Lesson 4

Islam
Objectives:
1. Read the opening lines of Qur’an preferably from an English version.
2. Retell the life and times of Prophet Muhammad.
3. Explain: the core teaching of Islam is there is only one God and Muhammad is
His final and greatest messenger.

Established around seventh century C.E., Islam is the youngest among the world’s
major religions. With more than 1.5 billion adherents comprising almost one-fourth of
the entire world population, Islam is the second largest group and one of the fasting
growing religions in the world.

Majority of Muslims, the followers of Islam, live in Asia and Africa. There are 49
countries in the world that are Muslim-majority or comprise 50% of the population. The
1.2 billion Muslims in these countries equivalent to 74% of the entire Muslim population
worldwide. More than 60% of the world’s Muslims can be found in Asia, including
Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, and Iran. Indonesia is the world’s most
populous Muslim-majority country with almost 87% of the population practicing the
Islam religion. In Africa, sizeable Muslim communities are found in Egypt and Nigeria.

Pilgrims performing
Tawaf, which means
“circling.”
Considered as one
of the Islamic rituals
of pilgrimage, it is
performed during the
Hajj (one of the
pillars of Islam which
refers to the Muslim
pilgrimage to Mecca)
wherein Muslims
walk around the
Kaaba (the most
sacred site in Islam
found in Mecca,
Saudi Arabia) seven
times in a
counterclockwise
direction.

MOTIVATIONAL
ACTIVITY
Did you know that there are numerous celebrities in Hollywood that are practicing the
Islamic faith? Can you identify some of these popular stars that you know?

A B C D E

A.

_____________________________ D. ___________________________

B. _____________________________ E. ___________________________

C. _____________________________

SYMBOLS
The star and crescent have become the acknowledged
representation of the Star and Crescent Islamic faith.
The symbol can be seen in the national flags of
states that came about following the collapse of the
Ottoman Empire in the 20th century. Around the
1970s, it was adopted by movements that advocated
Arab nationalism. Traditionally, the crescent moon or the hilal has early connections
with royalty. It is also closely linked to the lunar calendar that orders the religious life of
the Muslims (Bowker 1997).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Islam began with the Arabian desert people around early seventh century C.E.
These people had developed their own set of beliefs prior to the formal establishment of
Islam and had been influenced by other religions for a long period of time, including
Byzantine Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Judea, the home of Christianity, was not too far away from Arabia, and the great
cities of Damascus, Antioch, and Alexandria were neighbors to Mecca and Medina
(Hopfe 1983). Byzantine rulers, however, antagonized Arab Christians that provided an
impetus for their acceptance of a new Arab religion that started with the establishment
of Islam. On the other hand, the Arabian people were also familiar with Judaism. For
one, several desert tribes were Jewish in origin. When the Muslim forces entered
Medina in 622 C.E., many citizens of the city were Jewish (Hopfe 1983). Lastly, the
Muslims may have been in contact with the Persian Zoroastrians though its influence
may be not as strong compared to Christianity and Judaism.
 Perhaps the single most important factor that accelerated the development of a
new religion in the Arabian interior was the native religion practiced by the Arabs. Pre-
Islamic people worshipped a variety of gods. While they recognize the existence of one
supreme god, local and tribal gods were mostly venerated by the people. Carved
images were done to represent these gods that were often revered and given blood
sacrifices (Hopfe 1983). Apart from the presence of these gods, there were also angels,
fairies, demonic creatures, and evil spirits in pre-Islam religion.
Apart from worshipping a pantheon of gods, pre-Islamic religion was also
animistic in character. Spirits found in rocks, trees, and wells had to be revered at their
sanctuaries and placated for assistance. In time, the city of Mecca became a sacred
shrine because of these animistic associations (Hopfe 1983). A meteoric stone that had
fallen in Mecca centuries before became an object of veneration to the animistic people.
Pilgrims then built an enclosure around the stone and called it Kaaba. Various images
and relics gradually filled the Kaaba, including a painting of Jesus and Mary. Pilgrims
travelled to Mecca to worship at the shrine. The “Black Stone,” which according to
Muslim tradition dates to the time of Adam and Eve, eventually became a very important
object for the Meccans at the time when various clans struggled to control the Kaaba.
Mecca situated on the central western coast of Arabia is positioned on the major north-
south caravan route (Hopfe 1983).

