ACI 302.1R-96 Guide For Concrete Floor and Slab Construction

ACI 302.
1R-96
Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab
Construction
Reported by ACI Committee 302
Carl Bimel Eldon Tipping
Chairman Secretary
Robert B. Anderson Edward B. Finkel William S. Phelan

Charles M. Ault Barry E. Foreman Dennis W. Phillips
Charles M. Ayers Terry J. Fricks John W. Rohrer
Kenneth L. Beaudoin Eugene D. Hill, Jr. Moorman L. Scott
Michael G. Callas Jerry A. Holland Nandu K. Shah
Angelo E. Colasanti Arthur W. McKinney Peter C. Tatnall
Gregory Dobson John P. Munday R. Gregory Taylor
Robert A. Epifano Scott Niemitalo Miroslav F. Vejvoda
Samuel A. Face, III Robert W. Nussmeier Sam J. Vitale
William C. Panarese
FOREWORD of its construction.1,2 Refer to the latest edition of ACI 360 for a detailed
The quality of a concrete floor or slab is highly dependent on achieving a discussion of shrinkage and curling in slabs on ground. Refer to the latest
hard and durable surface that is flat, relatively free of cracks, and at the edition of ACI 224 for a detailed discussion of cracking in reinforced and
proper grade and elevation. Properties of the surface are determined by the nonreinforced concrete slabs.
mixture proportions and the quality of the concreting and jointing opera-
tions. The timing of concreting operations—especially finishing and joint- This guide describes how to produce high quality concrete slabs on ground
ing—is critical. Failure to address this issue can contribute to undesirable and suspended floors for various classes of service. It emphasizes such
characteristics in the wearing surface such as cracking, low resistance to aspects of construction as site preparation, concreting materials, concrete
wear, dusting, scaling, high or low spots, and poor drainage, as well as mixture proportions, concreting workmanship, joint construction, load
increasing the potential for curling. transfer across joints, form stripping procedures, and curing. Finishing
methods, flatness/levelness requirements, and measurements are outlined.
Concrete floor slabs employing portland cement, regardless of slump, will A thorough preconstruction meeting is critical to facilitate communication
start to experience a reduction in volume as soon as they are placed. This among key participants and to clearly establish expectations and proce-
phenomenon will continue as long as any water or heat, or both, is being dures that will be employed during construction. Adequate supervision and
released to the surroundings. Moreover, since the drying and cooling rates inspection are required for job operations, particularly those of finishing.
at the top and bottom of the slab will never be the same, the shrinkage will
vary throughout the depth, causing the as-cast shape to be distorted, as
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; concrete construction; concrete dura-
well as reduced in volume.
bility; concrete finishing (fresh concrete); concrete slabs; consolidation;
This guide contains recommendations for controlling random cracking and contract documents; cracking (fracturing); curing; curling; deflection; floor
edge curling caused by the concrete’s normal volume change. Application toppings; floors; forms; form stripping; heavy-duty floors; inspection;
of present technology permits only a reduction in cracking and curling, not joints (junctions); mixture proportioning; placing; quality control; site
their elimination. Even with the best floor designs and proper construction, preparation; slab-on-ground construction; slump tests; specifications; stan-
it is unrealistic to expect completely crack-free and curl-free results. Con- dards; suspended slabs.
sequently, every owner should be advised by both the designer and con-
tractor that it is completely normal to expect some amount of cracking and CONTENTS
curling on every project, and that such occurrence does not necessarily
reflect adversely on either the competence of the floor’s design or the quality
Chapter 1—Introduction, p. 302.1R-2
1.1—Purpose and scope
ACI Committee reports, guides, standard practices, design hand- 1.2—Work of other relevant committees
books, and commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, design-
ing, executing, and inspecting construction. This document is intended
for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance Chapter 2—Classes of floors, p. 302.1R-4
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept 2.1—Classification of floors
responsibility for the application of the material it contains. The Amer-
ican Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the appli-
cation of the stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any
loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 302.1R-96 became effective October 22, 1996. This document supersedes ACI
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents. 302.1R-89.
Copyright © 1997, American Concrete Institute.
If items found in this document are desired by the Architect/Engineer to All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
be part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer. tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
302.1R-1
302.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
2.2—Single-course monolithic floors: Classes 1, 2, 4, 5, 8.8—Finishing Class 8 floors (two-course unbonded)

and 6 8.9—Finishing Class 9 floors (superflat or critical surface
2.3—Two-course floors: Classes 3, 7, and 8 tolerance required)
2.4—Class 9 floors 8.10—Toppings for precast floors
2.5—Special finish floors 8.11—Finishing structural lightweight concrete
8.12—Nonslip floors
Chapter 3—Design considerations, p. 302.1R-6 8.13—Decorative and nonslip treatments
3.1—Scope 8.14—Grinding as a repair procedure
3.2—Slabs on ground 8.15—Floor flatness and levelness
3.3—Suspended slabs 8.16—Treatment when bleeding is a problem
3.4—Miscellaneous details 8.17—Delays in cold-weather finishing
Chapter 4—Site preparation and placing Chapter 9—Curing, protection, and joint filling,
environment, p. 302.1R-15 p. 302.1R-50
4.1—Soil support system preparation 9.1—Purpose of curing
4.2—Suspended slabs 9.2—Methods of curing
4.3—Bulkheads 9.3—Curing at joints
4.4—Setting of screed guides 9.4—Curing of special concretes
4.5—Installation of auxiliary materials 9.5—Length of curing
4.6—Concrete placement conditions 9.6—Preventing plastic shrinkage cracking
9.7—Curing after grinding
Chapter 5—Materials, p. 302.1R-17 9.8—Protection of slab during construction
5.1— Introduction 9.9—Temperature drawdown in cold storage and freezer
5.2—Concrete rooms
5.3—Portland cement 9.10—Joint filling and sealing
5.4—Aggregates
5.5—Water Chapter 10—Quality control checklist, p. 302.1R-52
5.6—Admixtures 10.1—Introduction
5.7—Liquid surface treatments 10.2—Partial list of important items to be observed
5.8—Reinforcement
5.9—Curing materials Chapter 11—Causes of floor and slab surface
5.10—Evaporation reducers imperfections, p. 302.1R-53
5.11—Gloss-imparting waxes 11.1—Introduction
5.12—Joint materials 11.2—Cracking
5.13—Volatile organic compounds (VOC) 11.3—Low resistance to wear
11.4—Dusting
Chapter 6—Concrete properties and consistency, 11.5—Scaling
p. 302.1R-23 11.6—Popouts
6.1—Concrete properties 11.7—Blisters
6.2—Recommended concrete mixture 11.8—Spalling
11.9—Discoloration
Chapter 7—Batching, mixing, and transporting, 11.10—Low spots and poor drainage
p. 302.1R-25 11.11—Curling
7.1—Batching 11.12—Analysis of surface imperfections
7.2—Mixing
7.3—Transporting Chapter 12—Selected references, p. 302.1R-61
12.1—Specified and recommended references
Chapter 8—Placing, consolidating, and finishing, 12.2—Cited references
p. 302.1R-26 12.3—Additional references
8.1—Placing operations
8.2—Tools for spreading, consolidating, and finishing
Addendum—p. 302.1R-66
8.3—Spreading, consolidating, and finishing operations
8.4—Finishing Class 1, 2, and 3 floors (tile-covered, offices, CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION
churches, schools, hospitals, ornamental, and garages)
8.5—Finishing Class 4 and 5 floors (light-duty industrial 1.1—Purpose and scope
and commercial) This guide presents state-of-the-art information relative to the
8.6—Finishing Class 6 floors (industrial) and monolithic- construction of slab-on-ground and suspended-slab floors for
surface treatments for wear resistance industrial, commercial, and institutional buildings. It is
8.7—Finishing Class 7 floors (heavy-duty industrial) applicable to the construction of normal weight and structural
CONCRETE FLOOR AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION 302.1R-3
lightweight concrete floors and slabs made with conventional 3. Work associated with installation of auxiliary materials,
portland and blended cements. such as vapor barriers, vapor retarders, edge insulation, electri-
The design of slabs on ground should conform to the rec- cal conduit, mechanical sleeves, drains, and embedded plates
ommendations of ACI 360R. Refer to ACI 223 for special 4. Class of floor
procedures recommended for the design and construction of 5. Floor thickness
shrinkage-compensating concrete slabs on ground. The de- 6. Reinforcement, when required
sign of suspended floors should conform to requirements of 7. Construction tolerances: base (rough and fine grading),
ACI 318 and ACI 421.1R. See Section 1.2 for relevant work forms, slab thickness, surface configuration, and floor flatness
by these and other committees. and levelness requirements (including how and when measured)
This guide identifies the various classes of floors as to 8. Joints and load transfer mechanism
•use, 9. Materials: cements, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,
•design details as they apply to construction, water, and admixtures (usually by reference to applicable
•necessary site preparation, and ASTM standards)
•type of concrete and related materials. 10. Special aggregates, admixtures, or monolithic surface
In general, the characteristics of the concrete slab surface treatments, where applicable
and the performance of joints have a powerful impact on the 11. Concrete specifications, to include the following:
serviceability of floors and other slabs. Since the eventual a. Compressive and/or flexural strength and finishability
success of a concrete floor installation is greatly dependent (Section 6.2)
upon the mixture proportions and floor finishing techniques b. Minimum cementitious material content, if applicable
used, considerable attention is given to critical aspects of (Table 6.2.4)
achieving the desired finishes and the required floor surface c. Maximum size, grading, and type of coarse aggregate
tolerances. This guide emphasizes choosing and proportion- d. Grading and type of fine aggregate
ing of materials, design details, proper construction methods, e. Air content of concrete, if applicable (Section 6.2.7)
and workmanship. f. Slump of concrete (Section 6.2.5)
1.1.1 Prebid and preconstruction meetings—While this g. Water-cement ratio or water-cementitious material
guide does provide a reasonable overview of concrete floor ratio
construction, it should be emphasized that every project is h. Preplacement soaking requirement for lightweight
unique; circumstances can dictate departures from the rec- aggregates
ommendations contained here. Accordingly, contractors and 12. Measuring, mixing, and placing procedures (usually
suppliers are urged to make a thorough formal review of con- by reference to specifications or recommended practices)
tract documents prior to bid preparation. 13. Strikeoff method
The best forum for such a review is the prebid meeting. 14. Recommended finishing methods and tools, where
This meeting offers bidders an opportunity to ask questions required
and to clarify their understanding of contract documents pri- 15. Coordination of floor finish requirements with those
or to submitting their bids. A prebid meeting also provides required for floor coverings such as vinyl, ceramic tile, or
the owner and the owner’s designer an opportunity to clarify wood that are to be applied directly to the floor
intent where documents are unclear, and to respond to last- 16. Curing procedures, including length of curing and time
minute questions in a manner that provides bidders an oppor- prior to opening the slab to traffic (ACI 308)
tunity to be equally responsive to the contract documents. 17. Testing and inspection requirements
1.1.2 Preconstruction meeting—Construction of any slab- 18. Acceptance criteria and remedial measures to be used,
on-ground or suspended floor or slab involves the coordinat- if required
ed efforts of many subcontractors and material suppliers. It 1.1.2.1 Additional issues specific to suspended slab con-
is strongly recommended that a preconstruction meeting be struction are as follows:
held to establish and coordinate procedures that will enable 1. Form tolerances and preplacement quality assurance
key participants to produce the best possible product under survey procedures for cast-in-place construction
the anticipated field conditions. This meeting should be at- 2. Erection tolerances and preplacement quality assurance
tended by responsible representatives of organizations and survey procedures for composite slab construction; see
material suppliers directly involved with either the design or ANSI/ASCE 3-91 and ANSI/ASCE 9-91 (Section 12.1).
construction of floors. 3. Form stripping procedures, if applicable
The preconstruction meeting should confirm and docu- 4. Items listed in Section 3.3
ment the responsibilities and anticipated interaction of key 1.1.3 Quality control—Adequate provision should be
participants involved in floor slab construction. Following is made to ensure that the constructed product meets or exceeds
a list of agenda items appropriate for such a meeting; many the requirements of the project documents. Toward this end,
of the items are those for which responsibility should be quality control procedures should be established and main-
clearly established in the contract documents. The list is not tained throughout the entire construction process.
necessarily all-inclusive.
1. Site preparation
2. Grades for drainage, if any
The quality of a completed concrete slab depends on the 1.2.2 The American Society of Civil Engineers—Publishes
skill of individuals who place, finish, and test the material. documents that can be helpful for floor and slab construc-
As an aid to assuring a high-quality finished product, the tion. Two publications that deal with suspended slab con-
specifier or owner should consider requiring the use of struction are the “ASCE Standard for the Structural Design
prequalified concrete contractors, testing laboratories, and of Composite Slabs” (ANSI/ASCE 3-91) and “ASCE Stan-
concrete finishers who have had their proficiency and expe- dard Practice for Construction and Inspection of Composite
rience evaluated through an independent third-party certifi- Slabs” (ANSI/ASCE 9-91).
cation program. ACI has developed programs to train and to
certify concrete flatwork finishers and concrete testing tech- CHAPTER 2—CLASSES OF FLOORS
nicians throughout the United States and Canada.
2.1—Classification of floors
1.2—Work of other relevant committees Table 2.1 classifies floors on the basis of intended use, dis-
1.2.1 ACI committees cusses special considerations, and suggests finishing tech-
117—Prepares and updates tolerance requirements for niques for each class of floor. Use requirements should be
concrete construction. considered when selecting concrete properties (Section 6.1),
201—Reviews research and recommendations on durabil- and the step-by-step placing, consolidating, and finishing
ity of concrete and reports recommendations for appropriate procedures in Chapter 8 should be closely followed for dif-
materials and methods. ferent classes and types of floors.
211—Develops recommendations for proportioning con- Wear resistance should also be considered. Currently,
crete mixtures. there are no standard criteria for evaluating the wear resis-
223—Develops and reports on the use of shrinkage-com- tance of a floor, and it is not possible to specify concrete
pensating concrete. quality in terms of ability to resist wear. Wear resistance is
224—Studies and formulates recommendations for the directly related to the concrete-mixture proportions, types of
prevention or control of cracking in concrete construction. aggregates, and construction techniques used.
301—Develops and maintains standard specifications for
structural concrete for buildings. 2.2—Single-course monolithic floors: Classes 1, 2,
308—Prepares guidelines for type and amount of curing 4, 5, and 6
required to develop the desired properties in concrete. Five classes of floors are constructed with monolithic con-
309—Studies and reports on research and development in crete; each involves some variation in strength and finishing
consolidation of concrete. techniques. If abrasion from grit or other materials will be
318—Develops and updates building code requirements unusually severe, a higher-quality floor surface may be re-
for reinforced concrete and structural plain concrete, includ- quired for satisfactory service.3 Under these conditions, a
ing suspended slabs. higher-class floor, a special metallic or mineral aggregate
325—Reports on the structural design, construction, monolithic surface treatment, or a higher-strength concrete is
maintenance, and rehabilitation of concrete pavements. recommended.
330—Reports on the design, construction, and mainte-
nance of concrete parking lots. 2.3—Two-course floors: Classes 3, 7 and 8
332—Gathers and reports on the use of concrete in resi- 2.3.1 Unbonded topping over base slab—The base cours-
dential construction. es of Class 3 (unbonded, two course) floors and Class 8
347—Gathers, correlates, and reports information and pre- floors can be either slabs-on-ground or suspended slabs, with
pares recommendations for formwork for concrete. the finish to be coordinated with the type of topping. For
360—Develops and reports on criteria for design of slabs Class 3 floors, the concrete topping material is similar to the
on ground, except highway and airport pavements. base slab concrete. The top courses for Class 8 floors require
421—Develops and reports on criteria for suspended slab a hard-steel troweling, and usually have a higher strength
design. than the base course. Class 8 floors can also make use of an
423—Develops and reports on technical status, research, embedded hard aggregate, or a premixed (dry-shake) miner-
innovations, and recommendations for prestressed concrete. al aggregate or metallic hardener for addition to the surface
503—Studies and reports information and recommenda- (Section 5.4.6).
tions on the use of adhesives for structurally joining con- Class 3 (with unbonded topping) and Class 8 floors are
crete, providing a wearing surface, and other uses. used when it is preferable not to bond the topping to the
504—Studies and reports on materials, methods, and sys- base course, so that the two courses can move indepen-
tems used for sealing joints and cracks in concrete structures. dently (for example, with precast members as a base), or
515—Prepares recommendations for selection and appli- so that the top courses can be more easily replaced at a lat-
cation of protective systems for concrete surfaces. er period. Two-course floors can be used when mechani-
544—Studies and reports information and recommenda- cal and electrical equipment require special bases, and
tions on the use of fiber reinforced concrete. when their use permits more expeditious construction
640—Develops, maintains, and updates programs for use procedures. Two-course unbonded floors can also be used
in certification of concrete construction craftspeople. to resurface worn or damaged floors when contamination
Table 2.1—Floor classifications

Class Anticipated type of traffic Use Special considerations Final finish
Uniform finish, nonslip aggre-
Offices, churches, commercial, gate in specific areas, curing Normal steel-troweled finish,
institutional, multiunit residen-
Exposed surface—foot nonslip finish where required
1 Single course tial Colored mineral aggregate, color
traffic pigment or exposed aggregate, As required
Decorative stamped or inlaid patterns, artis-
tic joint layout, curing
Offices, churches, commercial, Flat and level slabs suitable for
Covered surface—foot gymnasiums, multiunit residen- applied coverings, curing. Coor-
2 Single course Light steel-troweled finish
traffic tial, institutional with floor cov- dinate joints with applied cover-
erings ings
Base slab —good, uniform, level
surface, curing Base slab —troweled finish
under unbonded topping; clean,
Unbonded or bonded topping Unbonded topping—bond- textured surface under bonded
over base slab for commercial or breaker on base slab, minimum topping
Exposed or covered thickness 3 in. (75 mm) rein-
3 Two course non-industrial buildings where
surface—foot traffic forced, curing
construction type or schedule Topping—for exposed surface,
dictates normal steel-troweled finish. For
Bonded topping—properly sized covered surface, light steel-
3
aggregate, /4 in. (19 mm) mini- troweled finish
mum thickness curing
Level and flat slab suitable for
Exposed or covered sur- applied coverings, nonslip
4 Single course face—foot and light Institutional and commercial aggregate for specific areas, cur- Normal steel-troweled finish
vehicular traffic ing. Coordinate joints with
applied coverings
Exposed surface—indus-
trial vehicular traffic, that Industrial floors for manufactur- Good uniform subgrade, joint
5 Single course is, pneumatic wheels, and ing, processing, and warehous- layout, abrasion resistance, Hard steel-troweled finish
moderately soft solid ing curing
wheels
Exposed surface—heavy Industrial floors subject to heavy Good uniform subgrade, joint Special metallic or mineral
duty industrial vehicular
6 Single course traffic; may be subject to impact layout, load transfer, abrasion aggregate surface hardener;
traffic, that is, hard wheels,
loads resistance, curing repeated hard steel-trowelling
and heavy wheel loads
Base slab —good, uniform sub-
grade, reinforcement, joint lay-
out, level surface, curing
Clean, textured base slab surface
Exposed surface—heavy Topping—composed of well- suitable for subsequent bonded
duty industrial vehicular Bonded two-course floors sub- graded all-mineral or all-metallic
7 Two course topping. Special power floats for
traffic, that is, hard wheels, ject to heavy traffic and impact aggregate. Minimum thickness topping are optional, hard steel-
and heavy wheel loads 3
/ 4 in. (19 mm). Metallic or min- troweled finish
eral aggregate surface hardener
applied to high-strength plain
topping to toughen, curing
Unbonded toppings—on new or Bondbreaker on base slab, mini-
8 Two course As in Class 4, 5, or 6 old floors or where construction mum thickness 4 in. (100 mm), As in Class 4, 5, or 6
sequence or schedule dictates abrasion resistance, curing
Exposed surface—super- Varying concrete quality require-
flat or critical surface toler- Narrow-aisle, high-bay ware- ments. Shake-on hardeners can- Strictly follow finishing tech-
9 Single course or ance required. Special not be used unless special
houses; television studios, ice niques as indicated in Section
topping materials-handling vehicles rinks application and great care are 8.9
or robotics requiring employed. Ff50 to Ff125
specific tolerances (“superflat” floor). Curing
prevents complete bond, or when it is desirable to avoid spacing in the topping must be coordinated with joint spac-
scarifying and chipping the base course and the resultant ing in the base slab.
