to be measured exhibits a continuous energy output over the
entire visible spectrum. However, the error may be significant if steep edges or spectral lines occur in the
spectrum. Hence, three-filter colorimeters are not usually suited to measure light sources with spectral lines, e.g.,
discharge lamps (refer to Fig.3.2.3.5a), or with narrow spectral energy distributions, e.g., LEDS (refer to
Fig.3.2.3.5b).

21
 Relative Spectral Distribution
Peak: 1.675E -02 : 545nm
100 –

80 –

60 –

40 –

20 –

0– | | | |
400 500 600 700

Fig. 3.2.3.5a - Spectral energy distribution with spectral lines

Relative Spectral Distribution

Peak: 1.189E +01 : 568nm
100 –

80 –

60 –

40 –

20 –

0– | | | |
400 500 600 700

Fig. 3.2.3.5b - Spectral energy distribution of a narrow-band emitter

Deviation be-
tween CIE stan-
dard curve and
filter spectral
repsonse curve.

Narrow spectral energy distribution

Fig. 3.2.3.5c - Error in measurement caused by deviation between CIE tristimulus curve and instrument’s

22 spectral response.
Tristimulus Method
Receptor section
Microprocessor
Numerical Values
x(∗)sensor X = 21.21 The tristimulus values X, Y,
y(∗)sensor Y = 13.37 Z are calculated by the
microprocessor and can be
z(∗)sensor Z = 9.32 converted to other colour
space

Light source
under test Three sensors
corresponding to
three types of cones
in human eye

Spectroradiometric Method
Receptor section Numerical Values
Microprocessor The tristimulus values X, Y,
Z are calculated by the
microprocessor and can be
converted to other colour
space
Spectral Graph

Light source Multiple spec-

under test tral sensors, each
sensitive to a par-
ticular wavelength

Fig. 3.2.3.6 - Comparison between tristimulus colorimetric method and spectroradiometric methods

3.4 SPECTRORADIOMETER
Spectroradiometers are most ideal for measuring spectral energy distribution of the light source,
which determine not only the radiometric and photometric quantities, but also the colorimetric
quantities of light. These instruments record the radiation spectrum of the light source and calculate
the desired parameters, such as chromaticity and luminance. Dispersion of light is usually
accomplished in spectroradiometer by means of prisms or diffraction gratings.

The exact CIE V∗ curve and CIE colour matching curves are stored in the software and are used
to process the data from the measured spectral energy distribution of the light source under test.
Hence, the measurement error associated with photometers and filter colorimeters is avoided
in spectroradiometers. However, adequate sensitivity, high linearity, low stray light, low polarisation
error, and a spectral bandpass resolution of 5 nm or less are essential for obtaining good
accuracy.

23
 Non-thermal radiators, such as discharge lamps (which can be characterised by their non-continuous spectral
energy distribution), and narrow-band emitters can only be measured with precision by means of the spectral
procedure.

When compared to three-filter colorimeters, spectroradiometers do have their limitations, in terms of speed of
measurement, price and portability.

3.5 SUMMARY
If precise measurement of light is required, the spectroradiometric method is the most ideal and
comprehensive method as it records the spectral characteristics of light and further processes them
mathematically to obtain radiometric, spectroradiometric, photometric, and colorimetric data.

When portability, speed of measurement, and cost of investment, is of priority, filter photometers are
still preferred. However, one should have a good understanding of the f1’ value of the photometer and
its calibration method. This information is important to ascertain whether the photometer is appropriate
to measure the light source under test, considering its spectral energy distribution.

Finally, one should choose an instrument which make direct measurements of light characteristics, such
as luminance, illuminance, luminous intensity, luminous flux and should not attempt any form of conversions
across measurement geometries.

4 C onclusion
A good understanding of the measurable characteristics of light, and exactly which of those characteristics
of light need to be quantified for a particular situation, will ensure that the radiometric and/or photometric
characteristics of an application are described correctly.

This publication makes no claim to completeness but simply describes what the user needs to know
about measurement of light. The pointers described are based on problems which are frequently
mentioned in discussion between suppliers and customers.

24
 5 References

Billmeyer, Fred W (1981). Principles of color technology—2nd Edition. Wiley & Sons, New York.

Hutson, Geoffrey, H. (1990). Colour Television — 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company Europe, England.

The Photonics Dictionary — A Four-Book Set (1993). United States of America.

Joseph B. Murdoch. Illumination Engineering — From Edison’s lamp to the laser.

Macmillian Publishing Company, England.

D. Allan Roberts. Radiometry/Photometry Terms. The Photonics Design and Applications Handbook 1993,
United States of America.

Daniel C. McCarthy. Integrating Sphere Aids Absolute Calibration of Lamps.

Photonics Spectra—December 1998, United States of America.

Richard Distl. Measure What You See. Photonics Spectra—May 2000, United States of America.

Ian K. Edwards. Counting Coup — Photometry: Origin of the science to applying handheld equipment.
LD&A — December 1993.

Clarence E. Rash and Everette McGowin III. Measuring Light. Information Display 9/96. SID 1996.

Kenneth A. Miller. Colorimetry: Methods and Tools. The Photonics Design and Applications Handbook 1993,
United States of America.

25
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