The Life of Muhammad

Around the year 570 C.E., Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born in the oasis town
of Mecca just off the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula (Karabell 2007).
Muhammad’s father died before he was born while his mother died before he was six
years old. He belonged to the clan of Hashim of the Quraysh tribe that controlled the
Kaaba and the camel trade that passed through Mecca. Following the tradition, he was
sent to be reared among the Bedouins. When his mother died, Muhammad was raised
by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib (Renard 1992).
Later, Muhammad was taken into custody by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib, who
was chief of the Quraysh tribe. Life must have been very difficult for the young
Muhammad. With no formal schooling, Muhammad worked as a caravan worker
travelling across the Arabian Peninsula as a camel driver. From his travels in the
Arabian Peninsula to the different Byzantine cities, he may have met and conversed
with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians alike. Muhammad soon learned the various
ways and means of their belief system that may have led him to question the faith of his
own people, especially with regard their animistic practices and reverence given to
numerous gods and idols (Hopfe 1983). He used to retreat to Mount Hira near Mecca in
search of truth about God.
Muhammad later married an older wealthy widow named Khadija, fifteen years
his senior. Muhammad was twenty-five years old when he married Khadija who was
about forty years old at the time. Khadija managed her own caravan and Muhammad
was working for her. He was married only to Khadija as long as she lived even though it
was acceptable for men to have multiple wives then. Khadija became his staunch
supporter and one of his first converts to the new religion he founded.
Around the year 610 C.E., Muhammad began hearing the voice of God in a cave
on the summit of Mount Hira, just outside Mecca in the Arabian Hijaz. God was
speaking to Muhammad in the Arabic language (Armstrong 2000; Karabell 2007).
Mostly auditory but occasionally in visual form, he began to experience divine
revelations delivered by the angel Gabriel (Renard 1992). Muhammad first disclosed
these revelations only to his wife since revealing these messages to his tribe could
disturb the social order that was primarily anchored on clan and kinship. He was
preaching a new order built upon God’s will and human submission to this belief.
The term “Islam” originated from an Arabic word meaning “submit.” In other
words, Islam means to “surrender or submit oneself for obedience to God” or to “enter
into a condition of peace and security with God through allegiance and surrender to
him” (Armstrong 2000; Bowker 1997). On the other hand, the word “Muslim” is the
Arabic word for a person who submits.
A Muslim, therefore, is a “person who surrenders or submits himself to
obey God” (Brown 1975). In Arabic, the word “Allah” is a compound of al
(the definite article, the) and ilah (god or deity). Joined, the words signify
“god” (Renard 1993). Henceforth, he is called Allah or “the one who is
God.” Muhammad was preaching that there can only be one God.
Beginning 613 C.E., Muhammad began to impart these sacred
messages to his closest relatives and friends. However, the polytheistic
people of Mecca gave him a tepid response. As the revelations became
known to members of his clan, the Qurasyh tribe began to consider Muhammad and his
radical view of submission to one god as one major threat to the long-established
tradition and absoluteness of tribal authority. While god and deities (known as jinn) were
revered, tribes and clan reigned supreme on all societal issues (Karabell 2007). Quite
evidently, Muhammad was challenging the supremacy of the Qurasyh system.
The Muslims consider Muhammad as a messenger and the last prophet sent by
God to humankind who was visited by the angel Gabriel. While he
gained the loyalty of several followers who were convinced by his religious ideals, the
Meccan tribes eventually grew hostile to Muhammad’s emerging faction. The radical
teachings of Muhammad angered local tribes so they began persecuting him and his
loyal followers.
In 622 C.E., Muhammad and his group moved to Medina (then known as Yathrib,
200 miles north of Mecca) to escape persecution from the Meccans. The flight of
Muhammad from Mecca to Medina is known as hijra which marked the beginning of the
Islamic calendar. Mired in frequent gridlock, Medinian tribes wanted Muhammad to
become their leader (Karabell 2007). The Muslims who follow Muhammad in his journey
are known as Muhajirun (“those who made the hijra”) while those who supported him in
Medina are known as Ansar (“the helpers”). Their descendants are honored in the Islam
religion (Bowker 1997). With local tribes involved in frequent internal strife, Muhammad
restored peace and order in Medina. Shortly after his arrival in 622 C.E, he united the
Medinian tribes under one constitution.
Muhammad and his followers waged a constant battle against Meccan tribes until
630 C.E. Finally, after almost eight years of struggle, Muhammad and his troops of
around ten thousand converts marched to Mecca and took over the city almost
unopposed. In Kaaba, he tore down the three hundred sixty pagan idols displayed at the
holy shrine.
In 632 C.E., Muhammad died at the age of 62 but his newly founded religion had spread
across the entire Arabian Peninsula and the Muslims had been united as one religious
community. He was a classic example of a just, compassionate, honest, and brave
human being far removed from all evil deeds. Muhammad’s actions were solely for the
sake of Allah as he is ever mindful and fearful of his one true god (Ibrahim 1997). God
has made all revelations to Muhammad, the last of the prophets and the seal of the
prophecy.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Q'uran
The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that
literally means “recitation” or “reading.” The Quran is the revelation from God of his
speech (kalam) and is the foundation of the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). It is the
supreme authority in all matters of faith, theology, and law (Parrinder 1971).
In 610 C.E., when Muhammad received the first revelations, he was commanded
by angel Gabriel to “iqra” or “recite.” All Muslims believe that the Quran is a copy of the
eternal scripture written in heaven but made known to Muhammad chapter by chapter
(Hopfe 1983). As such, the Quran is the word of God that is binding, continuous, and
supreme. The same message became known to earlier prophets like Moses and Jesus
but people gradually altered the revelation entrusted to them by God (Bowker 1997).
Any translation of the Quran, either in English or in any other language, is neither a
Quran nor a version of the Quran; rather, it is only a translation of the meaning of the
Quran (Ibrahim 1997). The Quran in Arabic, the only language in which it was revealed,
is considered the perfect word of God.
For about twenty-three years, God revealed these messages through
Muhammad who initially memorized these lines because he was illiterate. The
revelation spanned from about 609 to 632 C.E., the year of the prophet’s death.
Muhammad relayed these messages to his companion and secretary Zayd ibn Thabit
(c.610-c.660 C.E.) who wrote them on leather scraps, stone pieces, ribs of palm leaves,
shoulder blades of animals, and parchments (Parrinder 1971; Hopfe 1983). At that time,
the art of papermaking was still unknown to the Arab people. Zayd became one of the
first converts of Muhammad to the Islam fold. Twenty years after the death of
Muhammad, the Quran had officially come to the form that was disseminated
throughout the centers of the Islamic world.
The Quran has remained virtually unaltered since the time of Muhammad. To the
Meccan townspeople, Muhammad preached the messages which were short and quite
easy to remember as these lines rhymed with one another (Brown 1975). The Muslims
recite and memorize the Quran reflecting the profound influence of the scripture on the
daily lives of all followers. Muhammad wanted the Muslims to recite their scripture aloud
like the manner done by the Jews and Christians. As time went on, the messages
increased as Muhammad kept on receiving new revelations. The Quran guides all
Muslims in every stage of their lives.
In comparison, the Quran has almost the same length as the New Testament,
the Christian biblical canon (Parrinder 1971). The chapters that compose the Quran are
called surahs while the verses are called ayahs which mean “evidence” or “sign.” There
are 114 chapters in the Quran, 86 of which are classified as Meccan while 28 are
Medinian. The hijra or the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina serves as a
pivot point in the division of the Quranic verses that belong before or after the said
emigration in 622 C.E. (Cragg 2004). The Meccan verses generally pertain to religious
ideals while the Medinian verses deal with the organization of the Muslim community.
While the chapters are of varying lengths, the Quran is also divided into thirty almost
equal parts (with each part known as juz) so as to enable a reader to complete the
reading of the scripture in one month (Aziz 1993).
Neither thematic nor chronological, the Quran is arranged based on the length of
the surah in descending order. The longest surah has about 286 ayahs, the Al-Baqarah
(“The Heifer”). The shortest surah has only three ayahs, the Al-Kawthar (“Abundance”).
The first the surah is called Fatihah (“The Opening”) that is in the form of a prayer to
God for guidance. The Fatihah, written below, is the most frequently recited segment of
the Koran.

“In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds;
Most Gracious, Most Merciful;
Master of the Day of Judgement.
You do we worship and Your aid we seek.
Show us the straight way,
The way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace,
those whose (portion)
is not wrath, and who go not astray.” Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p.
1

A person who can memorize the Quran in its entirety is called hafiz (“guardian”). The
female counterpart is called hafiza. Whatever denomination Muslims may belong to,
they always have the same Quran written in Arabic like the early days of Islam’s
founding. No two copies of the Quran anywhere in the world differ in any way (Aziz
1993).

The Hadith
The hadith is the collection of the deeds and sayings of Muhammad and his
followers (“traditional reports or sayings”) and is the second source of shari’a law (Horrie
& Chippindale 2003). Unlike the Quran that was officially compiled under the auspices
of a central authority (as initiated by the first caliph Abu Bakr), the hadiths were
collected generations after the death of Muhammad. The hadiths are recognized today
as second in authority after the Koran (Parrinder 1971).
Around the ninth century C.E., Muslim scholars undertook several great
systematic collections of hadiths that are known as Kutub al-Sittah or the Six Sahih
(“Authentic”) Books. The collections of Persian scholars Muhammad al-Bukhari (810-
870) and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (c.815-875) are the most respected and most often cited
among the said collections (Parrinder 1971). Imam Bukhari authored the Sahih al-
Bukhari while Imam Muslim compiled the Sahih Muslim. From the six books, these
hadith records are the two most authentic collections.
The word sahih in these titles indicates that the authors of these books sifted the
authentic reports about Muhammad from other unsubstantiated narratives (Aziz 1993).
The various rituals and obligations embedded in the so-called “Five Pillars of Islam” as
well as majority of criminal laws originate from the hadiths (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES
Islam began as a way of life (din) for its followers which God intended for his
creation from the very beginning (Bowker 1997). In time, God had to send several
prophets, including Musa (Moses) and ‘Isa (Jesus), to summon people back to the din
because of human rebellion and transgression. Ultimately, all prophets were rejected,
persecuted, or killed except for Muhammad.
While some religions may have room for subjective or personal discernment
regarding matters of conduct, Islamic beliefs are more dominantly social in character.
Islamic religious laws cover the daily life of all Muslims—from education, dress,
marriage, sexual relations, justice, punishments, economics, diet, and even rules of
hospitality. While Islam’s approach to life and death, origins of the universe, and the
nature of mankind is simple, it is also rigid and uncompromising (Horrie & Chippindale
2003).
For all Muslims, there is only one compassionate, everlasting, and omnipotent
God, being the lord of everything in existence, including humans. Around eight
thousand years ago, God created the universe and may terminate it when he wills it so.
A “Day of Judgment” shall ensue wherein all humankind will be resurrected and
individually accounted for. Everyone will be fully awakened and raised to a higher
spiritual life (Aziz 1193). Based on their own deeds and fully aware of the effects of
these deeds in this life, everyone will then be sent to either paradise or hell for
perpetuity (Aziz 1993; Horrie & Chippindale 2003). All these knowledges had been
revealed by God to Muhammad and written down in the Quran.
Since all people originate from God and return to him after death, there can
never be contending religions that may divide people from one another. As such, Islam
advocates for the establishment of one single community or ummah (Armstrong 2000;
Bowker 1997). During Muhammad’s time, the ummah was a community bigger than the
tribe, demanding a loyalty which came before loyalty to kinsfolk (Fletcher 2003). In the
end, a Muslim must not fight a fellow Muslim.

FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

The basic obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam or arkan al-din.
While differences may occur in the interpretation of Islamic law, all Muslims believe and
accept the entirety of these obligations that must be strictly observed to avoid being
sent to hell on the “Day of Judgment.” The Five Pillars give structure and unity to all
believers of Islam.
Foremost among all Muslims’ obligations is the declaration of their statement of
belief called shahada (“witness”) that is recited during prayers and rituals. Apart from
shahada, the four other duties that must be performed by all Muslims are collectively
called as ibadah (“state of submission”). The ibadah aims to discipline the adherents
and eliminate impostors to the Islamic faith. The ibadah is composed of praying five
times a day, fasting during the time of Ramadan, giving of annual charity, and
undertaking a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a Muslim’s lifetime.
The Creed (Shahada)
The basic creed of Islam that “there is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the
messenger of Allah” is known as shahada. In Arabic, the shahada is recited as “La ilaha
illa Allah; Muhammadon rasul Allah.” These are the very first words uttered into an
infant’s ear and perhaps the last words given to a dying Muslim. The shahada asserts
that Allah is the only divinity and that he has relayed his will through Muhammad
(Bowker 1997).
To be accepted into the Islam fold, one must recite the kalima or phrase with two
witnesses. The first half of the kalima is known as tawheed (“the unity”) which is the
most important statement of Muslim faith. The second half is called risallah
(“acceptance of prophethood”) which implies acceptance of prophets as messengers of
god (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). For a Muslim to deny any part of the shahada is
tantamount to the crime of reversion to Islam that is punishable under Quranic law.