higher floor elevation is compatible with adjoining floors. 2.3.2 Bonded topping over base slab—Class 3 (bonded
Class 3 floors are used primarily for commercial or non- topping) and Class 7 floors employ a topping bonded to the
industrial applications, whereas Class 8 floors are prima- base slab. Class 3 (bonded topping) floors are used primarily
rily for industrial-type applications. for commercial or nonindustrial applications; Class 7 floors
Plastic sheeting, roofing felt, or a bond-breaking com- are used for heavy-duty, industrial-type applications subject
pound are used to prevent bond to the base slab. Reinforce- to heavy traffic and impact. The base slabs can be either a
ment such as deformed bars, welded wire fabric, bar mats or conventional portland cement concrete mixture or shrink-
fibers may be placed in the topping to reduce the width of age-compensating concrete. The surface of the base slab
shrinkage cracks. Unbonded toppings should have a mini- should have a rough, open pore finish and be free of any sub-
mum thickness of 3 in. (75 mm). The concrete should be pro- stances that would interfere with the bond of the topping to
portioned to meet the requirements of Chapter 6. Joint the base slab.
The topping can be either a same-day installation (prior to •Base and subbase materials, preparation requirements,
hardening of the base slab) or a deferred installation (after and vapor retarder, if required
the base slab has hardened). The topping for a Class 3 floor •Concrete thickness 5
is a concrete mixture similar to that used in Class 1 or 2 •Concrete compressive, or flexural strength, or both
floors. The topping for a Class 7 floor requires a multiple-
•Concrete mixture design requirements (ASTM C 94)
pass, hard-steel-trowel finish, and it usually has a higher
•Joint locations and details
strength than the base course. A bonded topping can also
•Reinforcement (type, size, and location), if required
make use of an embedded hard aggregate or a premixed (dry-
shake) mineral aggregate or metallic hardener for addition to •Surface treatment, if required
the surface (Section 5.4.6). Bonded toppings should have a •Surface finish
minimum thickness of 3/4 in. (19 mm). Joint spacing in the top- •Tolerances (base, subbase, slab thickness, and surface)
ping must be coordinated with joint spacing in the base slab. •Curing
•Joint filling material and installation
2.4—Class 9 floors •Special embedments
Certain materials-handling facilities (for example, high- •Preconstruction meeting, quality assurance, and quality
bay, narrow-aisle warehouses) require extraordinarily level control
and flat floors. The construction of such “superflat” floors 3.2.2 Soil support system—The performance of a slab on
(Class 9) is discussed in Chapter 8. A superflat floor could be ground depends on the integrity of both the soil support sys-
constructed as a single-course floor, or it could be construct- tem and the slab, so specific attention should be given to the
ed as a two-course floor with a topping, either bonded (sim- site preparation requirements, including proof-rolling, dis-
ilar to a Class 7 topping) or unbonded (similar to a Class 8 cussed in Section 4.1.1. In most cases, proof-rolling results
topping). are far more indicative of the ability of the soil support sys-
tem to withstand loading than are the results from in-place
2.5—Special finish floors tests of moisture content or density. A thin layer of graded,
Floors with decorative finishes and those requiring skid re- granular, compactible material is normally used as fine grad-
sistance or electrical conductivity are covered in appropriate ing material to better control the thickness of the concrete
sections of Chapter 8 and to minimize friction between the base material and the
Floors exposed to mild acids, sulfates, or other chemicals slab.
should receive special preparation or protection. ACI 201.2R 3.2.3 Vapor retarder—Proper moisture protection is desir-
reports on means of increasing the resistance of concrete to able for any slab on ground where the floor will be covered by
chemical attack. Where attack will be severe, wear-resistant tile, wood, carpet, impermeable floor coatings (urethane, ep-
protection suitable for the exposure should be used. Such en- oxy, or acrylic terrazzo), or where the floor will be in contact
vironments, and the methods of protecting floors against with any moisture-sensitive equipment or product.
them, are discussed in ACI 515.1R. Vapor retarders are often incorrectly referred to as “vapor
In certain chemical and food processing plants, such as barriers.” A vapor retarder is a material that will effectively
slaughterhouses, exposed concrete floors are subject to slow minimize the transmission of water vapor from the soil sup-
disintegration due to organic acids. In many instances it is port system through the slab, but is not 100 percent effective
preferable to protect the floor with other materials such as in preventing its passage. Although no specific national stan-
acid-resistant brick, tile, or resinous mortars (ACI 515.1R). dard has been established for the effectiveness of these prod-
ucts, it is generally recognized that a vapor retarder is one
CHAPTER 3—DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS with a permeance of less than 0.3 US perms (0.2 metric
perms) as determined by ASTM E 96.
3.1—Scope Although polyethylene film with a thickness of as little as
This chapter addresses design of concrete floors as it re- 6 mils (0.15 mm) has been satisfactory as a vapor retarder,
lates to their constructability. Components of a typical slab the committee strongly recommends that a thickness of not
on ground 4 are shown in Fig. 3.1. Specific design require- less than 10 mils (0.25 mm) be used. The increase in thick-
ments for concrete floor construction are found in other doc- ness offers increased resistance to moisture transmission
uments: ACI 360R for slabs on ground, ACI 223 for
shrinkage-compensating concrete floors, ACI 421.1R for
suspended floors, ANSI/ASCE 3-91 for structural design of
composite slabs, and ANSI/ASCE 9-91 for construction and
inspection of composite slabs. Refer to ACI 318 for require-
ments relating to the building code.
3.2—Slabs on ground
3.2.1 Suggested design elements—The following items
should be specified in the contract documents prepared by
the engineer of record. Fig. 3.1—Typical slab on grade
while providing more durability during and after its installa- at the surface, narrowing with depth. For maximum effec-
tion. tiveness, temperature and shrinkage reinforcement in slabs
A number of products, such as laminated kraft paper with on ground should be positioned in the upper third of the slab
glass fiber reinforcement and reinforced polyethylene film, thickness. The Wire Reinforcement Institute recommends
have previously been incorrectly used as vapor barriers. True that welded wire reinforcement be placed 2 in. (50 mm) be-
vapor barriers are products, such as rugged multiple-rein- low the slab surface or upper one-third of slab thickness,
forced membranes, that have water transmission ratings of whichever is closer to the surface.10 Reinforcement should
0.00 perms per square foot per hour when tested in accor- extend to within 2 in. (50 mm) of the slab edge.
dance with ASTM E 96. Proper performance of a vapor bar- Deformed reinforcing steel or post-tensioning tendons,
rier requires that laps in the material be sealed. Refer to when used, should be supported and tied together sufficient-
manufacturer’s recommendations. ly to prevent displacement during concrete placing and fin-
Concrete placed in direct contact with a vapor barrier or ishing operations. Chairs with sand plates or precast-
vapor retarder exhibits significantly larger longitudinal di- concrete bar supports are generally considered to be the most
mensional changes in the first hour after casting than does effective method of providing the required support. When
concrete placed on a granular base6; there is also more verti- precast-concrete bar supports are used, they should be at
cal settlement. Where reinforcing steel is present, settlement least 4 in. (100 mm) square at the base, have a compressive
cracking over the steel is more likely because of the in- strength at least equal to the specified compressive strength
creased vertical settlement resulting from a longer bleeding of the concrete being placed, and be thick enough to support
period. If the concrete is restrained by connecting members, reinforcing at the proper elevation while maintaining mini-
base friction, or reinforcement, shrinkage cracking is more mum coverage of the reinforcing steel
likely because the concrete placed directly on a vapor barrier When welded wire reinforcement is used, its flexibility
or vapor retarder retains more mixing water and thus shrinks dictates that the contractor attend closely to establishing and
more. In one study, high-slump concrete placed directly on maintaining adequate support of the reinforcement during
plastic sheets exhibited significantly more cracking than
the concrete placing operations. Welded wire reinforcement
concrete placed on a granular base.7
should not be laid on the ground and “pulled up” after the
Surface crusting is also more likely for slabs placed direct-
concrete has been placed, nor should the mats be “walked in”
ly on a vapor barrier or vapor retarder. Concrete that doesn’t
after placing the concrete. Proper support or support-bar
lose water to the base won’t stiffen as rapidly as concrete that
spacing is necessary to maintain welded wire reinforcement
does. If the surface crusts over due to drying or to faster set-
at the proper elevation; supports or support bars should be
ting caused by solar heat gain, the weight of a power float or
close enough that the welded wire reinforcement cannot be
trowel could crack the crusted surface covering a softer layer
forced out of location by construction foot traffic. Support or
of concrete that hasn’t lost water. On-site conditions such as
support-bar spacing can be increased when heavier gage
low humidity, moderate-to-high winds, use of embedded
wires or a double mat of small gage wires is used.
mineral-aggregate or dry-shake surface hardeners, or a com-
bination of these can aggravate the problem and increase the Reinforcing bars or welded wire reinforcement should be
likelihood of cracking.6,8 discontinued at any joints where the intent of the designer is
This Committee recommends that a vapor barrier or vapor to let the joint open and to reduce the possibility of shrinkage
retarder be used only when required by the intended use, and and temperature cracks in an adjacent panel. Where the rein-
that installation be in accordance with Section 4.1.5. forcement is carried through the joint, cracks are likely to oc-
3.2.4 Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement—Rein- cur in adjacent panels because of restraint at the joint.11
forcement restrains movement resulting from slab shrinkage When used in sufficient quantity, they will hold out-of-joint
and can actually increase the number of random cracks ex- cracks tightly closed. Some engineers prefer partial discon-
perienced, particularly at wider joint spacing (Section tinuation of the reinforcement at contraction joints in order
3.2.5.3). Reinforcement in nonstructural slab-on-ground in- to obtain some load transfer capacity without the use of dow-
stallations is provided primarily to control the width of el baskets. See Section 3.2.7.
cracks that occur.9,10 This reinforcement is normally fur- 3.2.4.1 Steel fibers—In some installations, steel fibers spe-
nished in the form of deformed steel bars, welded wire rein- cifically designed for such use can be used with or without
forcing, steel fibers, or post-tensioning tendons. conventional shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in
Combinations of various forms of reinforcement have slab-on-ground floors. As in the case of conventional rein-
proved successful. The use of each of these types of reinforcement, steel fibers will not prevent cracking of the con-
forcement is discussed in more detail later in this section. crete. When used in sufficient quantity, they will hold the
Normally, the amount of reinforcement used in non-struc- cracks tightly closed.
tural slabs is too small to have a significant influence on re- 3.2.4.2 Synthetic fibers—Polypropylene, polyethylene,
straining movement resulting from volume changes. Refer to nylon, and other synthetic fibers can help reduce segregation
Section 3.2.5 for an expanded discussion of the relationship of the concrete mixture and formation of shrinkage cracks
between joint spacing and reinforcing quantity. while the concrete is in the plastic state and during the first
Temperature and shrinkage cracks in unreinforced slabs few hours of curing. As the modulus of elasticity of concrete
on ground originate at the surface of the slab and are wider increases, however, most synthetic fibers at typical dosage
rates recommended by the fiber manufacturers will not pro- tenance will be reduced. The layout of joints and joint details
vide sufficient restraint to hold cracks tightly closed. should be provided by the designer. If the joint layout is not
3.2.4.3 Post-tensioning reinforcement—The use of steel provided, the contractor should submit a detailed joint layout
tendons as reinforcement in lieu of conventional temperature and placing sequence for approval of the architect/engineer
and shrinkage reinforcement allows the contractor to intro- prior to proceeding.
duce a relatively high compressive stress in the concrete by As stated in ACI 360R, every effort should be made to
means of post-tensioning. This compressive stress provides avoid tying the slab to any other element of the structure. Re-
a balance for the crack-producing tensile stresses that devel- straint from any source, whether internal or external, will in-
op as the concrete shrinks during the curing process. Stage crease the potential for random cracking.
stressing, or partial tensioning, of the slab on the day follow- Three types of joints are commonly used in concrete slabs
ing placement can result in a significant reduction of shrink- on ground: isolation joints, contraction joints, and construc-
age cracks. Construction loads on the concrete should be tion joints. Appropriate locations for isolation joints and
minimized until the slabs are fully stressed. 12,13 For guide- contraction joints are shown in Fig. 3.2.5. With the engi-
lines on installation details, contact a concrete floor specialty neer’s approval, construction joint and contraction joint de-
contractor who is thoroughly experienced with this type of tails can be interchanged. Refer to ACI 224.3R for an
installation. expanded discussion of joints.
3.2.4.4 Causes of cracking over reinforcement—Plastic Joints in topping slabs should be located directly over
settlement cracking over reinforcement is caused by inade- joints in the base slab.
quate compaction of concrete, inadequate concrete cover 3.2.5.1 Isolation joints—Isolation joints should be used
over reinforcement, use of large-diameter9 bars, high tem- wherever complete freedom of vertical and horizontal move-
perature of bars exposed to direct sunlight, higher-than-re- ment is required between the floor and adjoining building el-
quired slump in concrete, revibration of the concrete, ements. Isolation joints should be used at junctions with
inadequate curing of the concrete, or a combination of these walls (not requiring lateral restraint from the slab), columns,
items. equipment foundations, footings, or other points of restraint
3.2.5 Joint design—Joints are used in slab-on-ground con- such as drains, manholes, sumps, and stairways.
struction to limit the frequency and width of random cracks Isolation joints are formed by inserting preformed joint
caused by volume changes. Generally, if limiting the number filler between the floor and the adjacent element. The joint
of joints or increasing the joint spacing can be accomplished material should extend the full depth of the slab and not pro-
without increasing the number of random cracks, floor main- trude above it. Where the joint filler will be objectionably
visible, or where there are wet conditions, hygienic or dust-
control requirements, the top of the preformed filler can be
removed and the joint caulked with an elastomeric sealant.
Two methods of producing a relatively uniform depth of
joint sealant are as follow:
1. Score both sides of the preformed filler at the depth to
be removed by using a saw. Insert the scored filler in the
proper location and remove the top section after the concrete
hardens by using a screwdriver or similar tool.
2. Cut a strip of wood equal to the desired depth of the joint
sealant. Nail the wood strip to the preformed filler and install
the assembly in the proper location. Remove the wood strip
after the concrete has hardened.
Alternatively, a premolded joint filler with a removable
top portion can be used. Refer to Figs. 3.2.5.1.a and 3.2.5.1.b
for typical isolation joints around columns. Fig. 3.2.5.1.c
shows an isolation joint at an equipment foundation.
Isolation joints for slabs using shrinkage-compensating
concrete should be treated as recommended in ACI 223.
3.2.5.2 Construction joints—Construction joints are
placed in a slab to define the extent of the individual place-
ments, generally in conformity with a predetermined joint
layout. If concreting is ever interrupted long enough for the
placed concrete to harden, a construction joint should be
used. If possible, construction joints should be located 5 ft
(1.5 m) or more from any other joint to which they are paral-
lel.
In areas not subjected to traffic, a butt joint is usually ade-
Fig. 3.2.5—Location of joints quate. In areas subjected to hard-wheeled traffic and heavy
Fig. 3.2.5.1.b—Isolation joints at columns
Fig. 3.2.5.1.a—Isolation joint at columns
loadings, or both, joints with dowels are recommended (Fig.

3.2.5.2). A keyed joint can be used for low traffic areas Fig. 3.2.5.1.c—Isolation joint at equipment pad
where some load transfer is required. A keyed joint will not
provide the same positive load transfer as a properly con- •Type, amount, and location of reinforcement
structed doweled joint because the male and female key •Shrinkage potential of the concrete (cement type and
components lose contact when the joint opens due to drying quantity; aggregate size, quantity, and quality; water-
shrinkage (Section 3.2.7). cementitious material ratio; type of admixtures; and
3.2.5.3 Contraction joints—Contraction joints are usually concrete temperature)
located on column lines, with intermediate joints located at •Base friction
equal spaces between column lines as shown in Fig. 3.2.5. •Floor slab restraints
The following factors are normally considered when select- •Layout of foundations, racks, pits, equipment pads,
ing spacing of contraction joints: trenches, and similar floor discontinuities
•Method of slab design (refer to ACI 360R) •Environmental factors such as temperature, wind, and
•Thickness of slab humidity
Fig. 3.2.5.3.a—Types of contraction joints
Fig. 3.2.5.2—Doweled construction joint
•Methods and quality of concrete curing

As previously indicated, establishing slab joint spacing,
thickness, and reinforcement requirements is the responsibil-
ity of the designer. The specified joint spacing will be a prin-
cipal factor dictating both the amount and the character of
random cracking to be experienced, so joint spacing should
always be carefully selected.