Obligatory Prayer (Salat)

Just as the
body requires food
for its daily
sustenance,
prayers are done
for spiritual
development so
that a Muslim’s
character and
conduct remain
sound and healthy
(Aziz 1993). Facing
in the direction of
Mecca or qiblah,
Muslims must offer
prayers or salat
five times each and every day—before sunrise (as-subh), noon (az-zuhr), mid-afternoon
(al-asr), immediately after sunset (al-maghreb), and before midnight (al-isha) (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). In a mosque or masjid (“place of prostration”) where Muslims offer
prayers in congregation, men and women pray separately. A structure of masjid can
range from a simple desert prayer ground (musalla) or just any space whereby rules of
ritual purity are properly observed.
Each prayer session begins when the strong-voiced muezzin or caller recites the
call to prayer (adhan) from the tallest point of a mosque, often a minaret. A minaret is a
tall structure or thin tower that is used to call the people to prayer. The adhan,
composed of rhythmic Arabic phrases devised by Muhammad himself, is often recorded
and broadcast through speakers (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Quite regrettably,
muezzins have been slowly replaced by amplified voices and tape recordings (Jomier
1999).
Before any prayer commences, an elaborate ritual washing (wudu) must be
performed to remove any impurities and unclean substances from the body or clothes of
the faithful. Most mosques are frequently equipped with facilities for washing hands,
feet, and face before prayer (Hopfe 12983). Clean and potable water must be given to
any person who comes to a mosque (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Muslim men often
pray in mosques while women pray at their homes.
To pray, a Muslim stands on clean ground without shoes or wearing clean ones
(Jomier 1999). A special carpet may be provided to provide the person a clean surface.
Nevertheless, aside from salat, a Muslim can address a prayer to Allah at any given
time in any circumstance using any words one chooses (Aziz 1993).

Poor Tax (Zakat)

Muslims who live above the subsistence level must pay zakat or the poor tax to
aid the underprivileged Muslims. Affluent Muslims must share their wealth to the
unfortunate ones. Originally, almsgiving was for the benefit of the poor, widows, and
orphans through an act of charity. Later, it became mandatory amounting to a certain
percentage of a Muslim’s total resources. Islam has never viewed begging as
dishonorable (Hopfe 1983).
Zakat is not charity but an annual wealth tax that serves as just and lawful claim
of the poor against the affluent ones. The zakat is payable the moment a Muslim has
accumulated sufficient resources starting with a basic rate which is fortieth (2.5 percent)
of a person’s entire asset, including savings, jewels, and land (Horrie & Chippindale
2003). A kind of tithe intended to support the needy, zakat has been a contributory
factor of solidarity and unity for the Muslim people (Jomier 1999). It is a religious duty
done out of obedience to Allah and compassion to poor Muslims. The spirit of self-
sacrifice is developed by paying zakat that somehow curtails the feeling of greed (Aziz
1993).
The Quran states that all worldly wealth is unclean unless utilized in the service
of Allah and Islam. A horrible fortune awaits those people who became wealthy as a
result of usurious activities and those who neglect the welfare of poor Muslims. By
fulfilling to pay zakat, well-off Muslims cleanse their material possessions and can
liberally enjoy their fortunes with Allah’s approval (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Hence,
zakat is viewed as purification of one’s resources (Frager 2002).

Fasting (Sawm)
Fasting or sawm during the entire 30 days of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic
calendar, must be performed by all Muslims every year. The Ramadan is believed to be
the month when Muhammad received the first surah of the Quran. The sawm is done by
all Muslims to express obedience to Allah and the readiness to relinquish pleasures in
their lives. By under-taking sawm, Muslims observe discipline and experience the
deprivations of the poor (Bowker 1997). During this time, a Muslim must refrain from
eating, drinking, smoking, and engaging in any sexual intimacy from dusk until dawn. By
resisting the demands of the body during sawm, the Muslims strengthen their will.
Muslims are reminded that they have the capacity to ignore the longing of the body or
material gratification (Frager 2002).
The sawm culminates with the “Feast of Breaking the Fast” (‘Id al-Fitr) wherein
Muslims may celebrate and partake in festivities. They hold congregational prayers and
exchange presents. Unlike the Jews or Catholics who fast for a brief period in
observance of holy days, the Muslims are obligated to fast the longest and strictest of
all.
Any Muslim who has reached puberty and is healthy must undertake sawm.
Muslims who are exempted from performing sawm include small children, those who
are on a journey, sick persons, and mothers nursing infants. For those who are
temporarily unable to observe sawm, they must perform the missed fast after Ramadan.
For those who are permanently unable to fast, such as the very old or persons those
with long-term illness, they can give charity to poor Muslims instead (Aziz 1993).

Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)

All Muslims must attempt to undertake a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca or
hajj (“visitation of Holy Places”) at least once in their lifetime during the twelfth Islamic
month. The “Grand Mosque” (Al-Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca houses the most sacred
site of Islam, the Kaaba (“House of Allah”). The Kaaba is a cube-shaped ancient stone
building that dates back to the time of Adam and Eve according to Muslim tradition.
Muslims believe that the Kaaba was originally built for the worship of God by Abraham
and his son Ishmael (Belt 2001). The Kaaba represents the end of a journey because it
is the symbolic point of origin of all creation wherein all things turn around it and from it
all things radiate (Renard 1992).
Inside the Kaaba is the “Black Stone,” twelve inches in diameter, located on the
eastern cornerstone of the building that was set intact into the wall by Muhammad
himself in 605 C.E. A fragmented dark rock often described as meteorite, the “Black
Stone” has been polished smooth by the pilgrims through time. Broken into a number of
fragments, it is now cemented into a silver frame on the eastern corner of the Kaaba.
Some poets consider Muhammad himself as the Kaaba of prophetic revelation while the
Kaaba is the “seal of his prophethood” (Renard 1992).
For Muslim men to participate in hajj, they must be sound, physically able, and able to
provide for their dependents while they are on pilgrimage to Mecca. On the other hand,
Muslim women may also take part in hajj subject to a number of restrictions. For
example, women must be accompanied by a male chaperon (mahram) who must be a
man they are legally unable to marry, such as their father or brother (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003).
Before travelling to Mecca, pilgrims (hajji) pray incessantly and perform extended
washing rituals. Pilgrims also shave and cut their hair and nails. For men, they wear a
special ihram outfit that consists of two large pieces of white, unhemmed clothes. One
piece wraps around the waist and the other goes over the right shoulder. For women,
they wear simple white dresses (Frager 2002). They also wear additional garments to
completely cover their face and legs (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Men and women
pilgrims wear sandals instead of shoes.
Clad in simple pilgrim’s garment with no head covering, one cannot distinguish a
rich Muslim from a poor one simply by looking at their apparel (Hopfe 1983). Once
pilgrims are wearing their ihram, they are prohibited from removing this ritual dress,
even when sleeping. They are also forbidden from clipping their nails, hunting, arguing,
or engaging in any sexual activity (Belt 2001). In ihram, Muslims cannot shave, wash
themselves, shampoo their hair, scratch themselves, kill anything (even a fly or
mosquito), walk on grass, or injure any living thing (Frager 2002).
 Central to the pilgrimage is a full day spent in the desert on the Arafat plain
considered sacred by the Muslims. The mountain of Arafat was the site of Muhammad’s
last sermon (Frager 2002). For many people located in regions distant from the Arabian
Peninsula, the hajj serves as the pinnacle of years of yearning to be with God (Parrinder
1971).