For unreinforced, plain concrete slabs, joint spacings of 24
to 36 times the slab thickness up to a maximum spacing of
18 ft (5.5 m) have generally produced acceptable results.
Some random cracking should be expected; a reasonable lev-
el might be random cracks occurring in from 0 percent to 3
percent of the floor slab panels formed by saw-cut or con-
struction joints or a combination of both.
Joint spacings can be increased somewhat in nominally re-
inforced slabs—0.2 percent steel or less placed within 2 in.
(50 mm) of the top of the slab—but the incidence of random
cracking and curling will increase. Reinforcement will not
Fig. 3.2.5.3.b—Joint detail at loading dock
prevent cracking. However, if the reinforcement is properly
sized and located, crack widths should be held to acceptable
limits. The number of joints can also be reduced with the use of
Transverse contraction joints can be reduced or eliminated shrinkage-compensating concrete. However, the recommen-
in slabs reinforced with at least 0.5 percent continuous rein- dations of ACI 223 should be carefully followed.
forcing steel placed within 2 in. (50 mm) of the top of the Contraction joints should be continuous, not staggered or
slab or upper one-third of slab thickness, whichever is closer offset. The aspect ratio of slab panels that are unreinforced,
to the slab surface. This will typically produce numerous, reinforced only for shrinkage and temperature, or made with
closely spaced fine cracks throughout the slab. shrinkage-compensating concrete should be a maximum of
Joints in either direction can be reduced or completely 1.5 to 1; however, a ratio of 1 to 1 is preferred. L- and T-
eliminated by post-tensioning to induce a net compressive shaped panels should be avoided. Fig. 3.2.5.3.a shows vari-
force in the slab after all tensioning losses. ous types of contraction joints. Floors around loading docks
have a tendency to crack due to their configuration and re- ment in the direction of the joint, such as might be necessary
straints. Fig. 3.2.5.3.b shows one method that can be used to in post-tensioned slabs on ground. 14
minimize slab cracking at reentrant corners of loading docks. In saw-cut contraction joints, aggregate interlock should
Plastic or metal inserts are not recommended for creating not be relied upon for effective load transfer for wheeled
a contraction joint in any exposed floor surface that will be traffic if the expected crack width exceeds 0.035 in. (0.9
subjected to wheeled traffic. mm). 15
3.2.5.4 Saw cutting joints—Contraction joints in industrial Deformed reinforcing bars should not be used across con-
and commercial floors are usually formed by sawing a contraction joints or construction joints because they restrain
tinuous slot in the slab to form a weakened plane below joints from opening as the slab shrinks during drying. Con-
which a crack will form (Fig. 3.2.5.3.a). Further details on tinuation of a part of the slab reinforcing through contraction
saw cutting of joints are given in Section 8.3.12. joints can provide some load transfer capability without us-
3.2.6 Joint filling—Where there are wet conditions, hy- ing dowels, but increases the probability of out-of-joint
gienic and dust-control requirements, or where the floor is cracking.
subjected to traffic by small, hard-wheeled vehicles such as Keyed joints are not recommended in slabs on ground
where heavy traffic is anticipated as they do not provide ef-
forklifts, contraction and construction joints should be filled
fective load transfer. When the concrete shrinks, the keys
and protected with a semirigid epoxy that gives adequate
and keyways do not retain contact and do not share the load
support to the joint edges and has sufficient resistance to
between panels; this can eventually cause a breakdown of
wear. Construction joints should be saw cut 1 in. (25 mm)
the concrete edges of the joint.
deep prior to filling. Isolation joints usually are sealed with
For long post-tensioned floor strips, care should be taken
an elastomeric sealant. Joints should be as narrow as feasi-
to accommodate significant slab movements. In most in-
ble, as long as the joint can be properly filled. Refer to Sec-
stances, post-tensioned slab joints are associated with a jack-
tion 5.12 for a discussion of joint materials and Section 9.10
ing gap. The filling of jacking gaps should be delayed as long
for installation of joint fillers and sealants.
as possible in order to accommodate shrinkage and creep. In
3.2.7 Load transfer mechanisms—Doweled joints (Figs.
traffic areas, armor plating of the joint edges is recommend-
3.2.5.2 and 3.2.7.a) are recommended when positive load ed. Fig. 3.2.7.c depicts a doweled joint detail at a jacking gap
transfer is required, unless post-tensioning is provided in a post-tensioned slab.13,16
across the joint. Dowels force concrete on both sides of a
joint to deflect equally when subjected to a load, and help 3.3—Suspended slabs
prevent damage to an exposed corner when the joint is sub- 3.3.1 Required design elements—In addition to many of
jected to hard-wheeled traffic. Table 3.2.7 provides recom- the items listed in Section 1.1.2, the following items specifi-
mended dowel sizes and spacing. For dowels to be cally impacting construction of suspended slabs should be
effective, they should be smooth, aligned and supported so included in the contract documents prepared by the engineer
they will remain parallel in both the horizontal and the ver- of record:
tical planes during the placing and finishing operation. •Frame geometry (member size and spacing)
Properly-aligned, smooth dowels allow the joint to open as •Reinforcement (type, size, location, and method of sup-
concrete shrinks. Dowel baskets (Fig. 3.2.7.b) should be port)
used to maintain alignment of dowels. Dowels should be •Shear connectors, if required
placed no closer than 12 in. (300 mm) from the intersection •Construction joint location
of any joints. •Metal deck (type, depth, and gage), if required
As indicated in ACI 223, square dowels cushioned on the •Shoring, if required
vertical sides by a compressible material to permit move- •Tolerances (forms, structural steel, reinforcement, and
ment parallel and perpendicular to the joint are available. concrete)
This type of dowel is useful where the joint must have load- 3.3.2 Suspended slab types—In general, suspended floor
transfer capability while allowing some differential move- systems fall into three main categories: (1) slabs with remov-
Table 3.2.7— Dowel size and spacing

Slab depth Dowel diameter Total dowel length* Dowel spacing, center to center
in. in. in. in.
3
5-6 /4 16 12
7-8 1 18 12
9-11 11 /4 18 12
mm mm mm mm
125-500 19 400 300
175-200 25 450 300
225-275 30 450 300
*Allowance made for joint openings, minor errors in positioning dowels.
Note: Dowels must be carefully aligned and supported during concrete operations. Misaligned dowels cause cracking.
able forms, (2) slabs on metal decking, and (3) topping slabs Levelness of suspended slabs is dependent on accuracy of
on precast concrete. formwork and strikeoff, but is further influenced (especially
Design requirements for cast-in-place concrete suspended in the case of slabs on metal decking) by behavior of the
floor systems are covered by ACI 318 and ACI 421.1R. Re- structural frame during and after completion of construction.
fer to these documents to obtain design parameters for vari- Each type of structural frame behaves somewhat differently;
ous cast-in-place systems. Slabs on metal decking and it is important that the contractor recognize those differences
topping slabs on precast concrete are hybrid systems that in- and plan accordingly.
volve design requirements established by ANSI, ASCE, the The presence of camber in some floor members and the
American Institute of Steel Construction, and the Pre- ACI 117 limitation on variation in slab thickness dictate that
cast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, as well as those estab- concrete be placed to a uniform thickness over the support-
lished by ACI 117. ing steel. When placing slabs on metal decking, the contrac-
tor is cautioned that deflections of the structural steel
members can vary from those anticipated by the design en-
gineer. Achieving a level deflected surface can require in-
creasing the slab thickness more than 3 /8 in. (10 mm) in local
areas. The committee recommends that placement proce-
dures and the basis for acceptance of the levelness of a com-
pleted floor surface be established and agreed upon by key
parties prior to beginning suspended floor construction. 17
3.3.3 Slabs with removable forms—Cast-in-place concrete
construction can be either post-tensioned or conventionally
reinforced. Both of these systems are supported during initial
concrete placement, and they will move when supporting
shores are removed.
Fig. 3.2.7.a—Doweled contraction joint Post-tensioned systems are normally used by the designer
when larger spans are necessary or when the structural sys-
tem should be shallow for the spans involved. Post-tensioned
systems use high-tensile steel tendons that are stretched be-
yond their initial length using a hydraulic jack designed for
that purpose. The tension produced by this stretching opera-
tion has the end result of compressing the concrete. The mag-
nitude of floor slab deflection after supports are removed is
less than that of comparable floors reinforced with conven-
tional deformed reinforcing steel. At times, dead load deflec-
tion is entirely eliminated by the use of post-tensioning.
The deformed reinforcing steel in conventionally rein-
forced floor systems will start working as the floor deflects.
The magnitude of deflection is dependent on a number of
variables such as span, depth of structure, age at the time
forms are stripped, concrete strength, and amount of rein-
Fig. 3.2.7.b—Dowel basket assembly forcement. In locations where the anticipated dead load de-
flection of a member is deemed excessive by the design
engineer, an initial camber, generally 1 /2 in. (13 mm) or
more, can be required. The amount of camber is determined
by the engineer based on an assessment of the impact of the
variables just discussed. Ideally, the cambered parts of the
floor system will deflect down to a level position after re-
moval of the supporting shores.
3.3.4 Slabs on metal deck—Construction of slabs on metal
deck involves the use of a concrete slab and a supporting
platform consisting of structural steel and metal deck. The
structural steel for this type of construction can be shored or
unshored at the time of concrete placement, and the metal
deck serves as a stay-in-place form for the concrete slab.
This construction can be composite or noncomposite.
The supporting steel platform for slabs on metal deck is
seldom level. Variation in elevations at which steel beams
Fig. 3.2.7.c—Joint detail for post-tensioned slab connect to columns and the presence of camber in some floor
members combine to create variations in the initial elevation portion of the system consists of a topping of some specified
of steel members. Regardless of the initial levelness of the thickness placed on top of the precast units. The topping can
steel frame, unshored frames will deflect during concrete be composite or noncomposite. In either case, added deflec-
placement. These factors make the use of a laser or similar tion of precast units under the weight of the topping slab is
instrument impractical for the purpose of establishing a uni- normally minor, so the finished surface will tend to follow
form elevation for strikeoff of the concrete surface of a slab the surface topography established by the supporting precast
on metal deck. The presence of camber in some floor mem- units. The camber in precast members, if they are pre-
bers and the ACI 117 limitation on variation in slab thickness stressed, can change with time as a result of concrete creep.
dictate that concrete be placed to a uniform thickness over Depending on the length of time between casting of precast
the supporting steel. units and erection, this potential variation in camber of sim-
3.3.4.1 Composite slabs on metal deck—In composite con- ilar members can create significant challenges for the con-
struction, the composite section (concrete slab and steel tractor. Care should be taken in the scheduling of such
beams) will work together to support any loads placed on the operations to minimize the potential impact of these varia-
floor surface after the concrete has hardened. Composite be- tions. Precast members are less flexible and adaptable to
havior is normally developed through the use of shear con- changes or modifications that can be required on the jobsite
nectors welded to the structural steel beam. These shear than are the previously discussed systems.
connectors physically connect the concrete slab to the beam 3.3.6 Reinforcement—For cast-in-place concrete suspend-
and engage the concrete slab within a few feet of the steel ed slabs, reinforcing steel location will vary as dictated by
beam; the resulting load-carrying element is configured the contract documents. Post-tensioning reinforcement,
much like a capital “T.” The steel beam forms the stem of the when used, is enclosed in a plastic or metal sleeve and is
“T,” and the floor slab forms the cross-bar. It is important stretched beyond its initial length by means of a hydraulic
that construction joints be located far enough from structural jack after the concrete reaches sufficient compressive
steel beams that they parallel to eliminate their impact on strength. Elongation and subsequent anchoring of the ends of
composite behavior. Questions about the location of con- post-tensioning tendons results in transfer of compressive
struction joints should be referred to the engineer of record force to the concrete. See references for installation details.
on the project. For slabs on metal deck, reinforcement is normally provid-
Unshored composite construction is the more common ed by deformed reinforcing steel, welded wire reinforce-
method used by designers because it is generally less expen- ment, steel fibers, or a combination thereof.
sive than shored construction. In unshored construction, the 3.3.7 Construction joints—The engineer of record should
structural steel beams are sometimes cambered slightly dur- provide criteria for location of construction joints in sus-
ing the fabrication process. This camber is intended to offset pended slabs. Following is a general discussion of criteria
the anticipated deflection of that member under the weight of that can influence these decisions.
concrete. Ideally, after concrete has been placed and the sys- 3.3.7.1 Slabs on removable forms—Construction joints
tem has deflected, the resulting floor surface will be level. can introduce weak vertical planes in an otherwise monolith-
Shored composite concrete slabs on metal deck are similar ic concrete member, so they should be located where shear
to slabs with removable forms, in that both are supported un- stresses are low. Under most gravity load conditions, shear
til the concrete has been placed and reaches the required stresses in flexural members are low in the middle of the
strength. Structural steel floor framing members for shored span. ACI 318 requires that construction joints in floors be
composite slabs on metal deck are usually lighter and have located within the middle third of spans of slabs, beams and
less camber than those used for unshored construction with primary beams. Joints in girders should be offset a minimum
similar column spacings and floor loadings. One major con- distance of two times the width of any intersecting beams.
cern with shored composite construction is the tendency for 3.3.7.2 Composite slabs on metal deck—An important
cracks wider than 1 /8 in. (3 mm) to form in the concrete slab consideration when locating construction joints in composite
when the supporting shores are removed. These cracks do slabs on metal deck is that the joint location can influence
not normally impair the structural capacity of the floor, but deflection of the floor framing near the joint. A composite
can become a severe aesthetic problem. The contractor is member (steel beam and hardened concrete slab working to-
cautioned that this issue and any measures taken by the de- gether) is stiffer, and deflects less, than a non-composite
signer to avoid the formation of cracks should be addressed member (steel beam acting alone). Most composite slabs on
to the satisfaction of key parties prior to beginning suspend- metal deck are placed on an unshored structural steel floor
ed floor construction. frame. Often, structural steel members have fabricated cam-
3.3.4.2 Noncomposite slabs on metal deck—In noncom- ber to offset anticipated noncomposite deflection resulting
posite construction, the slab and supporting structural steel from concrete placement; during placement of the concrete,
work independently to support loads imposed after harden- the structural steel deflects a small amount. After hardening
ing of the concrete slab. of the concrete, however, the composite member deflects
3.3.5 Topping slabs on precast concrete—A cast-in-place much less than a comparable noncomposite beam or primary
concrete topping on precast prestressed concrete units in- beam.
volves the use of precast elements as a combination form and Following are general guidelines for locating construction
load-carrying element for the floor system. The cast-in-place joints in composite slabs on metal deck.
1. For slabs that span in one direction between primary used in the concrete. Refer to Section 5.6.3 for a discussion
beams, locate construction joints that parallel secondary on chlorides in concrete and Section 4.5.2 for installation of
beams a sufficient distance from the structural steel member heating ducts.
to allow full flange width to be developed. For slabs that 3.4.2 Edge insulation—Edge insulation for slabs on
span between secondary beams, the construction joint should ground is desirable in most heated buildings.The insulation
normally be located near midspan of the slab between should be in accordance with ASHRAE 90.1. It should not
beams. absorb moisture and should be resistant to fungus, rot, and
2. Locate construction joints that parallel primary beams, insect damage; it should not be easily compressed.
and cross secondary beams, near the primary beam. It is im- Insulation should preferably be placed vertically on the in-
portant, however, to allow sufficient distance for develop- side of the foundation. It can also be placed in an L-shape ad-
ment of the primary beam flange width. Placing the jacent to the inside of the foundation and under the edge of
construction joint a distance of 4 ft (1.2 m) from the prima- the slab. In either case, the installation should extend a total
ry beam is usually sufficient for this purpose. This location distance of 24 in. (600 mm).
allows nearly the full dead load from concrete placement to 3.4.3 Radiant heating: piped liquids—Slabs can be heated
be applied to secondary beams on both sides of the primary by circulating heated liquids through embedded piping. Fer-
beam at one time. rous, copper, or plastic pipe is generally used, with about 2
If the primary beam is not cambered, it might be best to in. (50 mm) of concrete [not less than 1 in. (25 mm)] under
consider including the primary beam in the initial place- the pipe and with 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) of concrete cover
ment. Dead load deflection will be reduced because a com- over the pipe. The slab is usually monolithic, and the con-
posite section will be supporting the second concrete crete is placed around the piping, which is fixed in place.
placement at that construction joint. If the primary beam is Two-course slab construction has also been used, wherein
cambered, it should be included in the second placement at the pipe is laid, connected, and pressure tested for tightness
the construction joint. This will allow full dead load from on a hardened concrete base course. Too often, however, the
concrete to be present prior to hardening of concrete at the resulting cold joint is a source of later trouble.
primary beam. Insulating concrete made with vermiculite or perlite ag-
3. Construction joints that cross primary beams should be gregate, or cellular foam concrete can be used as a subfloor.
located near a support at one end of the primary beam. This The piping should not rest directly on this or any other base
will allow full dead load from concrete to be present prior to material. Supports for piping during concreting should be
hardening of concrete at the primary beam. inorganic and nonabsorbent; precast concrete bar supports
3.3.7.3 Noncomposite slabs on metal deck—The location (Section 3.2.4) are preferred to random lengths of pipe for
of construction joints in noncomposite slabs on metal deck use as supports and spacers. Wood, brick, or fragments of
should follow the same general guidelines discussed for concrete or concrete masonry should not be used.
slabs on removable forms in Section 3.3.6.1. Sloping of the slab, where possible, can simplify sloping
3.3.7.4 Topping slabs on precast concrete—Construction of the pipe. Reinforcement, such as welded wire reinforce-
joints in topping slabs on precast concrete should be located ment, should be used in the concrete over the piping. Where
over joints in the supporting precast concrete. pipe passes through a contraction joint or construction joint,
3.3.8 Cracks in slabs on metal deck—Cracks often devel- provision should be made for possible movement across the
op in slabs on metal deck. These cracks can result from dry- joint. The piping should also be protected from possible cor-
ing shrinkage and thermal contraction or variations in rosion induced by chemicals entering the joint. The piping
flexibility of the supporting structural steel and metal deck. should be pressure-tested before placing concrete and air
In a composite floor framing system, primary beams are the pressure (not water pressure) should be maintained in the
stiffest elements and generally deflect less than secondary pipe during concreting operations. After concreting, the slab
beams. The most flexible part of the floor framing assembly should not be heated until curing of the concrete is complete.