Activity 1 (See on Answer Sheet)

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Islamic calendar is composed of 12 lunar months of between 29 and 30
days. A year in the Islamic calendar constitutes a total of 354 days. The difference
between the solar and lunar calendar is adjusted by adding one day to the last month of
the year 11 times each 30 years. Nonetheless, 103 Islamic years are the equivalent of
100 solar years despite the periodic modifications done on the calendar (Hopfe 1983).
Table 4.1 lists some of the most important festivals celebrated by Muslims worldwide.
Month Festivities/Significance
Month 1: Muharram (“The Sacred  The Islamic year starts in the day of
Month”) the hijra, Muhammad’s journey from
Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E.
 Ashura: The assassination of the
Imam Husayn at Karbala’ in 680 C.E.
is commemorated on the 10th by
Shi’ite Muslims.

Month 3: Rabi al-Awai (“The Spring”)

Birth of the Prophet: Muhammad’s
birthday is celebrated on the 12th
Month 9: Ramadan (“The Month of  Muslims do not eat or drink during
Great Heat”) daylight hours throughout the month.
 Laylat al-Qadr: The commemoration
of the first revelation to the prophet is
often celebrated on the 27th.

Month 10: Shawwal (“The Month of  ‘Id al-Fitr: The Festival of Breaking the
Hunting”) Fast at the beginning of Shawwal
concludes the fasting season

Month 12: Dhu al-Hijja (“The Month of  Month of pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.
Hajj”)  Yawn Arafat: On the 9th, fasting
pilgrims perform the wuquf, standing
before God on Mount Arafat.
 ‘Id al-Adha: The Festival of Sacrifice
on the 10th recalls the sacrificial ram
 God gave to Abraham in place of his
son and coincides with the end of
Hajj.

TABLE 4.1 The Festival Calendar Source: John Bowker, World Religions, 1997, p. 169.

Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar wherein Muslims are
expected to observe sawm. Muslims may not eat, drink, or have sex during daylight
hours. The last 10 days of the month may be spent by continuous prayers of the most
devoted Muslims. Finally, the sawm ends with ‘Id al-Fitr or the Festival of Breaking the
Fast marked by popular rejoicing and festal prayer (Jomier 1999).
Dhu al-Hijja is the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar wherein able-bodied
Muslims perform the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. Poor Muslims sometimes use their
entire savings just to fulfill this obligation. The sick and the elderly may begin their
pilgrimage without the certainty of accomplishing this sacred duty.
Upon entering the Grand Mosque, the hajji performs the tawaf which involves
circling the Kaaba seven times in a counterclockwise direction. Most pilgrims attempt to
touch or kiss the sacred Black Stone. However, the sheer number of pilgrims inside the
mosque prevents them from touching the relic. They may instead raise their arm and
point in its direction. These rites are known as umrah. Once the tawaf is completed,
most pilgrims drink from the well of Zamzam that was established by Hagar and
Ishmael. With its rich mineral water, Ishmael and Muhammad quenched their thirst here
as the tradition goes (Belt 2001). The stream flows through the basement of the Grand
Mosque (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).
‘Id al-Adha or the Feast of Sacrifice is the most important festival in the Muslim
calendar marking the end of the pilgrimage season. On the tenth day of the hajj,
Muslims are required to slaughter a live animal (a sheep or goat) to commemorate
Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael and his obedience to God. In the
process, a ram was substituted in place of Ishmael, thus, allowing him and his offspring
to live, including his descendant Muhammad (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). After their
arduous journey in Mecca, pilgrims may now visit other holy cities, such as Medina or
Jerusalem. Returning home, the title hajj can now be affixed to their names to indicate
completion of this religious responsibility (Hopfe 1983).
Friday is the special day of worship for the Muslims as commanded by
Muhammad. In mosques, Muslims are required to pray with his fellows and prayers are
led by an imam. An imam is a member of the community selected to lead the
congregation due to the devoutness and religiosity he manifests to the people (Hopfe
1983).

Islamic Law
The concept of law and justice in Islam, or the shari’a (“the road to the watering
place”), is based upon the Quranic verses as revealed by God to Muhammad. The
universal laws passed down by God govern both the affairs of human and laws of
nature (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Apart from the Quran, the teachings of Muhammad
or the hadiths form the basis of Islamic legal system.
 The shari’a is a path of conduct that must be followed by all Muslims. It concerns
almost the totality of a Muslim’s life – from home life, business interests, marital
relations, inheritance, and various duties to the state and community (Brown 1975).

Islamic Jurisprudence
Islamic jurisprudence or the science of Islamic law is called fiqh. All aspects of
Muslim way of life and actions are covered through fiqh. Human behavior may be
classified into five categories: forbidden (haram), discouraged (makruh), neutral
(mubah), recommended (mandub), and obligatory (fard).
Forbidden actions are both sinful and criminal under pain of punishment.
Accordingly, it is forbidden for all Muslims to eat animals that have died from natural
causes or those animals that were not ritually slaughtered. Pork is considered as the
most unclean of all meats and must not be eaten no matter how the pig meat was
produced. Other haram behaviors include drinking blood, eating dried blood, and taking
liquors.
The Five Pillars is an example of an obligatory category. These practices, such
as almsgiving, daily prayers, and ritual fasting, are compulsory to all Muslims. Failure to
observe these obligations is sinful and punishable as crime.
The three other categories (makruh, mandub, and mubah) concern chiefly on
things, such as etiquette, donations, personal habits, and social life (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). Reprehended actions but not subject to punishments belong to
makruh. Meritorious or recommended deeds fall under mandub. Permitted behaviors
that are neither good nor bad but neutral are classified as mubah. The hadith collections
can be consulted to resolve these matters.

SUBDIVISIONS
Like most major religions, Islam also has sects, which vary primarily as to how these
sects interpret some aspects of the Islamic faith and of the Quran. Inasmuch as
Muslims agree on the fundamental tenets of the Islam religion, variations do occur in
many of their beliefs and practices (Hopfe 1983).

Sunni Muslims (The Sunnis)

Majority of Muslims, around 87% to 90% of the entirety of Islam believers, belong to the
Sunni denomination. The Sunnis (“Followers of the Smooth Path”) are traditionalists and
are considered the orthodox of Islam as they endeavor to follow the original religion
established by Muhammad and guided by the first four righteous caliphs (Hopfe 1983).
These Muslims follow the sunnah (“customary practice”) of Muhammad from which their
name originated. Sunnah pertains to the orally transmitted record of wisdom, conduct,
and sayings attributed to Muhammad and his earliest companions as recorded in
hadith.
The Sunnis believe that any Muslim can be a ruler and he does not need to
prove his lineage to Muhammad if he gets the approval and confidence of the ummah or
community. He can be an elected ruler or a hereditary monarch that should enjoy the
support of the ummah. All Sunnis shall abide by his actions unquestioningly regardless
of whether he is a fair or cruel ruler (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).
Within the Sunni sect of Islam are groups of Muslims that also differ in views and
exercise of their faith. Religious factions are often the result of national or social
differences (Brown1975). Every Muslim country has a Sunni majority except Iran, Iraq,
Azerbaijan, Yemen, and some of the Gulf States (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).

Shi’a (The Shi’ites)

The Shi’ite Muslims are the largest faction within the Islam religion that separated from
the rest of the community (Brown 1975). Historically speaking, three close associates of
Muhammad became successive leaders or caliphs of Islam with the death of the
founder in 632 C.E. The caliphate acted as a central unifying agency in Islamic history.
Initially, caliphs were friends of Muhammad that acted as virtuous leaders of the
believers. They may be chosen by election or general consent. Later on, the position
became hereditary resembling that of a king (Hopfe 1983).
Some Muslims believed that Muhammad should have been immediately
succeeded by his direct relative, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was his cousin. Ali was also
Muhammad’s son-in-law who married his daughter Fatima. In 656 C.E., Ali became the
fourth caliph but steadily lost control of the Muslim world that culminated in the takeover
of the caliphate by the Umayyad Dynasty at the time of Ali’s assassination in a mosque
at Kufa and his eventual death in 661 C.E. (Hopfe 1983; Nakash 1994).
Known as rashiduns (“rightly-guided caliphs”), the Sunnis accepted the
legitimacy of the first four successors of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (632-634 C.E.), Umar
ibn al-Khattab (634-644 C.E.), Uthman ibn Affan (644-656 C.E.), and Ali ibn Abi Talib
(656-661 C.E.). Other Muslims, however, believed that Ali’s descendants should
become head of the religious community. These Muslims were called “Alids” that
became known as “Shia Ali” or “the party of Ali.” In time, they came to be called
“Shi’ites” (Hopfe 1983). For the Shi’ites, Ali was the first imam and the rightful spiritual
and political successor of Muhammad. Ali’s youngest son, Husayn, challenged the
Umayyad caliph Yazid I but was later killed and beheaded at the battle of Karbala in 680
C.E. This event, called Ashura or the tenth day of Muharram, is commemorated each
year as a day of mourning for all Shi’ites.
The main Shi’ite sects are the Seveners, Twelvers¸ and ‘Ibadis. The Seveners
believe that there were seven imams. They are mostly found in India, Yemen, and parts
of Africa. Meanwhile, the Twelvers claim that there are twelve imams with most
believers located in Iran. Finally, the ‘Ibadis believe that the community may elect any
appropriate Muslim as imam. They are mostly found in Oman (Brown 1975).