is the metal deck, which often is designed for strength and The building owner should be warned to warm the slabs
with little thought to its flexibility. gradually, using lukewarm liquid in the system, to prevent
If the metal deck is flexible, vibration as a result of power cracking of the cold concrete.
floating and power troweling operations can produce crack- 3.4.4 Radiant heating: electrical—In some electrical ra-
ing over the structural steel beams during concrete finishing diant heating systems, insulated electrical cables are laid
operations. As the concrete cures and shrinks, these cracks singly in place within the concrete or fastened together on
will open wide if not restrained by reinforcing steel, usually transverse straps to form a mat. One system employs cable
welded wire reinforcement, located near the top surface of fastened to galvanized wire sheets or hardware cloth. The
the slab. cables are embedded 1 in. to 3 in. (25 mm to 75 mm) below
the concrete surface, depending on their size and operating
3.4—Miscellaneous details temperature. In most systems the wires, cables, or mats are
3.4.1 Heating ducts—Heating ducts embedded in a con- laid over a bottom course of unhardened concrete, and the
crete slab can be of metal, rigid plastic, or wax-impregnated top course is placed immediately over this assemblage with
cardboard. Ducts with waterproof joints are recommended. little lapse of time, thus avoiding the creation of a horizon-
When metal ducts are used, calcium chloride should not be tal cold joint.18
Calcium chloride should not be used where copper or alu- 4.1.1 Proof-rolling—Proof-rolling is one of the most ef-
minum wiring is embedded in the concrete; damage to insu- fective ways to determine if the full soil support system is ad-
lation and subsequent contact between the exposed wiring equate to provide a uniformly stable and adequate bearing
and reinforcing steel will cause corrosion. If admixtures are support during and after construction. If applicable, this pro-
used, their chloride contents should comply with the limits cess should be implemented after completion of the rough
recommended by ACI 222R. grading and if required can be repeated prior to the place-
3.4.5 Snow-melting—Systems for melting snow and ice ment of the slab (Fig. 4.1.1).
can be used in loading platforms or floor areas subjected to Proof-rolling, observed and evaluated by the engineer or
snow and ice. The concrete should be air-entrained for the engineer’s representative, should be accomplished by a
freeze-thaw resistance. Concrete surfaces should have a loaded tandem axle dump truck, a loaded truck mixer, roller,
pitch of 1 /4 in. per ft (20 mm per m) to prevent puddles from or equivalent. In any case, multiple passes should be made
collecting. Piping systems should contain a suitable liquid using a preestablished grid pattern.
heat-transfer medium that does not freeze at the lowest If rutting or pumping is evident at any time during the
temperature anticipated. Calcium chloride should not be preparation of the subgrade, subbase, or baserolling, correc-
used (Section 5.6.3). Experience has shown these systems tive action should be taken.
to demand high energy consumption while displaying a “Rutting” normally occurs when the surface of the base
high potential for failure and thermal cracking. The most or subbase is wet and the underlying soils (subgrade) are
successful applications appear to have been at parking ga- firm. “Pumping” normally occurs when the surface of the
rage entrances. base or subbase is dry and the underlying soils are wet. Any
Some electrical systems are in use. These internally heated depression in the surface deeper than 1 /2 in. (13 mm) should
snow-melting systems have not been totally satisfactory. be repaired. Repair should include, but not be limited to,
3.4.6 Pipe and conduit—Water pipe and electrical conduit, raking smooth or compacting with suitable compaction
if embedded in the floor, should have at least 11/ 2 in. (38 mm) equipment.
of concrete cover, both on top and bottom. 4.1.2 Subgrade tolerance—The necessary grading of the
3.4.7 Slab embedments in harsh environments—Care subgrade, often referred to as “rough grading,” should con-
should be exercised in using heating, snow-melting, water, form to a tolerance of + 0 in./- 11 /2 in. (+ 0 mm/- 38 mm).
or electrical systems embedded in slabs exposed to harsh en- Compliance should be confirmed prior to removal of exca-
vironments, such as parking garages in northern climates, vation equipment. A rod and level survey should be per-
and marine structures. Embedded systems can accelerate deformed; measurements should be taken at 20-ft (6-m)
terioration by increasing seepage of saltwater through the intervals in each direction.
slab or by forming electrical corrosion circuits with reinforc-
4.1.3 Base tolerance—Base tolerances, often referred to as
ing steel. If concrete deterioration occurs, the continuity and
“fine grading,” should conform to a tolerance of + 0 in./- 1
effective functioning of embedded systems are invariably
in. (+ 0 mm/- 25 mm) for floor Classes 1 through 3 and + 0
disrupted.
in./- 3/ 4 in. (+ 0 mm/-19 mm) for floor Classes 4 through 9
when measured from bottom of slab elevation. Compliance
CHAPTER 4—SITE PREPARATION AND PLACING
ENVIRONMENT with these fine-grade values should be based on the measure-
ments of individual floor sections or placements. A rod and
4.1—Soil support system preparation level survey should be performed; measurements should be
The soil support system should be well drained and pro- taken at 20-ft (6-m) intervals in each direction.
vide adequate and uniform load-bearing support.
The ability of a slab to take loads depends on the integrity
of both the slab and full soil support system. As a result, it is
essential that the full soil support system be tested or thor-
oughly evaluated before the slab is placed upon it.19
The in-place density of the subgrade, subbase (if used),
and base (Fig. 3.1) should be at least the minimum required
by the specifications, and the base should be free of frost be-
fore concrete placing begins and able to support construction
traffic such as loaded truck mixers.
The base should normally be dry at the time of concreting.
However, if protection from the sun and wind cannot be pro-
vided as mentioned in Section 4.6, or if the concrete is placed
in hot, dry conditions, the base should be lightly dampened
with water in advance of concreting. There should be no free
water standing on the base, nor should there be any muddy
or soft spots, when the concrete is placed (Sections 4.1.1 and
4.1.4). Fig. 4.1.1—Proofrolling by loaded ready mix truck
Table 5.4.1— General guide for preferred grading of fine aggregates for floor concrete
Sieve designations Percent passing
Heavy-duty toppings, Class 7
Standard Alternative Normal weight aggregate Light-weight aggregate floors
3/
9.5 mm 8 in. 100 100 95
4.75 mm No. 4 85-100 85-100 95-100
2.36 mm No. 8 80-90 — 65-80
1.18 mm No. 16 50-75 40-80 45-65
600 µ m No. 30 30-50 30-65 25-45
300 µ m No. 50 10-20 10-35 5-15
150 µ m No. 100 2-5 5-20 0-5
4.1.4 Base material—Use of the proper materials is essen- carefully fitted around service openings. See Section 3.2.3
tial in order to achieve the tolerances suggested in Section for more information on vapor barriers/retarders for slabs on
4.1.3. The base material should be a compactible, easy-to- ground.
trim, granular fill that will remain stable and support con-
struction traffic. The tire of a loaded concrete truck mixer 4.2—Suspended slabs
should not penetrate the surface more than 1 / 2 in. (13 mm) Prior to concrete placement, bottom-of-slab elevation as
when driven across the base. The use of so-called cushion well as the elevation of reinforcing steel and any embed-
sand or clean sand with uniform particle size, such as con- ments should be confirmed. Forms that are too high can often
crete sand meeting ASTM C33, will not be adequate. This force reinforcement above the desired elevation for the slab
type of sand will be difficult, if not impossible, to compact surface. Screed rails or guides should be set at elevations that
and maintain until concrete placement is complete. will accommodate initial movement of the forms as they are
A clean, fine-graded material with at least 10 percent to 30 loaded. Screed rails may also be set at elevations that will
percent of particles passing a No. 100 (150 µm) sieve but not offset downward deflection of the structure following con-
contaminated with clay, silt, or organic material is recom- crete placement (Section 3.3).
mended. Manufactured sand from a rock-crushing operation
works well; the jagged slivers tend to interlock and stabilize 4.3—Bulkheads
the material when compacted. It is important that the materi- Bulkheads can be wood, metal, or precast concrete20 ; they
al have a uniform distribution of particle sizes ranging from should be placed at the proper elevation with stakes and nec-
No. 4 (4.75 mm) through the No. 200 (80 µm) sieve. See essary support required to keep the bulkheads straight, true,
ASTM C33, Table 1, for limitation of deleterious material and firm during the entire placing and finishing procedure.
finer than No. 200 (80 µm) sieve. Unwashed size No. 10 per Keyways are not recommended. However, if specified, small
ASTM D 448 works well. wood or metal keys should be attached to the inside of the
4.1.5 Vapor barrier/vapor retarder—If a vapor barrier or form.
vapor retarder is required due to local conditions, these prod- When it is necessary to set bulkheads on insulation mate-
ucts should be placed under a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) of rial, such as in cold storage or freezer rooms, extra attention
trimable, compactible, granular fill (not sand). A so-called should be given to keeping the forms secure during the plac-
“crusher run” material, usually graded from 11 /2 in. to 2 in. ing and finishing process. The insulation material should not
(38 mm to 50 mm) down to rock dust, is suitable. Following be punctured by stakes or pins. It may be necessary to place
compaction, the surface can be choked off with a fine-grade sand bags on top of form supports to ensure stability during
material (Section 4.1.4) to reduce friction between the base concrete placement.
material and the slab. Circular or square forms can be used to isolate the col-
If it is not practical to install a crusher-run material, the va- umns. Square forms should be rotated 45 deg (Fig. 3.2.5.1.a)
por barrier/retarder should be covered with at least 3 in. (75 or installed in a pin-wheel configuration as indicated in Fig.
mm) of fine-graded material, such as crusher fines or manu- 3.2.5.1.b. Walls, footings, and other elements of the structure
factured sand (Section 4.1.4). The granular fill, as well as the should be isolated from the floors. Asphalt-impregnated
fine-graded material, should have sufficient moisture con- sheet or other suitable preformed compressible joint material
tent to be compactible, but still be dry enough at the time of (ACI 504R) should be used. These joint materials should
concrete placement to act as a “blotter” (Section 4.1). never be used as freestanding forms at construction joints or
If a vapor barrier/retarder is to be placed over a rough column block outs, but should be installed after the original
granular fill, a thin layer of approximately 1 /2 in. (13 mm) of forms have been removed. After removal of forms around
fine-graded material should be rolled or compacted over the columns, preformed joint materials should be placed at the
fill prior to installation of the vapor barrier/retarder to reduce joint to the level of the floor surface, and the intervening area
the possibility of puncture (Section 4.1.4). Vapor barriers/re- concreted and finished. These preformed joint materials can
tarders should be overlapped 6 in. (150 mm) at the joints and be placed at the proper elevation to serve as screed guides
during the concreting operations. The preformed joint mate- same predictable conditions, the resulting floors are signifi-
rial should be of the type specified and should conform to cantly superior to those floors installed under varying or
one of the following specifications, depending upon the con- poor environmental conditions. Also, see Sections 9.5.1 and
ditions of its use: ASTM D 994, D 1751, or D 1752. 9.5.2 for cold and hot weather considerations.
4.4—Setting screed guides CHAPTER 5—MATERIALS

The screed guides can be 2-in.-thick (50-mm) lumber,
pieces of pipe, T bars, or rails, the tops of which are set to the 5.1—Introduction
finished concrete grade without changing the design eleva- Concrete ingredients meeting the same ASTM standards
tion of the reinforcing steel. Each type should have a tight- can affect the concrete very differently. These standards of-
radius edge. If the wet-screed approach is used to establish fer a wide window of acceptance.22 It is, therefore, recom-
concrete grade, the finished floor elevation for a slab on mended that the specific characteristics of ingredients be
ground may be laid out by driving removable grade stakes investigated prior to the preparation of mixture proportions
into the subgrade at predetermined intervals that are appro- for floors and slabs.
priate for the width of placement strips being installed. The
tops of these stakes should be set to the required concrete 5.2—Concrete
grade. Since minimizing shrinkage is of prime importance, spe-
4.4.1 Establishing grades for adequate drainage on the cial attention should be given to selecting the best possible
slab surface—When positive drainage is desired, the forms concrete mixture proportions. The shrinkage characteristics
and screed guides should be set to provide for a minimum of a concrete mixture can be determined by ASTM C 157.
slope of 1/ 4 in. per ft (20 mm/m) to prevent ponding. Positive Should it be necessary to determine if a proposed concrete
drainage should always be provided for exterior slabs and mixture has other than normal shrinkage, approximately .05
can be desirable for some interior slabs. percent, the proposed concrete mixture should be compared
to the specified or a reference concrete mixture using ASTM
4.5—Installation of auxiliary materials C 157. It is essential that the concrete used in these tests be
4.5.1 Edge insulation—Insulation (Section 3.4.2) should made with the same materials that will be used in the actual
preferably be placed vertically on the inside of the founda- construction.
tion. It can also be placed in an inverted L-shape adjacent to Approval of a concrete mixture for use in a floor should
the foundation and under the edge of the slab. not be solely based on its meeting the specified compressive
4.5.2 Heating ducts—Metal, rigid plastic, or wax-impreg- strength related to standard laboratory cured cylinders. The
nated cardboard ducts with watertight joints are recommend- portland cement content, and the content of other cementi-
ed; they can be set on a sand-leveling bed and back-filled tious products if used, should be sufficient to allow satisfac-
with sand to the underside of the slab. Precautions should be tory finishability. The setting characteristics of the concrete
taken to ensure that the position of the ducts is not disturbed should be relatively predictable. It should be verified that the
during concreting, and that they are adequately protected concrete will not experience excessive retardation, differen-
from corrosion or deterioration. tial set time, or surface crusting difficulties under the condi-
If the ducts to be used are not waterproof, they should be tions of temperature and humidity expected on the project.
completely encased in at least 2 in. (50 mm) of concrete to Some admixture-cement combinations can cause these diffi-
prevent the entrance of moisture. culties, particularly when multiple admixtures are used.
Since there is not a generally-recognized procedure for es-
4.6—Concrete placement conditions tablishing these performance characteristics, the committee
When slabs are placed on grade, there should be no more recommends placement of a sample floor slab as indicated in
than 30 F (17 C)—ideally, 20 F (11 C)—difference between Section 6.2.4. Floor concrete requirements differ from those
the temperature of the base and concrete at the time of place- of other concrete used in the structure. Project requirements
ment. should be reviewed thoroughly prior to mixture proportion-
Floor slab installations should be made in a controlled en- ing. If possible, the concrete contractor should have the op-
vironment where possible. Protection from the sun and wind portunity to review the proposed mixture proportions, and to
is crucial to the placing and finishing process. The roof of the prepare a sample placement to verify the workability, finish-
structure should be waterproof, and the walls should be com- ability, and setting time for the proposed usage.
pletely up. The site should provide easy access for concrete
trucks and other necessary materials and suppliers. The site 5.3—Portland cement
should be adequately lighted and ventilated. Temperatures 5.3.1—Concrete floors can incorporate a variety of port-
inside the building should be maintained above 50 F (10 C) land cements that meet ASTM Specifications C 150, C 595,
while placing, finishing, and curing the concrete. If heaters C 845, and C 1157.
are required, they should be vented to the outside.21 Sala- Of the four cements used in floors and slabs described in
manders or other open flame heaters that might cause car- ASTM C 150, Type I is the most common, and it is used
bonation of the concrete surface should not be used. When when the special properties of another type are not required.
installation procedures are carried out each day under the Type II is also for general use, especially when moderate sul-
fate resistance or moderate heat of hydration is desired. Type floors. The amount of material passing the No. 50 and 100
III is used when high early strength is desired. Type V is used sieves (300 and 150 µm) should be limited as indicated for
where high sulfate resistance is required. heavy-duty floor toppings for Class 7. However, when fine
If air-entrained concrete is required, air-entrainment aggregates contain minimum percentages of material pass-
should be obtained with an admixture, rather than by using ing the No. 50 and 100 sieves (300 and 150 µm), the likeli-
an air-entraining cement; this allows for better control of air hood of excessive bleeding is increased and limitations on
content. water content of the mixture become increasingly important.
5.3.2 Blended hydraulic cements—Blended hydraulic ce- Natural sand is preferred to manufactured sand; the grada-
ments are produced by intimately and uniformly blending tion indicated in Table 5.4.1 will minimize water demand.
two or more types of fine materials, such as portland cement, 5.4.2 Coarse aggregate grading—The maximum size of
ground granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash and other poz- coarse aggregate should not exceed three-fourths the mini-
zolans, hydrated lime, and preblended cement combinations mum clear spacing of the reinforcing bars in structural
of these materials. floors, nor one-third the thickness of nonreinforced slabs. In
There are six recognized classes of blended cements that general, natural aggregate larger than 11 / 2 in. (38 mm) or
conform with ASTM C 595: Type IS portland blast-furnace lightweight aggregate larger than 1 in. (25 mm), is not used.
slag cement; Type IP and P portland-pozzolan cements; Although the use of large aggregate is generally desired for
Type I (PM) pozzolan-modified portland cement; Type S lower water demand and shrinkage reduction, it is important
slag cement; and Type I (SM) slag-modified portland ce- to recognize the overall gradation of all the aggregate (Sec-
ment. However, Types P and S are normally not available for tion 5.1). When aggregate sizes larger than 1 in. (25 mm) are
use in general concrete construction. It is strongly recom- used, the coarse aggregate can be batched as two sizes to pre-
mended that the manufacturers of these cements be contact- vent segregation. Drying shrinkage can be minimized by the
ed for information regarding the specific product and the use of the largest practical size coarse aggregate. However,
impact its use will have on setting time, strength, water de- if flexural strength is of primary concern, the use of smaller
mand, and shrinkage of concrete proposed for the project un- size coarse aggregate can help achieve better uniformity in
der anticipated field conditions. Conformance to the strength.
requirements of ASTM C 150 does not impose sufficient re- 5.4.3 Combined aggregate grading—Gradations requiring
strictions on the cement to be used; if the 28-day design between 8 percent and 18 percent for large top size aggre-
strength is achieved, but shrinkage is excessive and retarda- gates (such as 11 /2 in.) or 8 percent and 22 percent for smaller
tion is significant, the cement may not be suitable for the top size aggregates (such as 1 in. or 3 /4 in.) retained on each
project. sieve below the top size and above the No. 100 sieve have
ASTM C 1157 is a performance specification that estab- proven to be satisfactory in reducing water demand while
lishes physical requirements for six types of blended ce- providing good workability. The ideal range for No. 30 and
ments mirroring the attributes of ASTM C 150 cement types. No. 50 sieves is 8 percent to15 percent retained on each. Of-
For information on pozzolans used as cement replace- ten, a third aggregate is required to achieve this gradation.23
ments or cementitious additions, see Section 5.6.5. Typically, 0 percent to 4 percent retained on the top size
5.3.3 Expansive cements—Types K, M, and S are expan- sieve and 1.5 percent to 5.0 percent on the No. 100 sieve will
sive cements meeting ASTM C 845 specifications that are be a well graded mix. This particle size distribution is appro-
used in shrinkage-compensating concrete floors. See ACI priate for round or cubically-shaped particles in the No. 4
223 for specific details on shrinkage-compensating concrete through the No. 16 sieve sizes. If the available aggregates for
floors. Shrinkage-compensating concrete can also be made these sizes are slivered, sharp, or elongated, 4 percent to 8
by adding an expansive admixture as discussed in Section percent retained on any single sieve is a reasonable compro-
5.6.4. mise. Mixture proportions should be adjusted whenever in-
dividual aggregate grading varies during the course of the
5.4—Aggregates work.