Sufi
Muslims whose concern mainly dwell for a mystical union with God are
collectively called Sufis. Their name originates from the word suf that means “woolen”
since they wore coarse wool garments or robes to symbolize poverty and denunciation
of worldly pleasures (Hopfe 1983). A Sufi can be a Sunni or Shi’ite Muslim. The Sufi
movement may have started around the ninth century C.E. at the time when there came
a clarion call to live a simpler and austere life far from the splendor and grandeur that
characterized the Abbasid Dynasty.
Around the twelfth century, monastic orders were established within the Sufi
movement that focused around a saint. A convert who joins the order were called fakir
(“a poor man”) or dervish (“one who comes to the door”). The new recruits studied
under their master to develop their heightened sense of spirituality. Most Sufi
practitioners practice discipline, poverty, abstinence, and celibacy in some instances.
They insist that it is possible to have union with God through mystical experience (Hopfe
1983).

SELECTED ISSUES
Islam has gone through two principal periods of growth in its relatively young history:
first, at the onset of its founding, and second, during the twentieth century. As one of the
fastest growing religions in the world, Islam has affected every facet of human society.

Islam and Women

The role of women in Muslim societies is a complicated subject since their rights
vary greatly throughout Islamic nations. While they may experience harsh restrictions in
terms of legal rights and employment opportunities, women rulers have emerged in the
twentieth century to lead Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Turkey
(Frager 2002).
Women in Islam must accept that their roles in society vary greatly when
compared to men. Foremost, they must remain obedient to their fathers and husband. A
surah in the Quran depicts a woman’s father or husband as master and portrays the
superiority of men on women.
All Muslims are required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. However,
congregational prayers tend to be dominated by men while this activity remains optional
for women. It is prohibited for any woman to lead prayers. When a woman is having her
usual menstrual period, she must not enter any mosque. In some countries, Muslim
women are required to cover their face and bodies when in company with men other
than their immediate kin.
Meanwhile, with so many restrictions imposed by society upon Muslim women,
the Quran assures women the right to own, dispose, and inherit properties and
earnings, to participate in political exercise, and to sue for divorce. In other words, a
complete, legal identity is guaranteed by the Quran to Muslim women (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). Husbands are also encouraged to treat their wives well. Mothers
must be treated in the best way possible as stated in Quranic teachings.

While the West has labeled Islam as anti-woman, the opposite may be true
because of the religion’s pro-equality stance on many issues. For example, traditional
Islamic law holds that women cannot be denied of education, cannot be forced into
marriage, can divorce their husbands, and can vote and hold office. Unfortunately, there
are Muslim societies that do not always measure up to Islamic standards (Frager 2002).
The Quran views women as spiritually equal to men. As both shall be assessed
during the “Day of Judgment,” they must both perform good deeds. Nevertheless,
despite the elevation in the status of women in Muslim society, they remain seemingly
inferior to men. The Quran mentions the following with regard to the position of women:

“Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given
the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from
their means. Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and
guard in (the husband’s) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to
those women on whose part you fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish
them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds, (and last) chastise them
 (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of
annoyance): for Allah is Most High, Great (above you all) (Quran 4:34).”
Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p. 53.

The Holy War (Jihad)

One controversial requirement placed upon Muslims by their faith concerns holy war or
jihad. A frequently mistranslated term, jihad means “effort” or “struggle” to convince
unbelievers to pursue the Muslim way of life (Fletcher 2003). Strictly speaking, it could
mean a Muslim going to war to wipe out the infidels in the name of Allah (Hopfe 1983).
However, the method of a jihadist can be a peaceful one, such as living a pious life or
observing the required obligations to his faith, or through violent means, especially if the
infidels are obstinate (Fletcher 2003). Presently, jihad has remained a vague issue
especially now that Arab nations have been less than apprehensive to commit to war as
unified Muslims versus non-Muslims (Hopfe 1983). Likewise, Islamic law opposes all
violent means except in cases of war or legally sanctioned punishment of criminals
(Frager 2002). The Quran contains the following verse about Islam’s opposition to
violence:

“Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits;
for Allah loves not transgressors. (Quran 2:190)”
Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p. 18.

Militancy and Terrorism

Islam is a religion of mercy that prohibits terrorism. During Muhammad’s time, he
banned his soldiers to kill women and children, and even listed murder as the second of
the major sins (Ibrahim 1997). Punishment using fire was also forbidden by Muhammad.
Since Islam is a religion of peace and mercy, terrorism in all its forms are
abhorred by Muslims. Destruction of human lives, buildings, infrastructures, shrines,
and other properties are despicable in the light of various Islamic texts (Ibrahim 1997).
Muslims who promote terrorism and mass slaughter of innocent and helpless civilians
do not embody Islamic ideals. Their blatant disregard of Quranic teachings distorts the
very essence of Islam as a peaceful religion. The presence of violence in Islamic society
cannot be attributed to the teachings of Islam but to the failings of human adherents of
the religion (Frager 2002). A person committing an act of terrorism is guilty of violating
Islamic laws for that matter.

Migration
The late nineteenth century saw a significant migration of Muslims from Syria,
Lebanon, and Jordan to the US. After the Second World War, European countries
encouraged emigration from former colonies to augment manpower shortages. United
Kingdom today is home to more than two million Muslims; France between four to five
million Muslims; and Germany four million Muslims (Frager 2002). In 2010, there were
about 44 million Muslims in Europe, excluding Turkey.
The Muslim population in the US and Europe continues to rise in the present
century. Islam has now become an American religion with around six million Muslims in
population. Muslim immigrants and their American-born children number about four
million in total. Meanwhile, almost two million are American converts that are mainly
African American (Frager 2002).

Summary

• The history of Islam is closely bound with the life story of Muhammad who is
recognized by the Muslims as the last of the prophets.
• The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that literally
means “recitation” or “reading.”
• The basic obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam or arkan al-din
and all Muslims believe and accept the entirety of these obligations. The Five Pillars
give structure and unity to all believers of the Islamic religion.
• The major denominations of Islam include Sunni, Shi’a, and Sufi.
Introduction to World
Religion and Beliefs
Answer Sheets
System
Name: ____________________________________________ Section: __________
Date Submitted: _______________________
Deadline of Submission October 2, 2021

Evaluation

Activity 1

How do the “Five Pillars of Islam” strengthen a Muslim’s faith in Allah, in

Muhammad, and in the entire community?
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Activity 2
A. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.

____1. Muhammad ibn Abdullah worked as a camel driver across the Arabian
Peninsula.
____2. The longest surah has 268 ayahs.
____3. Zayd ibn Thabit wrote on leather scraps, stone pieces, ribs of palm leaves,
shoulder blades of animals, and paper.
____4. The zakat must be 2.5% of a person’s entire asset.
____5. Ritual washing or wudu is required before prayer.
____6. The Quran is binding, continuous and supreme.
____7. Muslims whose concern mainly dwell for a mystical union with God belong to
Sunni Islam.
____8. According to figh, human behavior may be classified into four categories.
____9. Jihad means “effort” or “struggle” to convince unbelievers to pursue the Muslim
way of life.

____10. Salat is done before sunset, noon, mid-afternoon, after sunset, and after
midnight.

B. Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct
answer on the blanks provided.

Column A Column B
____ 1. known as the start of the Islam Calendar a. Hadith
____ 2. declaration of belief b. Kaaba
____ 3. annual wealth tax c. “Guardian”
____ 4. collective term for the remaining four duties d. Shahada
____ 5. “black stone” e. Hijra
____ 6. direction of Mecca f. Zakat
____ 7. authored the Sahih al-Bukhari g. Ibadah
____ 8. those who memorized the Quran h. Giblah
____ 9. traditional reports or sayings of Muhammad i. Imam Bukhari
and his followers
____ 10. circling the Kaaba seven times in a j. Tawaf
counterclockwise direction
D. Essay. Write an essay to answer the question in not less than 500 words. (No to
plagiarism)
Criteria: Content 5pts, order of ideas 3pts, grammar and spelling 3pts, neatness 1pts
“How do you think global terrorism affected Islam as a religion in the eyes of the world?
What negative effects did it have on innocent Muslims in their everyday lives?”

C. Create a poster to spread awareness on Islam that will eliminate the false
perception. Draw your poster in a short bond paper.
Pls read the rubric below for the poster.

Rubric for Poster

Category 5 Points 3 Points 2 Points 1 Point
Graphics - All graphics are related All graphics are All graphics relate to Graphics do not
Relevance to the topic and make it related to the topic the topic. Most relate to the topic OR
easier to understand. All and most make it borrowed graphics several borrowed
borrowed graphics have easier to understand. have a source graphics do not have
a source citation. All borrowed citation. a source citation.
graphics have a
source citation.
Graphics - Several of the graphics One or two of the The graphics are No graphics made by
Originality used on the poster graphics used on the made by the student the student are
reflect a exceptional poster reflect student but are based on the included.
degree of student creativity in their designs or ideas of
creativity in their creation creation and/or others.
and/or display. display.

Required The poster includes all All required elements All but 1 of the Several required
Elements required elements as are included on the required elements elements were
well as additional poster. are included on the missing.
information. poster.
Attractiveness The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is
exceptionally attractive attractive in terms of acceptably attractive distractingly messy
in terms of design, design, layout and though it may be a or very poorly
layout, and neatness. neatness. bit messy. designed. It is not
attractive.
Comparative Analysis of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
The illustration below shows Abraham, the first of the three prophets and revered by
the three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) as a prophet of God.
Both the Jews and Christians believe that he was ordered by God to leave the land of
Ur in Mesopotamia and establish a new nation which was later called Canaan. He
would eventually be considered as the “Father of Many Nations” both by the Jews and
Christians. Meanwhile, Muslims view Abraham as a prophet of God and patriarch of
many people, and father of Ishmael, known in Islam as a prophet and ancestor to
Muhammad. Abraham is also the father of Isaac, considered as the physical and
spiritual ancestor of Judaism, together with his son Jacob. The three monotheistic
religions clearly trace their common roots from the Patriarch Abraham, hence the label
Abrahamic religions.

The three Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam— all originated from a
region we now call Southwest Asia. They are also called Semitic religions since they
came from an area where people speak the Semitic languages, particularly Hebrew,
Aramaic, and Arabic. Judaism originated from a land called Canaan; Christianity began
in Palestine while Islam developed in Arabia. Looking back at the history of the three
religions, we can see that they share commonalities in certain beliefs such as belief in
the same Patriarch and other prophets; angels as messengers of God; heaven and
hell; and judgment day, among others.

ORIGIN
Judaism is the oldest among the three Abrahamic religions, beginning at around 3,500
B.C.E. According to the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible, the ancient Israelites trace
the origin of their nation and their religion as well to one family distinct from other
groups of people in Southwest Asia by virtue of belief in one God. The patriarch of this
family was Abraham, a nomadic shepherd who entered a covenant with God—that
being the “Father of All Nations” and heir to the Promised Land, which was Canaan.
(Patriarchy is a system of society wherein the father or eldest male is considered the
head of family and lineage is traced through the male line.) According to the narratives,
Abraham and his wife Sarah took a long time before having a child, who was Isaac.
Meanwhile, before Isaac was born Abraham had a son with Sarah’s lady-in-waiting,
Hagar. They named their child Ishmael. Isaac married Rebecca and they had two
children, Esau and Jacob, and from Jacob (who acquires the name Israel) came the 12
tribes of Israel. Ishmael, on the other hand, became the ancestor of the Arabs who
later became Muslims. The Hebrew Bible further narrates how the 12 tribes of Israel
founded the nation of Israel and Jacob, being the heir to the covenant, made a pact
with God that they will be liberated from Egyptian enslavement if they will continue to
follow God’s commandments.

The second oldest religion, Christianity, was formed around 33 C.E. in an area called
Palestine. Christians trace their origins to Jesus Christ, born around 4 B.C.E. while the
area was under the Roman Empire. It was a time characterized by social disorder,
political turmoil, uprisings, poverty, heavy taxation, food shortage, and epidemics. To
quell the rebellion and implement a semblance of order, those who participated in
armed uprisings were crucified, which incidentally was how Jesus Christ was punished
as well. During these sufferings, the Jewish people were secretly hoping and waiting
for God to fulfil His promise—that of sending His Son to redeem them from their
oppressive state. It was in this context that Jesus Christ was born and in his late
twenties, started to preach about the coming of the Kingdom of God. He was baptized
by another prophet, John the Baptist, and had 12 men as his disciples. His public
ministry was considered a threat to Roman authority, so he was arrested, whipped,
and crucified as a penalty for what he did. According to the New Testament, Jesus was
resurrected after three days and he ascended to the heavens but promised that he will
come back in the same way that his disciples saw him go into heaven.

Islam, the youngest of the Abrahamic religions, started around 622 C.E., considered as
the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The word Islam is an Arabic word which means
“submission” or “surrender” and is also related to salaam, the Arabic word for “peace.”
It originated from Mecca, which is found in the Arabian Peninsula, with Muhammad,
considered the last prophet or “Seal of the Prophet.” It was in Mecca where
Muhammed was born and raised by his uncle Abu Talib, worked as an assistant to a
rich widow Khadija whom he later married, and meditated on certain social issues such
as unequal distribution of wealth, leading to a great divide between the rich and the
poor, as well as the possession of slaves. It was during one of his visits to a cave that
the angel Gabriel appeared before him, delivering the message of Allah that he was
chosen to find a new religion and preach that Allah is the only God that should be
worshipped. At first, he thought he was just having a hallucination, but later he was
convinced that he was indeed chosen by God to spread his words, so he began
preaching in Mecca, where he won some converts. But his teaching of equality and
brotherhood threatened the power of the rich Quraysh tribe, so he was forced to
escape to Medina to avoid persecution. This happened in 622 C.E. and was known as
Hegira. From then on Islam gained followers and became one of the dominant religions
in the world.

If we compare the origins of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, we can see that they
share more commonalities than differences. For one, they all developed during a time
of political turmoil and social inequalities (Egyptian enslavement of the Jews, Roman
colonization of Christians, and the economic dominance of the Quraysh tribe in
Mecca). The conditions in society were ripe for the birth of religions which would serve
as the liberating force that would provide the people with hope for a better life. It is also
noteworthy that all three religions developed belief in one God, or monotheism, with
Judaism being the first monotheistic religion in the world. The first two religions,
Judaism and Christianity, also emphasized the importance of having a covenant with
God, and in a way we can say that it is also true with Islam because in the Quran, even
though Adam and his wife were banished from paradise, Allah promised that they will
have no reason to feel fear or grief if they will just follow God’s will, foremost of which
was to worship only one God, Allah. The role of angels as messengers of God was
also evident among the three religions, especially in Christianity when Angel Gabriel
was sent to the Virgin Mary to tell her that she would bear the Messiah, and in Islam
when Allah sent Angel Gabriel to tell Muhammad that he was chosen to be God’s last
prophet. The story of creation was also shared by the three religions, with the universe
and the first man and woman being created by God, but then they were tempted by evil
and were banished from paradise, hence the need to follow God’s commandments to
restore humanity’s relationship with God. Lastly, one of the most important
commonalities is the belief in Abraham as the patriarch of the three religions---the
“Father of Many Nations” for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was the ideal
follower of God for the three religions, for he followed God’s will unconditionally, even
to the extent of sacrificing his own son when God ordered him to do so. In short, Jews,
Christians, and Muslims trace their common ancestry to Abraham.