Aggregates should conform to ASTM C 33 or to ASTM C 5.4.4 Aggregate quality—Compliance with ASTM C 33
330. These specifications are satisfactory for most Class 1, 2, and C 330 generally ensures aggregate of adequate quality,
3, 4, 5, and 6 floors. Additional limitations on grading and except where one of the following conditions will be severe:
quality can be required for the surface courses of heavy-duty chemical attack, or abrasion in Class 7 and 8 floors. See ACI
Class 7 and 8 floors. 201.2R for a more complete discussion of precautions under
Although these ASTM standards set guidelines for source these conditions. Sections 5.4.6 and 5.4.8 discuss special
materials, they do not establish combined gradation require- abrasion-resistant and nonslip aggregates respectively. The
ments for the aggregate used in concrete floors A uniform guidelines of ACI 201.R and ASTM C 33 and its appendix
gradation is necessary to produce a desirable matrix while should be followed where there is concern about the possi-
reducing water demand of the concrete mixture and reducing bility of alkali-aggregate reaction.
the amount of cement paste required to coat the aggregate.23 5.4.5 Special-purpose aggregates—Decorative and non-
5.4.1 Fine aggregate grading—Although ASTM C 33 and decorative mineral aggregate and metallic hardeners are
C 330 are acceptable specifications, Table 5.4.1 contains used to improve the properties of the slab surface. These ma-
preferred grading specifications for the toppings for Class 7 terials applied as dry shakes on top of the concrete are floated
and troweled into the floor surface to improve the abrasion clean, nonreactive, and of good quality. The most common
resistance, impact resistance, achieve nonslip surfaces, or to are quartz, marble, granite, and some ceramics. Rocks,
obtain a decorative finish. In this document, the term “dry- shells, brass turnings or other brass pieces, and ball bearings
shake” is applied to premixed materials, which may be min- have also been used. Shapes resembling spheres and cubes
eral aggregate, metallic, or colored. The term “embedded” is are preferable to flat or highly irregularly-shaped pieces,
a more generic term used where the material can be fur- which can become dislodged easily. It is usually preferable
nished in either premixed or bulk form. Trap rock and emery to have aggregate of only one sieve size.
are two examples of materials that can be furnished in bulk
form. 5.5—Water
5.4.6 Wear-resistant aggregates—Hard, abrasion-resis- Mixing water should be potable. Nonpotable water can be
tant aggregates, such as quartz, emery, and traprock, as well used if 7- and 28-day strengths of 2-in. (50-mm) mortar
as malleable metallic hardeners, are frequently used as sur- cubes made with it are equal to at least 90 percent of the
face treatments.3 They are applied as dry shakes and finished strengths of cubes made from similar mixtures using dis-
into the surface of the floor to improve its abrasion and wear tilled water and tested in accordance with ASTM C 109. ACI
resistance. 301 discusses mixing water, as do Steinour26 and others.27
Nonmetallic surface hardeners should be used on floors Also see AASHTO T 26.
subjected to heavy frequent forklift or hard-wheeled traffic
(Table 2.1). Metallic hardeners in sufficient quantity should 5.6—Admixtures
be considered for use when heavy steel wheel or intense Admixtures should be used when they will effect a specif-
point impact loading is anticipated. Chloride-bearing admix- ic desired change in the properties of the freshly mixed or
tures should not be used in conjunction with a metallic floor hardened concrete. They should be used in accordance with
hardener. the instruction and principles given in ACI 212.1R and
Mineral aggregate and metallic surface hardeners are fac- 212.2R and the guidelines for chloride limits given in Sec-
tory premixed with specially selected portland cement and tion 5.6.3. If more than one type of admixture is used in the
plasticizers. Some mineral aggregates can be supplied in same concrete, each should be batched separately. A second
bulk and mixed with cement onsite. These aggregates, in admixture can significantly affect the required dosage of
properly graded sizes, can also be used in topping mixes. both admixtures; therefore, preliminary tests are recom-
5.4.7 Surface treatment for electrically conductive mended to assure compatibility. Sample slabs made under
floors—Concrete floors can be made electrically conductive the anticipated job conditions of temperature and humidity
by using specially prepared metallic hardeners (dry shakes). can also be used to help evaluate admixture performance,
Electrically conductive floors are also required to be spark- and to allow necessary adjustments affecting workability,
resistant under abrasion or impact. For protection against finishability, and setting time prior to the start of the slab in-
abrasion sparks, care should be taken in the choice of aggre- stallation. Some admixtures are not compatible with shrink-
gates. Since construction techniques for these floors are rath- age-compensating concrete because they adversely affect
er specialized, specific recommendations of the product expansion, bond to steel, and shrinkage (ACI 223).
manufacturer and engineer should be followed.24 5.6.1 Air-entraining admixtures—Concrete for use in ar-
The electrical resistance of such floors can be determined eas that will be exposed to freezing temperatures while moist
by reference to the appropriate specification of the Naval Fa- should contain entrained air (Section 6.2.7). Entrained air is
cilities Engineering Command.25 A typical test for spark re- not recommended for concrete to be given a smooth, dense,
sistance under abrasion or impact is given in the above hard troweled finish since blistering and delamination may
specification, as well as the National Fire Protection Associ- occur. Smaller percentages of entrained air may reduce
ation, NFPA 99 specification. A factory premixed metallic bleeding and segregation, and may be used for floors and
surface hardener containing a conductive binder is common- slabs using other finishes when they improve finishability of
ly used for these floors. This hardener is floated and troweled concretes not exposed to freezing. Air-entraining admix-
into the surface of freshly placed concrete (Section 8.6). tures, when used in the concrete as recommended in Chapter
Special conductive curing compounds should be used to 6, should meet the requirements of ASTM C 260. Consistent
cure these floors. Conductive floors should not be used in ar- control of air entrainment is necessary.
eas expected to be continuously moist. In most cases, concrete for trowel-finished interior con-
5.4.8 Slip-resistant aggregates—Slip-resistant aggregates crete floors made with normal weight aggregates should not
should be hard and nonpolishing. Fine aggregates are usually include an air-entraining admixture; the maximum air con-
emery or a manufactured abrasive. The slip resistance of tent for these concretes should normally be 3 percent. Higher
some aggregates can be improved by replacing the fines with air contents make the surface difficult to finish, and can lead
those of a more slip-resistant aggregate. To improve slip re- to surface blistering and peeling during finishing.
sistance, extremely soft aggregates like vermiculite can be 5.6.2 Chemical admixtures—Chemical admixtures should
troweled into the surface of freshly placed concrete, and then meet the requirements of ASTM C 494 for whichever of the
removed later by scrubbing after the concrete has hardened. following types are to be used:
5.4.9 Decorative aggregates—Decorative aggregates can •Type A water-reducing
be of many minerals and colors. They should be sound, •Type B retarding
•Type C accelerating tial measurements. Data from an independent laboratory are

•Type D water-reducing and retarding preferable.
•Type E water-reducing and accelerating If accelerated set or high early strength is desired, either a
•Type F high-range water-reducing (superplasticizer) noncorrosive nonchloride accelerator or high-early strength
•Type G high-range water-reducing (superplasticizer) (Type III) cement can be used; alternatively, 100 to 150 lb
and retarding. per cu yd (59 to 89 kg/m3 ) of additional Type I or Type II ce-
ment can be used in the mixture. A significant decrease in
The superplasticizers should also meet the requirements of
setting time may not be realized with the increased cement
ASTM C 1017. Water-reducing and combination admixtures
content. The increased cement and water demand can in-
should provide the additional advantage of increased com-
crease shrinkage and curling.
pressive and flexural strength at ages less than 6 months. The
retarding admixtures can be useful in delaying initial set and Heated concrete may be required for cold weather con-
extending time available for final finishing in hot weather; struction (ACI 306R). The use of additional Type I or Type
however, excessive retardation can cause surface crusting or II cement is recommended in lieu of using chloride-based ac-
plastic shrinkage cracking. Accelerating admixtures increase celerators.
the rate of strength gain at early ages and can be useful in When used, calcium chloride should be added as a water so-
cold weather. lution in amounts of not more than 1 percent to 2 percent by
weight of cement. It will accelerate the rate of strength devel-
High-range water-reducing admixtures (superplasticizers)
opment and decrease setting time. Calcium chloride, in dosag-
can be used to greatly reduce the water content in concrete
es as high as 1 percent to 2 percent, does not significantly
while maintaining a given consistency. The resultant shrink-
lower the temperature at which the concrete will freeze. It ac-
age reduction, if any, may not parallel the water reduction.
celerates the rate of strength development and thereby de-
They also can be used to increase slump significantly with-
creases the length of time during which protection against
out the need to increase the water content of the original mix-
freezing must be provided. Setting time is decreased, thereby
tures. High slumps, however, can cause consolidation and
reducing finishing time.
finishing problems; if high slumps are used, consolidation
Calcium chloride tends to darken the color of concrete and
and finishing methods should be modified to avoid segrega-
can cause variations in color of the hardened concrete. The
tion of the concrete and finishing before the concrete is suf-
difference in color is most noticeable when slabs with calci-
ficiently stiff.
um chloride are adjacent to those without (Fig. 11.9). If con-
Admixtures conforming to ASTM C494 will not necessar-
crete containing calcium chloride is not adequately cured,
ily reduce shrinkage nor improve the finishing characteris-
the surface can show light and dark spots. Calcium chloride
tics of the concrete.28 Shrinkage tests as indicated in Section
should not be dispensed dry from bags. Dry-flake material
5.2 can be performed.
frequently absorbs moisture and becomes lumpy. Pellet-type
The Committee recommends that a representative test slab calcium chloride must be completely dissolved prior to addi-
be cast at the jobsite so that the workability, finishability, and tion to concrete or pop-outs will result from any undissolved
setting time of the proposed mixture can be evaluated by the pellets.
project team (ACI 212.3R and ACI 212.4R). 5.6.4 Expansive cementitious admixtures—Specifically
5.6.3 Chlorides—Studies have shown that chlorides are formulated dry-powder admixtures can be blended with
significant contributors to corrosion of steel in concrete. The portland cement at the batch plant to produce shrinkage-
problem is particularly severe when dissimilar metals are compensating concrete. Concrete incorporating the same
embedded in concrete, or when reinforced concrete is placed materials that will be used for the anticipated project should
over galvanized decking. Corrosion products can cause ex- be tested for expansion by ASTM C 878 (see ACI 223 for
pansion, cracking, and spalling. full details). It is also recommended that the compatibility of
Limits on chloride in fresh concrete mixtures are based on the expansive cementitious admixture and portland cement
the recommendations of ACI 222R. The following concrete be checked by the use of ASTM C 806.
should not include any intentionally added calcium chloride: 5.6.5 Pozzolans—A number of natural materials, such as
Prestressed concrete; floors over prestressed concrete or diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts, clays, shales, volcanic
galvanized deck; floors containing two kinds of embedded tuffs, and pumicites are used as pozzolans. Pozzolans also
metals; conventionally reinforced concrete in a moist envi- include fly ash and silica fume. 29 Information on the use of
ronment and exposed to deicing salts or saltwater mist; park- slag can be found in ACI 226.1R and on fly ash in ACI
ing garage floors in northern climates; structures near bodies 226.3R. For information on silica fume, see Reference 29.
of saltwater; floors or slabs containing snow-melting electri- When these materials are used in concrete, except silica
cal radiant heating systems; and floors finished with metallic fume, the time of set is frequently extended and the color of
dry shakes. concrete can be different from that produced when portland
Noncorrosive, nonchloride accelerators are available for cement is the only cementitious component.
use in cold weather. The admixture manufacturer should be ASTM C 618 fly ash, Class F or Class C, is frequently in-
able to provide long-term data (of at least a year’s duration) corporated in concrete. Fly ash can affect the setting time,
demonstrating noncorrosivity using an acceptable accelerat- and it is often helpful in hot weather by delaying set time, or
ed corrosion test method such as one using electrical poten- as an aid in pumping concrete (Refer to ACI 226.3R). In
floors and slabs, fly ash is often substituted for portland ce- New floors should be of sufficiently good quality that such
ment in quantities up to about 20 percent fly ash by mass of treatments are not required.
cementitious materials. If for any reason these surface treatments are to be applied
In cool weather, fly ash will usually delay the setting and to new concrete floors, the floor should be moist cured. Liq-
finishing of the concrete unless measures—increasing the uid membrane-forming curing compounds should not be
concrete temperature or using an accelerator—are taken to used because they prevent penetration of the liquid treat-
compensate for the low temperatures. ment. These surface treatments should be applied only to
Silica fume is used as a portland cement replacement or concrete floors that are at least 28 days old, and that have
cementitious addition in an amount typically between 5 per- been thoroughly moist cured and allowed to air dry.
cent and 10 percent by mass of the total cementitious mate-
rial. The use of silica fume can increase both the 5.8—Reinforcement
impermeability and the strength of the concrete. Special at- 5.8.1 Reinforcing steel, mats, or welded wire reinforce-
tention should be given to avoiding plastic shrinkage crack- ment—Deformed bars, bar mats, or welded wire reinforce-
ing during placing and finishing, by using evaporation- ment usually are required in suspended structural floors as
retardant chemicals sprayed onto the plastic concrete surface part of the structural design. They can also be called for in
or by using fog sprays in the air above the concrete. Early the specifications for slabs on ground as discussed in Section
and thorough curing of the slab is also very important to min- 3.2.4. Deformed bars should conform to the requirements of
imize cracking. ASTM A 615, A 616, or A 617. Bar mats conforming to
5.6.6 Coloring admixtures—Pigments for colored floors ASTM A 184 can also be used. Welded wire reinforcing
should be either natural or synthetic mineral oxides or colloi- should conform to ASTM A 185 or A 497.
dal carbon. Synthetic mineral oxides can offer more intensity 5.8.2 Post-tensioning—Post-tensioning can be used in
in color, but they are normally more expensive. Pigments can slabs on ground and suspended slabs to address specific de-
be purchased alone or interground with a water-reducing ad- sign requirements. Prestressing steel for use in floors and
mixture for mixing into the batched concrete to produce inte- slabs should conform to the requirements of ASTM A 416.
grally-colored concrete. Colored aggregate-type surface The post-tensioning tendons can be bonded or unbonded.
hardeners containing pigments can also be used. These pig- Unbonded tendons should meet or exceed specifications
mented mineral aggregates or metallic hardeners contain min- published by the Post-Tensioning Institute.16
eral oxide pigment, portland cement, a well-graded mineral 5.8.3 Synthetic fibers—Synthetic fibers for use in concrete
aggregate or metallic hardener, and plasticizers. Pigments for floors increase the cohesiveness of concrete and should meet
integrally-colored concrete should conform to ASTM C 979 the requirements outlined in ASTM C 1116. The most wide-
and have uniform color. It should be recognized that carbon- ly used synthetic fibers are polypropylene and nylon, al-
black pigments especially manufactured for this purpose will though other types are available. Polypropylene fibers are
appear lighter in color at an early age. The prepared mixtures available in both fibrillated and monofilament form; nylon
should not contain pigments that are not mineral oxides. Job- fibers are only available in monofilament form.
proportioning or job-mixing of material for monolithic col- Synthetic fibers are added to the concrete mixer in quanti-
ored surfaces is not recommended. The use of these materials ties generally less than 0.2 percent by volume of the con-
is described in Section 8.6. Coloring admixtures should be crete. They are generally used in floors and slabs in
lime-proof and contain no calcium chloride. Curing com- quantities of from 0.75 to 1.5 lb per cu yd (0.44 to 0.89
pounds for these slabs should be the same as those used on the kg/m3 ). Synthetic fibers are used in floors to minimize plas-
approved sample panels (Chapter 8). tic shrinkage cracking of concrete. These fibers should not
be used to replace temperature and shrinkage reinforcement
5.7—Liquid surface treatments because they have little impact on the behavior of concrete
Some floor slabs, improperly constructed, can have rela- after it hardens.
tively pervious and soft surfaces that wear or dust rapidly. 5.8.4 Steel fibers—Steel fibers for use in floors and slabs
Though the life of such surfaces can be short, it can be ex- should conform to the requirements of ASTM A 820. Steel fi-
tended by using surface treatments containing certain chem- bers made from wire, slit sheet, milled steel, and melt extract
icals, including sodium silicate and the fluosilicates of are available and are normally deformed or hooked to improve
magnesium and zinc. When these compounds penetrate the bond to the hardened matrix. Steel fibers are added to the con-
floor surface, they react chemically with calcium hydroxide crete mixer in quantities ranging from 0.0625 percent to 1 per-
(a product of cement hydration) to form a hard, glassy sub- cent by volume of the concrete (8 to 132 lb per cu yd; 4.7 to
stance within the pores of the concrete, thereby reducing 78 kg/m3). Quantities of from 0.25 percent to 0.50 percent by
dusting of the floor and creating a denser, harder surface. volume of the concrete (34 to 68 lb per cu yd; 20 to 40 kg/m3)
Liquid surface treatments should be considered only as are typical.
emergency measures for treatment of deficiencies.30 They Steel fibers are used in floors to minimize visible cracking,
are not intended to provide additional wear resistance in increase shear strength, increase the flexural fatigue endur-
new, well-designed, well-constructed and cured floors, nor ance and impact resistance, and increase flexural toughness.
to permit the use of lower quality concrete. The most effec- The increases in mechanical properties achieved depend pri-
tive use of liquid surface treatments is on existing floors. marily on the type and amount of fiber used, and can result
Table 6.2.1— Recommended strength and maximum slump at point of placement for each class of
concrete floor
28-day compressive strength Maximum slump
Floor class* psi MPa in. mm
1, 2, and 3 3000 21 5 125
4 and 5 4000 28 5 125
6 4500 31 5 125
7 base 3500 24 5 125
7 bonded topping† 5000-8000 35-55 3 75
8 unbonded topping†§ 4000-8000 28-55 3 75
9 superflat† 4000 or higher 278 or higher 5 125
*Refer to Table 2.1 for floor class definitions.