MORALITY
In Judaism, morality and ethics are based on the covenant between the Jews and God:
that they are God’s chosen people and in return they should follow His
commandments, specifically the Ten Commandments found in the Torah. Although
there are around 613 commandments (mitzvoth) in the Torah, the Ten
Commandments serve as a summary of all the laws found in the Torah. Hence, based
on the Ten Commandments, murder, adultery, and theft, are prohibited, which are also
forbidden in Christianity and Islam as

well. Judaism also espouses retribution, or the philosophy “an eye for an eye, a tooth
for a tooth,” which served as the guiding principle of the famous Code of Hammurabi in
ancient Babylon. This philosophy can be found in Exodus 21:2, but according to
scholars, this should not be confused with belief in vengeance but equal compensation
for damage or loss, often in the form of money and not physical harm. Treating others
as you would have yourself treated by others also serves as a basis for Jewish morality
and ethics. This stems from the belief that people were created in the likeness of God,
there-fore we all have goodness in ourselves that is why we should treat each other
well. Lastly, morality and ethics in Judaism are also based in the Halakhah, a religious
law that provides prescribed rules in everyday living, such as eating, praying, wedding
and funeral rites, etc. Like the Ten Commandments, its essence also came from the
613 commandments found in the Torah.

Christianity shares a lot in common with Judaism since both religions use the Hebrew
Bible, where the Ten Commandments were listed. Thus, in Christianity, murder,
adultery, and theft are also considered evil and should be avoided if one wants to live a
moral life. Aside from the Ten Commandments, Christianity also considers following in
Jesus Christ’s footsteps as basis of morality. Since Jesus lived a life for others and
even died on the cross for the salvation of humanity, Christians are also expected to
live a life for others. After all, they were created in God’s image therefore people have
an intrinsic goodness in them. Even in the Ten Commandments, what was emphasized
was to love God above all else and to love your neighbor as you love yourself. Hence,
living an exemplary life means following how Jesus lived. When one is led astray from
God’s teachings, the Sacraments will help in reconciling oneself to God. For example,
the Sacrament of Confession gives an opportunity for Christians to confess their sins to
God through the priest and perform the necessary atonement for the forgiveness of
their sins. Certain observances such as Lent also give Christians an opportunity to
reflect on their lives and help them become better Christians. Unlike Judaism,
Christianity does not advocate for retribution since Christians are advised to love their
enemies.

Islamic concept of morality and ethics is based on having faith in one God, which is
manifested in exhibiting righteousness and piety. A strong relationship with God is the
key to achieving virtue and right conduct. Since Islam is considered not only as a
religion but as a way of life as well, moral righteous-ness is expected of Muslims in
their everyday lives. The following passage from the Quran explains the Islamic
concept of morality:

“It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is
righteousness—to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book,
and the Messengers; to spread of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for
your orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of
slaves; to be steadfast in your prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the
contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (and suffering) and
adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-
fearing (Al Quran 2:177).”

Hence, Islam values holiness, humility, and accountability to God, who is all-knowing.
Charity is considered important, and this is reflected in one of the Five Pillars of Islam,
the Zakat, in which Muslims are obliged to give alms to the less fortunate. Vanity is
also discouraged, for it is a trait that is not pleasing to God, alongside attachment to
material possessions on earth. Being accountable to God is also important for nothing
can be hidden from Him, and He will be the one to judge people of their sins when the
judgment day comes. Acts that contribute to the welfare of the individual in particular
and of society in general are considered morally good, while acts that harm the
individual and society are immoral.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a lot in terms of morality and ethics. First,
emphasis on the worship of one God as the basis of morality. Second, concern for
others as a manifestation of one’s love of God. Judaism and Christianity share the Ten
Commandments as the written code of morality, with emphasis on the avoidance of
committing murder, adultery, and theft. Meanwhile, based on the Quran, Islam
emphasized the need to possess traits such as holiness and righteousness as
guidelines in becoming morally good. Adherence to religious laws is also important and
may pave the way for the eternal salvation or damnation of the soul, with emphasis on
the judgment day as a way of ensuring that people obey the will of God. Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam believe that God is the only source of forgiveness for humanity
and only those who follow the righteous path will go to heaven, while those who lived a
life away from God will go to hell.

PURPOSE
Life’s purpose for Judaism is also based on the covenant between God and the
people, particularly the Jewish people who were considered the “Chosen People of
God.” And because they were chosen by God and created according to God’s image,
Jews should strive to become god-like and possess the attributes and traits of God by
being holy. Only when people achieve holiness, primarily by following the Ten
Commandments, can they perform acts emulating God such as helping the needy and
the oppressed. Thus, the ultimate purpose in life for the Jews was to praise God as the
Creator of the universe and imitate God or become God-like. As God-like creatures,
they have certain purposes in the world, the community, to themselves, to their
families, and to God Himself. One’s purpose is to realize one’s full potential and realize
who one is meant to be. Living in the likeness of God will guide Jews on how to treat
themselves, their families, communities, and the world.

In Christianity, the purpose of life is to love and serve God, who created the universe
purposefully, so it is basically good. Since the creation was purposeful, everything and
everyone is naturally important. Just like in Judaism, Christianity also advocates the
belief that human beings were created in God’s image, and this enables them to have
some understanding of God and His divine plan. God granted human beings with
reason and free will, which they can use to have a glimpse of God’s divine plan but can
also be used for selfish reasons. Since human beings are capable of committing sins,
they can decide to follow God’s will or live a life of sins. But a person’s sin does not
devalue a person in the eyes of God, for in Christianity it is believed that everyone is
capable of redemption, including sinners.

TRIVIA

Among the three Abrahamic religions, only Christianity has the concept of
original sin, which humanity inherited from Adam and Eve when they
disobeyed the order of God not to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. All
three religions believe, however, that although human beings are intrinsically
good, they have the capacity to commit sins, but this does not diminish their
chances of attaining salvation in the afterlife.

As with Judaism and Christianity, the purpose of life according to Islam is to love and
serve God. The fact that Islam means “surrender” means that a Muslim must submit to
Allah and recognize that Mohammad is His prophet. This concept of submission can
be literally observed in the way the Muslims worship: with their foreheads touching the
ground in worship of Allah. God created the universe on purpose so that everyone and
everything on it will serve God. When God created the first human beings, he gave
them three divine gifts: intelligence, free will, and speech. The first is so human beings
can distinguish between good and evil; the second is to be able to choose between
good and evil; and the third is to have the capacity to worship God. But even though
people are basically good, they can be tempted to commit sins. But since God is
merciful and compassionate, people can be forgiven. Living a life in accordance to
God’s plan will help people assist God in achieving His divine plan. They become
worthy followers of God by doing good deeds, being honest, and obeying God’s will
contained in the Quran and the law. Thus for Muslims, practicing Islam not only as a
religion but as a way of life will bring a blissful life on earth and eternal salvation in the
afterlife.
As we can see, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have commonalities with regard the
purpose of life. All three religions believe that the main purpose of life is to worship and
serve God, follow God’s will, and show this love of God by sharing with other people
and helping the ones in need. Since we are all created in God’s image, our purpose is
to live according to God’s ways, and even though we cannot imitate Him absolutely, we
need not worry for He is always willing to forgive us of our sins. We should all strive to
become worthy caretakers of everything God created and assist in implementing God’s
divine plan.

DESTINY
Judaism believes in predetermination, which means that it is God who decides on a
person’s basic lifespan, wealth, and opportunities, but it is still humanity’s free will that
is the deciding factor. A person’s duty is to overcome evil by choosing goodness in
everything he or she does. To allow people to choose goodness over evil, God allowed
people into different stations in life. The main reason why God puts people in certain
situations in life is for them to serve God according to their destiny. In that sense, God
allows certain people to be rich and some to be poor, for these challenges the poor to
rise above the economic challenges to do good and to serve God, while this puts the
rich in an easier situation to serve God, and if they fail to serve God despite their
advantageous circumstances, all the more will they be punished. In short, God places
each and everyone in different situations to challenge us to do our best in serving Him
no matter what our circumstances are. Similarly, one’s lifespan is predetermined by
God, but one’s lifestyle will be the deciding factor on whether God’s plan will succeed
or not. God may prolong a wicked person’s life to give him/her more time to repent, or
He may take it away even before his/her predestined time of death in order for him/her
to stop doing wicked things. Similarly, a good person’s time on earth may be taken
away earlier than God’s plan so that he/she will no longer fight the evil in
himself/herself, or He may prolong his/her life so that he/she will continue to do good
things for others. In the Hebrew Bible, it is written that, “There was the righteous man
who perished in his righteousness, and there was the wicked man who lived long in his
evildoing” (Ecclesiastes 7:15).

Christianity has a similar concept of destiny. God wanted all of humanity to be saved,
for God created hell not for humans but for Satan and his demons (2 Peter 2:4).
Therefore, it is humanity’s predestiny to be saved. (Predestination refers to the belief
that all events are determined in advance by divine will or fate.) But since God also
gave us free will, it is up to us to claim that salvation. For Roman Catholics, doing good
deeds will merit salvation, while for Protestants, faith in Jesus Christ and accepting
Him as his/her Savior will earn us eternal life. In the story of creation, Adam and Eve
were predestined by God to live in paradise forever. But their free will made them
choose the path of disobedience. Therefore, in Christianity, God may have the best
plans for us, but our actions and decisions determine whether God’s plans will
materialize or not. Salvation lies in our own hands because of free will. Parents set the
rules for their children, but it is the children’s choice if they will follow their parents or
not. And even if we are led astray because of not following them, they are always
willing to accept and forgive us until we make the right choices in life. Similarly, God
may have planned the best for us but even if we do not follow His plan, He is always
willing to forgive us and give us another chance to start anew, until we discover the
right path to righteousness and salvation.

In Islam, predestination is more emphasized than in Judaism and Christianity. We have

mentioned in the previous subtopic that the three Abrahamic religions are unanimous
in their belief that humanity was created to serve and love God. In fact, this is the
reason why Islam is considered not only as a religion but as a way of life, and the life of
a Muslim revolves around the worship of Allah. Just like in Judaism and Christianity,
Muslims believe they are given free will by God which allows them to live their lives as
they wish. But unlike Judaism and Christianity wherein free will might lead people to
disobey God’s plan, in Islam even the decision they make out of free will is governed
by God’s will. Muslims believe that if something is not meant by God to happen, it will
not happen no matter how hard we try to make it happen. And if something is willed by
God to happen, it will happen no matter how hard we try to prevent it from happening.
Everything, even bad things such as massacre, torture, and disease, although not
created by God, are allowed by God to happen for a certain purpose which only He
comprehends; it may be to teach people a lesson, or to punish them for their wrong-
doings, or to serve as a warning for other people to repent. Belief in predestiny also
encourages humility, which is one of the traits valued in Islam. The notion that
everything is attributed to God hinders one from bragging about one’s achievements in
life by attributing it to God’s divine plan for him/her.

VIEWS ON WOMEN
It is equally important to look at how the Abrahamic religions view women. After all,
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all came from places where patriarchy or the rule of
the father is the norm. In the Hebrew Bible, there are passages which show low regard
for women, such as the passage wherein women were viewed as unclean or impure
for 40 days after giving birth to a baby boy, and 80 days for the birth of a baby girl.
Christianity, although it traces its roots to the patriarch Abraham, tends to have a
higher regard for women, as shown by Jesus’ use of women as positive examples in
most parables. Islam, with its belief in Ummah or the community of believers that is
supposed to promote equality among all races, ethnicities, and genders, is supposed
to have a high regard for women. Let us now take a look at how these religions view
women.

Judaism, originating from a patriarchal society, propagates an unequal view of men

and women. Because of the belief that men are superior to women, women were
excluded from the priesthood and from numerous religious duties. This is also because
of their “’natural” child-rearing functions (http://
www.patheos.com/Library/Judaism/Ethics-Morality-Community/Gender-and-
Sexuality.html). Aside from the impure state attributed to women when giving birth
especially to a girl, women are considered impure for about half of each month
because of menstruation. Divorce is also allowed in Judaism, with men easily divorcing
their wives.

Christianity is supposed to have a more positive regard for women, if we are to analyze
how Jesus treated women. In the New Testament, Jesus spoke frequently to women
and allowed them to be included in his followers. He also preached that men and
woman have the equal capacity of eternal salvation of the soul, and advised that
everybody, regardless of sex, should not let domestic chores hinder them from serving
God. Historical developments after the death and resurrection of Jesus, however,
changed the course of Christianity’s positive view of women, for after the conversion of
the Roman Emperor Constantine, it was the Roman Empire that became responsible
for the formation of the Christian Church, using the Roman political structures as its
model, which were very hierarchical and patriarchal. Thus, the role of women in the
Catholic Church was downplayed, to the extent of excluding women from priesthood.

In theory, Islam treats men and women equally, for it is stated in the Quran that men
and women are equal in the eyes of God and are expected to fulfill the same duties,
such as prayer, worship, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca. It is also stated
in Islamic law that women should be given dowry or property given by the husband
upon marriage, and that they have the right of inheritance and property ownership.
There were also women political leaders in the history of Muslim expansion in West
Asia and even in Europe. However, certain Islamic practices contradict the claim that
Islam has a high regard for women. Some of these practices are the limited access to
education, seclusion, strict veiling, polygyny (polygyny refers to a partnership wherein
a man has many wives. This Islamic practice originated from Muhammad who decided
that men should be allowed to have more than one wife to accommodate the widows
and orphans of those who died in the wars participated by the Muslims), slavery, and
concubinage, or the practice of having mistresses. In Islam, men are allowed to have
up to four wives as long as they can support them financially and guarantee that they
be treated equally. Meanwhile, women are allowed only one husband and if they are
caught with another man, in some societies the punishment is public execution by
stoning to death. It is also a practice in some Islamic societies that when a woman is
raped, she must produce four witnesses to prove that she was indeed raped, and
failure to do so would invalidate her case and penalize her by lashing in public. Strict
veiling is also an issue raised by feminists against Islam—some societies require only
the hijab or head covering worn in public by Muslim women; some require the burka, or
a long, loose garment covering the whole body from head to feet. The practice of
purdah or strict veiling of women in Islam is symbolic of their subordination and literally
inhibits their social mobility.

In general, women are treated as subordinate to men in the three Abrahamic religions;
they only differ in the levels of women subordination. It is ironic United States Federal
Government Collage of images displaying the following (clockwise): 1) American
Muslim females enjoying Iftar in Patterson, New Jersey. 2) Two young Iranian women
walking down the street, one talking on a mobile phone. 3) Indonesian exchange
students of the Jordanian Yarmouk University. 4) An Afghan school girl singing a
prayer in celebration and for blessing during a groundbreaking ceremony in the village
of Dar Bhabba in the Nangahar province. that religions that have claimed to liberate
people from oppression but fail to do so with their own women. Feminists have been
critical of this low status accorded to women in religions and there are clamors for the
status of women in religions to be reformed.

CONCLUSION
It goes without saying that the major world religions discussed in this chapter have
become influential in the world up to the present time. Two of these monotheistic
religions remain the most popular religions in the world in terms of number of
adherents, with Christianity as the most popular, followed by Islam. Thus, the cultures
which developed in these societies are heavily influenced by their religious doctrines
and beliefs, especially since these religions are not only treated as religions but as
ways of life. In fact, it has even been predicted that the conflict among civilizations
would be based primarily on religion (Huntington 1996). Aside from this, these religions
provide societies with public morality, which aids the state in maintaining peace and
order among its citizens. Political configurations in certain regions of the word are also
based on religion, such as countries in West Asia which are predominantly Islamic.
Certain historical developments such as the holocaust, crusades, and holy wars have
also been attributed to religion.

WEBLINK
For a more comprehensive comparison on the origin of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, go to www.religionfacts.com/christianity-islam-judaism.
Visit www.patheos.com/blogs/friendlyatheist/201001/11/religions-oppression-of-women
and discuss how the Abrahamic religions treat women.

Summary

• Judaism originated from Israel; Christianity from Palestine; and Islam from Arabia.
All three places are found in West Asia and the three religions developed at a time of
oppression— the Jews from Egyptian enslavement; Christians from Roman
colonization; and the Muslims from the inequality between the rich and the poor in
Arabia.
• The three religions believe in: the laws of God as basis of their morality; the worship
of God; and living a life emulating God’s way which could reward them with eternal life.
• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam believe that the purpose of life is to serve and love
God, for it is the primary purpose for which we are created in the first place.
• All three religions believe in predestination; with Judaism and Christianity
emphasizing that although God has laid down His plans for us, it is free that will dictate
if that plan materializes; meanwhile, Islam has a stronger sense of predestination, with
the belief that everything that happens is according to God’s will in spite of free will
give to humanity.
 • Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, coming from patriarchal societies, do not accord to
women the same rights accorded to men. All three religions do not share religious
leadership with women and have certain practices which show that women are
subordinate to men.

Complete the Venn Diagram below by writing down differences and

similarities of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Judaism

Christianity
. .

Islam