†The strength required will depend on the severity of usage.
§Maximum aggregate size not greater than one-quarter the thickness of unbonded topping.
Table 6.2.4— Minimum cementitious materials requirements for floors*

Nominal maximum size aggregate Cementitious material content
in. mm lb/yd3 kg/m 3
1 1/ 2 38 470 279
1 25 520 308
3/ 19 540 320
4
1/
2 13 590 350
3/
8 10 610 362
*See Section 5.6.5 for minimum portland cement requirements.
in reduced floor thickness and increased contraction joint Care should be taken that the burlap used does not stain the
spacing.31 concrete or come from sacks that once contained sugar; sug-
5.8.5 Fiber characteristics—Crack reduction, material ar retards the hardening of concrete and its presence could
properties, and mixture proportions are thoroughly discussed result in a soft surface. The requirements for burlap are de-
by Balaguru.32 Additional information is available in ACI scribed in AASHTO M182. White, polyethylene-coated bur-
544.1R, 544.2R, 544.3R, and 544.4R. lap is available; the polyethylene is helpful in keeping the
5.8.6 Dowels and load transfer devices—Dowels required burlap moist longer, but it makes rewetting more difficult.
for load transfer can be round or square. Square dowels are Refer to ASTM C171.
available with expansion material on the vertical sides to al- 5.9.2 Plastic film, waterproof paper, or combination
low for some horizontal movement. Round dowels for slab- polyethylene/burlap sheets—Plastic film, waterproof paper
or polyethylene/burlap sheets for curing should allow a
on-ground installation should meet ASTM A36 or ASTM
moisture loss of no more than 0.055 g/cm 3 in 72 hrs when
A615, Grade 40 minimum. Square dowels should meet
tested according to ASTM C 156. Polyethylene plastic film
ASTM A36. The diameter or cross sectional area, length,
with the same thickness and permeance used for vapor re-
and specific location of dowels as well as the method of sup-
tarders below slabs on ground (Section 3.2.3) should be sat-
port should be specified by the architect/engineer. See Sec- isfactory. Waterproof paper should meet the requirements
tion 3.2.7 for more information on load transfer mechanisms of ASTM C 171.
for slabs on ground.
5.9.3 Spray-applied membranes—Liquid membrane-
forming curing compounds should meet the provisions of
5.9—Curing materials ASTM C 309, which describes the requirements for both
ACI 308 lists many coverings and membrane-forming liq-
clear and pigmented types. White or gray compounds are
uids that are acceptable for curing concrete floors. Since cur- used for their good light-reflectance. Colored curing com-
ing is so vital to good flatwork, the characteristics of curing pounds are available for colored concrete. Dissipating resin-
materials suitable for flatwork are set forth here in great de- based materials can be used on slabs receiving applied fin-
tail. Also see Chapter 9 for the purpose, methods, and length ishes or subsequent liquid surface treatments. ASTM C 309
of curing. allows moisture loss of 0.55 kg/m2 in 72 hours at a curing
5.9.1 Wet burlap—If kept continually moist, burlap is an compound coverage of 200 sq ft per gal (4.91 m2 /L) when
effective material for curing concrete surfaces. Old burlap applied in compliance with ASTM C 156. Special conduc-
from which the sizing has disappeared (or has been re- tive curing compounds should be used to cure electrically
moved) is easier to wet than new burlap. conductive and spark-resistant floors. It is always important
to determine if a dissipating or nondissipating product pendent of job site conditions. Such joint materials should be
should be used. The use of a nondissipating compound can 100 percent solids and have a minimum Shore A hardness of
be incompatible with the installation or application of future 80 when measured in accordance with ASTM D 2240. See
floor coverings. Section 9.10 for more details on joint filling and sealing.
For floors designed for high wear resistance, optimum top Preformed elastomeric sealants are useful for some appli-
surface strength development, and minimal cracking, it is cations. They should not be used where subjected to the traf-
desirable to use curing compounds that offer high water re- fic of small, hard wheels. They can be quickly installed, they
tention. When a mineral aggregate or metallic surface hard- require no curing, and if properly chosen, they can maintain
ener is used, the curing procedure and specific product used a tight seal in joints that are subject to opening and closing.
for curing should be approved by the manufacturer of the See ACI 504R for more information on preformed elasto-
hardener. A high-solids-type curing compound can limit meric sealants.
maximum moisture loss to 0.030 g/cm2 at a coverage of 300 Preformed asphalt impregnated or plain fiber materials or
sq ft per gal (7.36 m2/L)—less than 50 percent of that al- compressible foam are used in expansion and isolation joints,
lowed by ASTM C 309 (ACI 308). depending on the anticipated movement. These materials and
Compounds should also be tested in accordance with their appropriate use are described in detail in ACI 504R.
ASTM C1151; results less than or equal to 3.7 x 10-6 cm2/s for
the difference between the top and bottom Ka (absorptivity) 5.13—Volatile organic compounds (VOC)
values represent an acceptably cured sample. More stringent Many users and some states require materials to meet
criteria can be appropriate for some projects. Manufacturer’s VOC limits. Liquid materials are of greatest concern since
written instructions should be followed for both the number of they are often solvent-based. Certification of compliance
coats and the coverage rate needed to meet the appropriate with the applicable VOC limits should be required before the
ASTM or project requirements. Periodic field testing to eval- products are used.
uate actual performance is recommended. One practical test Many curing compounds that comply with limits on VOC
for concrete surfaces to receive a moisture-sensitive covering are water-based. They should not be permitted to freeze. In
is to apply a 5x5-ft (1.5x1.5-m) black polyethylene sheet, many cases, they cannot be reconstituted after freezing.
sealed to the slab with tape at the edges. No significant amount
of moisture should be present when the sheet is removed after CHAPTER 6—CONCRETE PROPERTIES AND
24 hours. Tests should be conducted at intervals of approxi- CONSISTENCY
mately 15,000 sq ft (1400 m2).
It is always important to determine if a dissipating or non- 6.1—Concrete properties
dissipating product should be used. When a mineral aggre- A concrete mixture should incorporate the most economi-
gate or metallic surface hardener is used, it is important that cal combination of available materials that will consistently
the curing method be compatible with recommendations of produce concrete with the required workability, abrasion re-
the hardener manufacturer. sistance, durability, strength, and shrinkage characteristics
(ACI 211.1 and 211.2).
5.10—Evaporation reducers In most flatwork, the placeability of the concrete and fin-
Evaporation reducing chemicals can be sprayed on the ishability of the surface are at least as important as the abra-
plastic concrete one or more times during the finishing oper- sion resistance, durability, and strength. The former qualities
ation to minimize plastic shrinkage cracking when the evap- will have a significant effect on the quality of the top 1 /16 or
1 / in. (1.5 or 3 mm) of the concrete surface. If the slab is
oration rate is high. These products should be used in strict 8
accordance with the manufacturer’s directions; they should floated while there is still free water on the surface, the fin-
never be used during the final troweling operations because ished surface will be of poorer quality than if it were proper-
they discolor the concrete surface. ly floated (Section 8.3.3). Unfortunately, placeability and
finishability are not easily measured. There is a tendency for
5.11—Gloss-imparting waxes specifiers to emphasize more easily determined properties
Concrete waxes to impart gloss to concrete surfaces are such as slump and compressive strength.
available from various manufacturers. Some also are curing Other parameters being equal, a given concrete’s strength
compounds; for such use, they should meet or exceed the and shrinkage properties will improve as its water content is
water-retention requirements of ASTM C 309. reduced. Therefore, the use of the minimum amount of water
necessary to produce the required slump and workability is
5.12—Joint materials highly important. However, the particular cementitious ma-
Certain two-component semirigid epoxy resins, polysul- terials, aggregates, and admixtures used can significantly af-
fides, and urethanes can be used to fill joints where the joint fect the strength, setting characteristics, workability, and
edges need support to withstand the action of small, hard- shrinkage of the concrete at a given water-cementitious ma-
wheeled traffic. These are the only materials known to the terial ratio.33,34 Furthermore, the amount of water required
Committee that can provide sufficient shoulder support to the to produce a given slump depends on the maximum size of
edges of the concrete and prevent joint breakdown. Two-com- coarse aggregate, aggregate gradation, particle shape and
ponent epoxy resins are desirable because their curing is inde- surface texture of both fine and coarse aggregates, air con-
tent, and the admixtures used, as well as the temperature and There should be sufficient paste to allow the finisher to com-
humidity at the time of placement. Using larger maximum- pletely “close” the surface and to achieve the required sur-
size aggregate or improving the over-all aggregate gradation face tolerances, hardness, and durability.35
reduces the mixing-water requirement. 6.2.3 Required durability—The procedures for producing
Air-entraining admixtures produce a system of small air durable concrete outlined in ACI 201.2R apply to floors and
bubbles that reduce the mixing water requirement. Concretes slabs. Concrete floors exposed to freezing and thawing while
containing entrained air are generally proportioned to have moist should have a water-cementitious material ratio not
the same amount of coarse aggregate as similar non-air-en- greater than the values given in the following paragraph.
trained concretes. They are made with less mixing water and These w/cm ratio requirements can be lower than those re-
less fine aggregate; however, in richer mixes this may not quired for strength alone. Additionally, these concretes
offset the strength reduction that can result from intentional should have adequate entrained air.
entrainment of air. It is preferable not to use air-entraining Requirements based only on durability may yield concrete
admixtures in floors that are to have a dense, smooth, hard- compressive strengths much higher than normally required
trowelled surface. for structural concerns. Concrete floors and slabs subjected
The optimum quality and content of fine aggregate in con- to moderate and severe exposures to freezing and thawing, as
crete for floors should be related to the slump of the concrete defined in ACI 201.2R, should have a w/cm ratio no greater
and the abrasive exposure to which the floor will be subject- than 0.50. Concrete subjected to deicing chemicals should
ed. Concretes should be sufficiently plastic and cohesive to have a w/cm ratio no greater than 0.45. Reinforced concrete
avoid segregation and bleeding.34 Less fine aggregate exposed to brackish water, seawater, deicing chemicals, or
should be used in concrete with low slump—less than 1 in. other aggressive materials should have a w/cm ratio no
(25 mm)—since this concrete does not normally bleed or greater than 0.40. The Committee recognizes that there is no
segregate. Decreased fine aggregate contents can improve direct correlation between compressive strengths and w/cm
resistance to abrasion if the concrete exhibits little bleeding ratios and suggests that the two not be combined in a speci-
and segregation. fication. When durability is a concern, w/cm ratios should be
Laboratory trial batches should be used to establish opti- specified. For informational purposes, various w/cm ratios
mum proportions of ingredients. If concrete mixtures have are likely to produce the following relative compressive
been used successfully under similar conditions in other strengths or higher: .50 [4000 psi (28 MPa)]; 0.45 [4500 psi
jobs, the laboratory trial batches can be omitted. Records of (31 MPa)]; 0.40 [5000 psi (34 MPa)].
gradations of fine and coarse aggregates from concrete mix- Entrained air is necessary in concrete subjected to freezing
tures should be retained. and thawing when moist, or subjected to deicing chemicals.
Trial batch proportions should generally be in accordance Recommended air contents for hardened concrete for vari-
with ACI 211.1 or 211.2. However, adjustments of fine ag- ous exposure conditions, aggregate types, and maximum
gregate content may be necessary to obtain the best work- size aggregates are given in ACI 201.2R. Properly air-en-
ability. 35 trained concrete should achieve a compressive strength of
4000 psi (28 MPa) prior to being subjected to freezing and
6.2—Recommended concrete mixture thawing in a moist condition. Prior to the application of any
6.2.1 Required compressive strength and slump—Two ap- deicing chemicals, floors should receive some drying and
proaches for selecting mixture proportions are discussed in should reach a strength level of 4000 psi (28 MPa).
Section 6.2.4. Regardless of the approach, the design Air contents within the limits recommended will cause
strengths shown in Table 6.2.1 should be used for the various significant strength reductions in rich concretes, but the ef-
classes of concrete floors. fect will be less important in lean concretes. Air contents in
The architect/engineer should be consulted as to the excess of the recommended quantities will reduce strength in
strength to be achieved by concrete prior to subjecting the rich mixtures approximately 3 percent to 5 percent per 1 per-
slab to early construction loads. To obtain this strength cent increase in air content, and will reduce abrasion resis-
quickly, it may be necessary to use more cementitious mate- tance correspondingly.
rials than the minimum amount shown in Table 6.2.4, or to 6.2.4 Concrete mixture—In addition to meeting structural
proportion the concrete for a 28-day strength higher than that requirements, concrete for floors should provide adequate
shown in Table 6.2.1. Compressive strengths should be used workability necessary to obtain the required finish and floor
for jobsite control. surface profile. Floors that are required to be impermeable,
The slump indicated for each floor class shown in Table resistant to freezing and thawing and deicing chemicals, or
6.2.1 is the recommended maximum at the point of place- to meet the requirements of ACI 211.2, 223, or 318, should
ment to prevent segregation, and yet provide adequate work- conform to more stringent criteria. In general, w/cm ratios in
ability of the concrete. A one-time jobsite slump adjustment the range of 0.47 to 0.53 are applicable for most interior
should be permitted as outlined in the “Tempering and con- floors of Class 4 and higher.
trol of mixing water” provisions of ACI 301, or the “Mixing Total water content can have a major impact on the bleed-
and delivery” provisions of ASTM C 94 (Section 7.3.2). ing characteristics of the concrete, as well as the potential for
6.2.2 Required finishability—Concrete for floors should shrinkage, so use of the lowest practical quantity of water in
have other desirable characteristics in addition to strength. the concrete mixture is recommended.
The Committee recommends that the concrete mixture be 25 mm); however, some lightweight aggregates provide
accepted on the basis of (1) a minimum cementitious mate- maximum strength with relatively fine gradings.
rial content as indicated in Table 6.2.4, or (2) a demonstra- 6.2.7 Air content—Moderate amounts of entrained air for
tion to the architect/engineer that a proposed concrete purposes other than durability as described in Section 6.2.3
mixture will be capable of producing a floor of acceptable can be used to improve workability, particularly with lean
finish and appearance while meeting the strength require- and harsh concrete mixtures, or with poorly graded aggre-
ments of Table 6.2.1 and the project. gates. The Committee recommends that concretes made with
If a history of finishing properties is not available for a structural lightweight aggregates contain some entrained air.
concrete mixture, a trial slab of concrete should be placed Specific recommendations for air content should be secured
under job conditions to evaluate the workability, finishabili- from the concrete supplier, the manufacturer of the light-
ty, setting time, slump loss, hardness, and appearance of the weight aggregate, or both, but the air content should not be
concrete proposed for use. Materials, equipment, and per- lower than 4 percent.
sonnel proposed for the project should be used. A test panel It is recommended that an air entraining agent not be spec-
measuring at least 8x8 ft (2.5x2.5 m) and of the specified ified or used for concrete to be given a smooth, dense, hard-
thickness can provide confirmation of some characteristics, troweled finish since blistering or delamination may occur.
but a test placement of a non-critical floor section is more These troublesome finishing problems can develop any time
likely to provide useful information about the finishability the total air content is in excess of 3 percent. This is particu-
and setting time of concrete proposed for the work. It is rec- larly true when monolithic surface treatments are applied.
ommended that the contractor who will actually finish the Some variation in the air content of air-entrained concrete
concrete be supplied with the information available on the is common, and this can make it difficult to time the finish-
proposed concrete mixture. ing operations. Exposure conditions that dictate the need for
6.2.5 Consistency and placeability—The maximum slump air-entrainment should be discussed with the architect/engi-
recommended for each class of floor is given in Table 6.2.1. neer before proceeding.
These slumps are intended to produce concrete of sufficient
workability to be properly consolidated in the work without CHAPTER 7—BATCHING, MIXING, AND
TRANSPORTING
excessive bleeding or segregation during placing and finish- Detailed provisions relating to batching, mixing, and
ing. Excessive bleeding and segregation can contribute transporting concrete are available in ASTM C 94, ASTM C
greatly to poor performance in concrete floors. If the finished 1116, and ASTM C 685.
floor is to be uniform in appearance and grade, it is important
that successive batches placed in the floor have very nearly 7.1—Batching
the same slump and setting characteristics. See Sections 6.1, Whether the concrete is mixed onsite or in a ready-mixed
6.2.1 and 7.3.2 regarding jobsite slump adjustment. Work- concrete operation, the materials should be batched within
ability of a concrete mixture is not directly proportional to the following limits:
the slump. Properly proportioned concrete with slumps less Cement +1 percent
than shown in Table 6.2.1 can respond very well to vibration Added water +1 percent
and other consolidation procedures. Increased slump alone Fine and coarse aggregate +2 percent
does not assure satisfactory workability characteristics; a Admixtures and pigments +3 percent
discussion of the practical aspects of slump is given in Ref- Except for site mixing on small jobs, cement should be
erence 35. weighed on a scale separate from that used for weighing ag-
Slump limits in Table 6.2.1 are for concrete made with gregates. If batching is by the bag, no fractional bags should
both normal weight and structural lightweight aggregate and be used.
assume the use of a normal water reducer, if required. Aggregate should be batched by weight. Batching by vol-
Slumps in excess of those shown in the table may be accept- ume should not be permitted, except with volumetric batch-
able when mid-range or high-range water reducers are used. ing and continuous-mixing equipment (Section 7.2.1). Batch
If structural lightweight-aggregate concrete is placed at weights should be adjusted to compensate for absorbed and
slumps higher than shown in Table 6.2.1, the coarse light- surface moisture. When the mixture contains special aggre-
weight-aggregate particles can rise to the surface and the gates, particular care should be exercised to prevent segrega-
concrete can bleed excessively, particularly if the concrete tion or contamination.
does not contain an adequate amount of entrained air. Water can be batched by weight or volume. The measur-
6.2.6 Maximum size of coarse aggregate—The maximum ing device used should have readily adjustable positive cut-
aggregate sizes in Table 6.2.4 apply to normal weight aggre- off and provisions for calibration.
gates. The largest practical size aggregate should be used if Accurate batching of admixtures and colored pigments is
economically available, and if it will satisfy the requirements critical, since they are used in relatively small quantities. Ad-
that maximum size not exceed three-quarters of the mini- mixtures should be accurately batched at the batch plant. Ad-
mum clear spacing of reinforcing bars nor one-third of the mixtures that are designed to be added to the concrete at the
depth of the section. Structural lightweight aggregates are jobsite should be incorporated in accordance with the manu-
not generally furnished in sizes larger than 3 /4 or 1 in. (19 or facturer’s recommendations. When more than one admixture
is batched, each should be batched separately and in such a 7.3—Transporting

way that the concentrated admixtures do not come into con- 7.3.1 Discharge time—Concrete mixed or delivered in a
tact with each other. Care should be taken to avoid the freez- truck mixer should be completely discharged while the con-
ing of admixtures in cold weather, as this can damage some crete still has sufficient workability to respond properly dur-
of them. It is preferable to purchase pigments or colored ad- ing the placing and finishing operations. The period after
mixtures prepackaged in batch-sized quantities. Powdered arrival at the jobsite during which the concrete can be prop-
erly worked will generally vary from less than 45 minutes to
admixtures should be batched by weight, and paste or liquid
more than 2 hours, depending on the weather and the con-
admixtures by weight or volume. The volume of admixture
crete proportions. Prolonged mixing accelerates the rate of
batched should not be controlled by timing devices. Liquid
stiffening and can greatly complicate placing and timing of
admixtures are preferred but can require agitation to prevent finishing operations.
the settling of solids.
7.3.2 Jobsite slump control—When concrete arrives at the
point of delivery with a slump below that which will result in
7.2—Mixing the specified slump at the point of placement and is unsuit-
7.2.1 Ready-mixed concrete—Mixing should be in accor-
able for placing at that slump, the slump may be adjusted to
dance with ASTM C 94 or ASTM C 1116 and should pro- the required value by adding water up to the amount allowed
duce the required slump and air content without exceeding in the accepted mixture proportions unless otherwise permit-
the authorized or approved water-cementitious material rated by the architect/engineer. Addition of water should be in
tio. Close attention should be given to the moisture content accordance with ASTM C 94. The specified water-cementi-
of the aggregate. In critical jobs, or when specifically re- tious material ratio or slump should not be exceeded. After
quired, truck mixers should be in compliance with require- plasticizing or high-range water-reducing admixtures are
ments of the project specification. In order to assure added to the concrete at the site to achieve flowable concrete,
consistent slump at the point of placement, it is recommend- do not add water to the concrete. Water should not be added
ed that a small quantity of “trim water” be held out at the to concrete delivered in equipment not acceptable for mix-
batch plant. The amount of withheld water should be indicat- ing. Testing samples should be taken after any necessary ad-
ed on the ticket; the truck should then leave the plant with a justment. See ACI 301 for further details.
full water tank. 7.3.3 Delivery to point of discharge—Concrete for floor
7.2.2 Site mixing—Mixers that produce a volume of con- and slab placement can be delivered to the forms directly
crete requiring less than one bag of cement should not be from a truck mixer chute, or by pump, belt conveyor, buggy,
used. For small quantities of concrete, packaged products crane and bucket, or a combination of these methods. It is
meeting ASTM C 387 are more convenient, and can be more important that delivery of concrete be at a consistent rate ap-
propriate to the size of the placement, and that the concrete
accurately proportioned.
be deposited as close as possible to its final location. Con-
Mixing time should be sufficient to produce uniform con-
crete should not be moved horizontally by vibration, as this
crete with the required slump and air content. Site mixers contributes to segregation. See ACI 304R for recommended
less than 1 cu yd (0.76 m3) in capacity should mix for not less procedures.
than 3 minutes; ordinarily 15 seconds should be added for
each additional cubic yard (0.76 m3 ) of capacity or fraction CHAPTER 8—PLACING, CONSOLIDATING, AND
thereof, unless a turbine mixer is used. A longer mixing time FINISHING
is required for concrete with a slump of less than 3 in. (75 Most of this chapter applies to both normal weight and
mm). lightweight-aggregate concrete. The proper procedures for
Equipment for volumetric batching and continuous mix- finishing structural-lightweight concrete floors differ some-
ing at the jobsite is available. Concrete produced in this man- what, however, from finishing normal weight concrete; they
ner should comply with ASTM C 685. are discussed separately in Section 8.11.
7.2.3 Architectural concrete—When special architectural Various finishing procedures should be executed sequen-
concretes are produced using special aggregates, white ce- tially and within the proper time period, neither too early nor
too late in the concrete-hardening process. This time period
ment, special cements or pigments, mixer drums and equip-
is called the “window of finishability.” It refers to the time
ment should be kept clean, and any wash water should be
available for operations taking place after the concrete has
disposed of before a new batch is introduced. Identical ingre-
been placed, consolidated, and struck off. Surface finish, sur-
dients and quantities of materials should be used, and not less face treatment, and flatness/levelness requirements dictate
than 1 /3 of the capacity of the mixing drum, a minimum of the type and number of finishing operations. All should take
three yards in a nine yard drum, and should always be in full place within the proper time period. If the floor slab is placed
yard increments. See ACI 303 for additional details. during a time period of rapid hardening, this window be-
7.2.4 Shrinkage-compensating concrete—When expan- comes so narrow that it can present considerable difficulties
sive cement or an expansive-component type admixture spe- to the floor contractor. The preconstruction meeting should
cifically designed for producing shrinkage-compensating include discussion of the measures necessary to assure a sat-
concrete is required, refer to ACI 223 for details. isfactory “window of finishability.”
Fig. 8.1.1.1—Placing sequence: long-strip construction (left) is recommended; checkerboard construction

(right) is not recommended
8.1—Placing operations 8.1.3 Jobsite transfer—Chutes should have rounded bot-

8.1.1 Caution—All concrete handling operations should toms and be constructed of metal or be metal-lined. The
minimize segregation, since it is difficult to remix concrete chute slope should be constant and steep enough to permit
after it has been placed. concrete of the slump required to flow continuously down
8.1.1.1 Placing sequence—In many cases, the most effi- the chute without segregation. Long flat chutes should be
cient way to place concrete in large areas is in long strips as avoided because they encourage the use of high-slump
illustrated in Fig. 8.1.1.1. Strip placements allow superior concrete. A baffle at the end of the chute helps to prevent
access to the sections being placed. Intermediate contraction segregation. The discharge end of the chute should be near
joints are installed at specified intervals transverse to the the surface of previously deposited concrete. When con-
length of the strips. Wide strip placements can require instal- crete is being discharged directly onto the base, the chute
lation of longitudinal contraction joints. should be moved at a rate sufficient to prevent accumula-
Large block placements with interior contraction joints are tion of large piles of concrete. Allowing an excessively
an acceptable alternative to strip placements if the contraction steep slope on chutes can result in high concrete velocity
joints are installed at specified intervals in a timely manner. and segregation.
The use of shrinkage-compensating concrete or some types of Regardless of the method of transportation and dis-
laser screeds are compatible with large block placements. charge, the concrete should be deposited as near as possible
to its final position, and toward previously placed concrete.
A checkerboard sequence of placement with side dimen-
Advance planning should include access to and around the
sions of 50 ft (15.2 m) or less as shown in Fig. 8.1.1.1 (right)
site, suitable runways, and the use of other devices to avoid
has been used in the past in an effort to permit earlier place-
the use of concrete with a high water-cementitious material
ments to shrink and to obtain minimum joint width. Experi-
ratio or excessive delays.
ence has shown that shrinkage of the earlier placements
8.1.4 Placing on base—Mixing and placing should be
occurs too slowly for this method to be effective. Access is
carefully coordinated with finishing operations. Concrete
more difficult and expensive, and joints may not be as should not be placed on the base at a faster rate than it can be
smooth. The Committee recommends that the checkerboard spread, bull floated or darbied, and restraightened, since
sequence of placement not be used. these latter operations should be performed before bleeding
8.1.1.2 Placing sequence for shrinkage-compensating water has an opportunity to collect on the surface.
concrete—Neither the strip method nor the checkerboard Proper sizing of finishing crews, with due regard for the
method described in Section 8.1.1.1 should be used with effects of concrete temperature and atmospheric conditions
shrinkage-compensating concrete. Refer to ACI 223 for spe- on the rate of hardening of the concrete, will assist the con-
cific recommendations concerning placement configuration tractor in obtaining good surfaces and avoiding cold joints.
and sequence. If construction joints become necessary, they should be pro-
8.1.2 Discharge of concrete—The rate of discharge of duced using suitably placed bulkheads, with provisions
concrete from a truck mixer can be controlled by varying the made to provide load transfer between current and future
drum speed. work (Section 3.2.5.2 and 3.2.7).
8.2—Tools for spreading, consolidating, and additional discussion of topics related to the consolidation of
finishing concrete.
The sequence of steps commonly used in finishing un- 8.2.2.1 Internal vibration—This method employs one or
formed concrete floor surfaces is illustrated in Figure 8.3. more vibrating elements that can be inserted into the fresh
Production of high-quality work requires that proper tools be concrete at selected locations. Internal vibration is generally
available for the placing and finishing operations. Following most applicable to supported cast-in-place construction.
is a list and description of typical tools that are commonly 8.2.2.2 Surface vibration—This process employs a porta-
available. Refer to Section 8.3 for suggestions and cautions ble horizontal platform on which a vibrating element is
concerning uses of these tools. Definitions for many of these mounted. Surface vibration is commonly used in slab-on-
tools can be found in ACI 116R. ground, strip-type placements with edge forms. Refer to
8.2.1 Tools for spreading—Spreading is the act of extend- 8.2.3.2 for additional discussion.
ing or distributing concrete or embedding hardeners—often 8.2.3 Tools for screeding—Screeding is the act of striking
referred to as “shake-on” or “dry-shake”—or other special off concrete lying above the desired plane or shape to a pre-
purpose aggregate over a desired area. determined grade. Screeding can be accomplished by hand,
8.2.1.1 Spreading concrete—The goal of spreading opera- using a straightedge consisting of a rigid, straight piece of
tions for concrete is to avoid segregation. wood or metal, or by using a mechanical screed.
8.2.1.1.1 Hand spreading—Short-handled, square-ended 8.2.3.1 Hand screeding—Hollow magnesium or solid
shovels, or come-alongs—hoe-like tools with blades about 4 wood straightedges are commonly used for hand-screeding
in. (100 mm) high, 20 in. (500 mm) wide, and curved from of concrete. The length of these straightedges generally var-
top to bottom—should be used for the purpose of spreading ies up to approximately 20 ft (6 m). Straightedge cross-sec-
concrete after it has been discharged. tional dimensions are generally 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) wide
8.2.1.2 Spreading dry-shake hardeners, colored dry-shake by 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm) deep. Tools specifically made
hardeners, or other special-purpose material—The goal of for screeding, such as hollow magnesium straightedges,
spreading operations for these materials is to provide an even should be used in lieu of randomly selected lumber.
distribution of product over the desired area. Generally, hand 8.2.3.2 Mechanical screeding—Various types of surface
application should be used for distribution of these materials vibrators, including vibrating screeds, vibratory tampers,
only in areas where a mechanical spreader cannot be used. and vibratory roller screeds are used mainly for screeding
8.2.1.2.1 Mechanical spreaders—Mechanical spreaders slab-on-ground construction. They consolidate concrete
are the best method of uniformly applying dry-shake harden- from the top down while performing the screeding function.
ers, colored dry-shake hardeners, or other special purpose Refer to ACI 309 for a detailed discussion of equipment and
materials to concrete during the finishing process. These de- parameters for proper usage.
vices generally consist of (1) a bin or hopper to hold the ma- Vibrating screeds generally consist of either hand-drawn
terial, (2) a vibrator or motorized auger to assist in or power-drawn single-beam, double-beam, or truss assem-
distribution of the material, and (3) a supporting framework blies. They are best suited for horizontal or nearly horizontal
that allows the hopper to move smoothly over the concrete surfaces. Vibrating screeds should be of the low-frequen-
surface while distributing the material. (Fig. 8.2.1.2.1) cy—3000 to 6000 vibrations per min (50 to 100 Hz)—high-
8.2.2 Tools for consolidating—Consolidation is the pro- amplitude type, to minimize wear on the machine and pro-
cess of removing entrapped air from freshly placed concrete, vide adequate depth of consolidation without creating an ob-
usually by vibration. Internal vibration and surface vibration jectionable layer of fines at the surface. Frequency and
are the most common methods of consolidating concrete in amplitude should be coordinated with the concrete mixture
supported slabs and slabs on ground. Refer to ACI 309R for designs being used (Refer to ACI 309).
Fig. 8.2.1.2.1—Mechanical spreader Fig. 8.2.3.2—Laser controlled screed

Fig. 8.2.4.4—Double-riding trowel with clip-on pans Fig. 8.2.5—“Modified highway” straightedge
Laser-controlled variations of this equipment can be used is used in early-stage-floating operations near the edge of
to produce finished slabs on ground with improved levelness concrete placements.
over that which might otherwise be achieved. Laser-con- 8.2.4.3 Hand floats—Hand tools for basic floating opera-
trolled screeds can ride on supporting forms, or they can options are available in wood, magnesium, and composition
erate from a vehicle using a telescopic boom (Fig. 8.2.3.2). materials. Hand float surfaces are generally about 31 / 2 in. (90
Plate-tamper screeds are vibratory screeds that are adjusted mm) wide and vary from 12 to 20 in. (300 to 500 mm) in
to a lower frequency and amplitude. Tamper screeds work length.
best on very stiff concrete. These screeds are generally used to 8.2.4.4 Power floats—Also known as rotary floats, power
embed metallic or mineral aggregate hardeners. The contrac- floats are engine-driven tools used to smooth and to compact
tor is cautioned that improper use of this screed could embed the surface of concrete floors after evaporation of the bleed
the hardener too deeply and negate the intended benefit. water. Two common types are heavy, revolving, single-disk-
Vibratory-roller screeds knock down, strike off, and pro- compactor types that often incorporate some vibration, and
vide mild vibration. They can rotate at varying rates up to troweling machines equipped with float shoes. Most trowel-
several hundred revolutions per minute, as required by the ing machines have four blades mounted to the base and a ring
consistency of the concrete mixture. The direction of rota- diameter that can vary from 36 to 46 in. (1 to 1.2 m); weight
tion of the rollers on the screed is opposite to the screed’s di- generally varies from about 150 to 250 lbs (68 to 113 kg).
rection of movement. These screeds are most suitable for Two types of blades can be used for the floating operation.
more plastic concrete mixtures. Float shoes are designed to slip over trowel blades; they are
generally 10 in. (250 mm) wide and 14 to 18 in. (350 to 450
8.2.4 Tools for floating—Floating is the act of consolidat-
mm) long. Both the leading edge and the trailing edge of
ing and compacting the unformed concrete surface in prepa-
float shoes are turned up slightly. Combination blades are
ration for subsequent finishing operations. Initial floating of
usually 8 in. (200 mm) wide and vary in length from 14 to 18
a concrete floor surface takes place after screeding and be-
in. (350 to 450 mm). The leading edges of combination
fore bleed water comes to the surface and imparts a relatively blades are turned up slightly. The use of float shoes is recom-
even but still open texture to the fresh concrete surface. After mended (Section 8.3.10).
evaporation of bleed water, additional floating operations
Another attachment that is available to assist in power
prepare the surface for troweling.
float operations is a pan with small brackets that slide over
8.2.4.1 Bull floats (long-handled)—Bull floats are used to the trowel blades. These pans are normally used on double-
consolidate and compact unformed surfaces of freshly or triple-platform ride-on machines and are very effective on
placed concrete immediately after screeding operations, concrete surfaces requiring an embedded hardener or color-
while imparting an open texture to the surface. They are usu- ing agent. The use of mechanical pan floating (Fig. 8.2.4.4)
ally composed of a large, flat, rectangular piece of wood or can also materially improve flatness of the finished floor.
magnesium and a handle. The float part of the tool is usually 8.2.5 Tools for restraightening—Straightedges are used to
4 to 8 in. (100 to 200 mm) wide and 3.5 to 10 ft (1.1 to 3 m) create and to maintain a flat surface during the finishing pro-
long. The handle is usually 4 to 20 ft (1.2 to 6.1 m) long. The cess. Straightedges vary in length from 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.7
handle is attached to the float by means of an adjustable head m) and are generally rectangular in cross section (though de-
that allows the angle between the two pieces to change dur- signs differ among manufacturers). When attached to a han-
ing operation. dle with an adjustable head (that is, a bull-float handle and
8.2.4.2 Darby—A darby is a hand-manipulated float, usu- head), these tools are frequently referred to as “modified
ally 31 /2 in. (90 mm) wide and 3 to 8 ft (1 to 2.4 m) long. It highway” straightedges (Fig. 8.2.5).
to 450 mm). Neither the leading nor the trailing edge of trow-
el blades is turned up. Power trowels can be walk-behind ma-
chines with one set of three or four blades or ride-on
machines with two or three sets of four blades.
8.2.8 Tools for jointing—These tools are used for the pur-
pose of creating contraction joints in slabs. Contraction
joints can be created by using groovers, also called jointers,
or by saw-cutting.
8.2.8.1 Groovers—Groovers can be of the hand-held or
walk-behind type. Stainless steel is the most common mate-
rial. Hand-held groovers are generally from 2 to 43 /4 in. (50
to 120 mm) wide and from 6 to 7 1 /2 in. (150 to 190 mm) long.
Groove depth varies from 3/ 16 to 11 /2 in. (5 to 38 mm). Walk-
behind groovers usually have a base with dimensions that
vary from 31 /2 to 8 in. (90 to 200 mm) in width and from 6 to
10 in. (150 to 250 mm) in length. Groove depth for these
tools varies from 1 /2 to 1 in. (13 to 25 mm).
8.2.8.2 Saw-cutting—The following three families of tools
can be used for saw-cutting joints: conventional wet-cut (wa-
ter-injection) saws; conventional dry-cut saws; and early-en-
try dry-cut saws. Timing of the sawing operations will vary
with manufacturer and equipment. The goal of saw-cutting is
to create a weakened plane as soon as the joint can be cut,
preferably without creating spalling at the joint.
Both types of dry-cut tools can use either electrical or gas-
oline power. They provide the benefit of being generally
lighter than wet-cut equipment. Early-entry dry-cut saws do
not provide as deep a cut—generally 1 1 /4 in. (32 mm) maxi-
Fig. 8.3—Typical finishing procedures (subject to numerous mum—as can be achieved by conventional wet-cut and dry-
conditions and variables)
cut saws.
Early-entry dry-cut saws use diamond-impregnated blades
8.2.6 Tools for edging—Edgers are finishing tools used on
and a skid plate that helps prevent spalling.Timely changing
the edges of fresh concrete to provide a rounded edge. They
of skid plates is necessary to effectively control spalling. It is
are usually made of stainless steel and should be thin-lipped.
best to change skid plates in accordance with manufacturer’s
Edgers for floors should have a lip radius of 1 /8 in. (3 mm).
recommendations.
8.2.7 Tools for troweling—Trowels are used in the final
Conventional wet-cut saws are gasoline powered and,
stages of finishing operations to impart a relatively hard and
with the proper blades, are capable of cutting joints with
dense surface to concrete floors and other unformed concrete
depths of up to 12 in. (300 mm) or more.
surfaces.
8.2.7.1 Hand trowels—Hand trowels generally vary from
8.3—Spreading, consolidating, and finishing
3 to 5 in. (75 to 125 mm) in width and from 10 to 20 in. (250 operations
to 500 mm) in length. Larger sizes are used for the first trow- This section describes the manner in which various plac-
eling in order to spread the troweling force over a large area. ing and finishing operations can be completed successfully.
After the surface has become harder, subsequent trowelings The finishing sequence to be used after completion of the ini-
use smaller trowels to increase the pressure transmitted to tial screeding operation depends on a number of variables re-
the surface of the concrete. lated to project requirements or to the concrete finishing
8.2.7.2 Fresno trowels—A fresno is a long-handled trowel environment.
that is used in the same manner as a hand trowel. Fresnos are Project variables are generally controlled by requirements
useful for troweling slabs that do not require a hard-troweled of the owner and are specified by the designer. Some exam-
surface. These tools are generally 5 in. (125 mm) wide and ples are the choice of additives used in concrete, the require-
vary in length from 24 to 48 in. (0.6 to 1.2 m). ment for an embedded hardener, and the final finish desired.
8.2.7.3 Power trowels—Power trowels are gasoline en- Variables subject to the environment include such items as
gine-driven tools used to smooth and compact the surface of setting time of the concrete, ambient temperature, timeliness
concrete floors after completion of the floating operation. of concrete delivery, consistency of concrete at the point of de-
Ring diameters on these machines generally vary from 36 to posit, and site accessibility. Figure 8.3 is a flowchart that illus-
46 in. (0.9 to 1.2 m); their weight generally varies from about trates the normal sequence of steps in the finishing process.
150 to 250 lbs (68 to 113 kg). Trowel blades are usually 6 in. 8.3.1 Spreading and compacting—Concrete, whether
(150 mm) wide and vary in length from 14 to 18 inches (350 from a truck mixer chute, wheelbarrow, buggy, bucket, belt
conveyor, pump, or a combination of these methods, should guides can improve the accuracy of the screeding operation.
be delivered without segregation of the concrete components The width of these screed strips will generally vary between
(Section 8.1). Spreading, the first operation in producing a 10 ft (3 m) and 16 ft (5 m) and will be influenced by column
plane surface (not necessarily a level surface, since in many spacings. Generally, screed strips should be equal in width,
cases it can be sloped for surface drainage) should be per- and should have edges that fall on column lines.
formed with a come-along or a short-handled, square-ended In general, slab-on-ground placements are either block
shovel (Section 8.2.1.1.1). placements or strip placements. Block placements generally
Long-handled shovels, round-ended shovels, or garden- have edge dimensions that exceed 50 feet (15 m). Strip
type rakes with widely-spaced tines should not be used to placements are generally 50 feet (15 m) or less in width and
spread concrete. Proper leverage, of prime importance for vary in length up to several hundred feet. Suspended-slab
manipulating normal weight concrete, is lost with a long- placements are usually block placements. Where wood is
handled shovel. Round-ended shovels do not permit proper used for edge forms, the use of dressed lumber is recom-
leveling of the concrete. The tines of garden-type rakes can mended. The base should be carefully fine-graded to ensure
promote segregation and should not be used in any concrete. proper slab thickness.
Initial compacting of concrete in floors, with the exception Selection of the type of screed guide to be used for screed-
of heavily reinforced slabs, is usually accomplished in the ing operations is somewhat dependent on placement config-
first operations of spreading, vibrating, screeding, darbying uration. The maximum practical strip width for hand
or bull floating, and restraightening. The use of grate screeding is about 20 feet (6 m). Where strict elevation tol-
tampers or mesh rollers is usually neither desirable nor nec- erances apply, it is wise to limit strip width for hand screed-
essary if cement paste splatters when they are used. If grate ing to about 16 feet (5 m). Screeding of strip placements for
tampers are used on lightweight-concrete floors, only one slabs on ground is generally completed using some type of a
pass over the surface with a very light impact should be per- vibrating screed supported by edge forms. Screeding of
mitted. Spreading by vibration should be minimized. See block placements for slabs on ground is usually accom-
ACI 309R for detailed discussion. plished using wet-screed guides, dry-screed guides, a combi-
8.3.1.1 Structural floors—Both suspended and on-ground nation of these two, or some type of laser-guided screed. For
structural floors can be reinforced with relatively heavy de- slabs on ground, an elevation change no greater than 3/ 8 in.
formed reinforcing bars or with post-tensioning tendons, and (10 mm) in 10 ft (3 m), approximately FL 35, can be achieved
typically contain other embedded items such as piping and routinely through use of laser-guided screeds. Screeding of
conduit. Proper consolidation around reinforcing steel, post- block placements for suspended slabs is usually accom-
tensioning anchorages, and embedded elements requires in- plished using either wet-screed guides, dry-screed guides, or
ternal vibration, but care should be taken not to use the vibra- a combination of the two.
tor for spreading the concrete, especially in deeper sections Wet-screed guides, when used between points or grade
where over-vibration can easily cause segregation. stakes, are established immediately after placement and
The vibrator head should be completely immersed during spreading; see Section 4.4 for setting of dry-screed guides.
vibration. Where slab thickness permits, it is proper to insert At the time of floor placement, before any excess moisture
the vibrator vertically. On thinner slabs, the use of short 5 in. or bleed water is present on the surface, a narrow strip of
(125 mm) vibrators permits vertical insertion. Where the concrete not less than 2 ft (600 mm) wide should be placed
slab is too thin to allow vertical insertion, the vibrator should from one stake or other fixed marker to another, and straight-
be inserted at an angle or horizontally. The vibrator should edged to the top of the stakes or markers; then another paral-
not be permitted to contact the base since this might contam- lel strip of concrete should be placed between the stakes or
inate the concrete with foreign materials. markers on the opposite side of the placement strip. These
8.3.2 Screeding—Screeding is the act of striking off the two strips of concrete, called “wet-screed guides,” are used
surface of the concrete to a predetermined grade, usually set in establishing grade for the concrete located between the
by the edge forms. This should be done immediately after guides. Immediately after wet-screed guides have been es-
placement. See Section 8.2.3 for tools used for screeding. tablished, concrete should be placed in the area between,
Of all the floor-placing and finishing operations, form set- then spread and straightedged to conform to the surface of
ting and screeding have the greatest effect on achieving the the wet-screed guides. It is important that the contractor con-
specified grade. Accuracy of the screeding operation is di- firm that proper grade has been achieved following strikeoff.
rectly impacted by the stability of the edge forms or screed High spots and low spots should be identified and immedi-
guides selected by the contractor. Consequently, care should ately corrected. Low spots left behind should be filled by
be taken to match the forming system and the screeding placing additional concrete in them with a shovel, carefully
method to the levelness tolerance specified. avoiding segregation. Nonconforming areas should then be
Edge forms for slab-on-ground and suspended-slab place- rescreeded. Difficulty in maintaining the correct grade of the
ments are normally constructed of wood or metal. Some edge floor while working to wet-screed guides is an indication
forms are constructed of concrete. The spacing between edge that the concrete mixture is too wet or that vibration is caus-
forms, and the support provided for them, will influence the ing the guides to move.
accuracy of the screeding operation. Where edge-form spac- Elevation stakes placed at regular intervals are one method
ing exceeds the width of the screed strip, intermediate screed of establishing grade for wet-screed guides in slab-on-
ground construction. As screeding progresses the stakes can to control grade on the side of the strip not adjacent to previ-
be driven down flush with the base if expendable, or pulled ously placed concrete.
out one at a time to avoid walking back into the screeded For suspended-slab construction, the procedure described in
concrete. This early removal of stakes is one of the big ad- the previous paragraph has several advantages over unmodi-
vantages in the use of wet-screeds; in addition, grade stakes fied “wet-screed” techniques or those techniques that employ
are much easier and faster to set than dry-screeds. Screeding dry-screed guides on both sides of each placement strip.
should be completed before any excess moisture or bleed 1. Where previously placed concrete is used as a guide for
water is present on the surface. strikeoff, it provides a relatively stable guide, because it will
Benefits of using wet-screed guides include economical have been in place for some time before it is used.
and rapid placement of the concrete. However, successful 2. Retrieval of the dry-screed guide from areas surrounded
use of wet-screed guides requires careful workmanship by by previously placed concrete is unnecessary, because dry-
craftspeople who strike off the concrete because vibration rigid guides are not used in these locations.
can change the elevation of the wet-screed. Wet-screed Moveable dry-screed guides should be used to establish
guides are difficult to employ when varying surface slopes grade on any suspended slabs that are not level and shored at
are required and can produce inconsistent results when vari- the time of strikeoff, and for any suspended slab where in-
ations in slab thickness are required to compensate for decreases in local slab thickness might be used to compensate
flection of a suspended slab. Special care is necessary to for anticipated or identified differential deflection of the
avoid poor consolidation or cold joints adjacent to wet-
structure. When an increase in local slab thickness is used to
screed guides.
compensate for differential floor deflection, it is likely that
Wet-screed guides should not be used in suspended-slab
the resulting slab will be more than 3 /8 in. (10 mm) thicker
construction unless the finished floor surface is level and
than design thickness. The contractor should secure permis-
formwork is shored at the time of strikeoff. During construc-
sion to exceed the plus tolerance for slab thickness prior to
tion activity, vibration of reinforcing steel and the supporting
beginning construction. Refer to Section 3.3 for a discussion
platform may result in an incorrect finished grade when wet-
of suspended slab deflection and suggested construction
screed guides are used. It is imperative, therefore, that grade
techniques.
be confirmed after strikeoff and that errors be corrected at
For construction of slabs on ground, the use of vibrating
that time by restriking the area.
screeds—where edge forms or screed-guide rails can be
Wet-screed guides should be used only for surfaces where
used—will facilitate strike-off operations. By using a vibrat-
floor levelness is not critical. For slabs on grade where floor
levelness requirements are important, it is recommended that ing screed, crews can place concrete at a lower slump than
dry-screed guides be used instead of wet-screed guides. In might be practical if screeding were done by hand. Suspend-
general, surfaces produced using wet-screed guides will ex- ed slabs are seldom both level and supported at the time of
hibit maximum elevation changes of at least 5 /8 in. (16 mm) construction. Vibrating screeds and roller screeds similar to
in 10-ft (3-m). This corresponds to an FL20 floor. those used for slab-on-ground strip placements are generally
not appropriate for use in suspended-slab construction be-
Elevation variation of surfaces produced using dry-screed
cause of the probability that their use will result in slabs that
guides is dependent on placement-strip width and the accu-
racy with which the guides are installed. Generally, the max- are too thin in localized areas. It is essential that minimum
imum elevation changes that can be anticipated will be slab thickness be maintained at all locations on suspended
reduced as the dry-screed guides are moved closer together. slabs because of fire separation requirements.
For suspended-slab construction, the desirability of utiliz- Slumps up to 5 in. (125 mm) are often recommended for
ing dry-screed guides on both sides of each placement strip concrete consolidated by vibrating screeds. If slumps in ex-
is diminished by the damage done when the contractor re- cess of 4 in. (100 mm) are used, the amplitude of vibration
trieves the guide system. For this reason, it is recommended should be decreased in accordance with the consistency of
that a combination of dry-screed guide and wet-screed guide the concrete so that the concrete does not have an accumula-
techniques be employed on suspended slabs. tion of excess mortar on the finished surface after vibration.
The first placement strip should always start against a Vibrating screeds strike off and straightedge the concrete
bulkhead or edge of the building. Strikeoff on the interior in addition to providing consolidation. To perform signifi-
side of the strip should be controlled through use of move- cant consolidation, the leading edge of the shoe should be at
able dry-screed guides, which will provide positive control an angle to the surface, and the proper surcharge (height of
over the surface elevation along that line. The concrete edge uncompacted concrete required to produce a finished surface
along the moveable guide should be kept near vertical and at the proper elevation) should be carried in front of the lead-
straight. As concrete is placed and struck off, these guides ing edge.
are removed. When the next strip is placed, preferably in the Vibrating screeds should be moved forward as rapidly as
same direction as the initial strip, the prior strip will normally proper consolidation allows. If not used in this manner, too
have been in place for 30 or more minutes. The contractor much mortar will be brought to the surface in normal weight
can extend the straightedge 2 ft (600 mm) or more over the concrete; conversely, too much coarse aggregate will be
previous partially-set placement to control grade of strikeoff brought to the surface in structural-lightweight-aggregate
on that side of the strip and use moveable dry-screed guides concrete.
8.3.3 Floating—The term “floating” is used to describe A magnesium bull float can be used for lightweight con-
compaction and consolidation of the unformed concrete sur- crete and sticky mixes, or where it is desirable to partially
face. Floating operations take place at two separate times close the surface until it is time to float. The magnesium face
during the concrete finishing process. of the bull float slides along the fines at the surface and thus
The first floating, generally called “bull floating,” is by requires less effort, and is much less likely to tear the surface.
hand and takes place immediately after screeding. Initial When an embedded hardener or other special purpose ag-
floating should be completed before any excess moisture or gregate is required and rapid stiffening is expected, the use
bleeding water is present on the surface. Any finishing oper- of a bull float, preferably wooden, can be helpful in initially
ation performed while there is excess moisture or bleed wa- smoothing the surface after the aggregate is applied and be-
ter on the surface will cause dusting or scaling. This basic fore the modified highway straightedge is used in the initial
rule of concrete finishing cannot be over-emphasized. The cutting and filling operation. Inevitable variations in the uni-
first floating operation is performed using a bull float, darby, formity of coverage when an embedded hardener or other
or modified highway straightedge. The second floating oper- special purpose aggregate is applied will create slight irreg-
ation takes place after evaporation of most of the bleed water ularities in the slab surface. Restraightening operations nec-
and is usually performed using a power trowel with float essary to remove these irregularities will remove embedded
shoes or a pan attached. The second floating operation is de- material in some locations while adding to the thickness of
scribed in Section 8.3.10. embedded material in other locations. Experience has shown
8.3.3.1 Bull floating—One of the bull float’s purposes is to that some variation in the uniformity of embedded material
eliminate ridges and to fill in voids left by screeding opera- coverage does not adversely impact the floor’s function.
tions. Bull floating should embed the coarse aggregate only Wooden bull floats are preferable for use on normal
slightly. This process prepares the surface for subsequent weight concrete that receives an embedded hardener. The
edging, jointing, floating, and troweling. wood’s texture moves a mortar mixture of cement and fine
When the specified finished floor flatness using the F- aggregate on the surface, permits normal bleeding, and
number system restricts the difference between successive 1- leaves the surface open. If a magnesium bull float is used for
ft (300-mm) slopes to a maximum of 1 /4 in. (6 mm), approx- normal weight concrete, the embedded hardener should first
imately FF 20 (Section 8.15), a traditional-width bull float of be forced into the concrete using a wooden float. This brings
4 to 5 ft (1.2 to 1.5 m) can be used to smooth and to consol- moisture to the surface and ensures proper bond of the hard-
idate the concrete surface after screeding. The use of this ener to the base slab. This is particularly important where dry
width bull float, however, can adversely affect floor flatness shakes will be applied for color or increased wear resistance.
and make achievement of higher flatness extremely difficult. 8.3.3.2 Darbying—Darbying serves the same purpose as
When the magnitude of difference between successive 1-ft bull floating, and the same rules apply. Since bull floating
(300-mm) slopes is limited to less than 1 /4 in. (6 mm)—floor and darbying have the same effect on the surface of fresh
flatness greater than FF 20 (Section 8.15)—an 8- to 10-ft- concrete, the two operations should never be performed on
wide (2.4- to 3-m) bull float can be very useful in removing the same surface. Because of its long handle, the bull float is
surface irregularities early in the finishing process. This is easy to use on a large scale, but the great length of the handle
particularly true for suspended-slab construction, where lo- detracts from the attainable leverage, so high tolerances are
cal irregularities caused by form- or metal-deck deflection more difficult to achieve. A darby is advantageous on narrow
and concrete leakage can be significant. slabs and in restricted spaces. Long-handled darbies should
Many contractors use an 8- to 10-ft-wide (2.4- to 3-m) bull be used for better leverage and control of level. Metal darbies
float or modified highway straightedge after initial strikeoff are usually unsatisfactory for producing surfaces meeting
to restraighten any local irregularities that can be present. high-tolerance requirements. The same principles regarding
Use of a traditional 4- to 5-ft-wide (1.2- to 1.5-m) bull float the use of wooden or magnesium bull floats (Section 8.3.3.1)
will provide little assistance to the finisher in correcting apply to darbies, since both darbies and bull floats are used
these irregularities. Using the wider bull float or modified for the same purpose following screeding.
highway straightedge allows the finisher to recognize and to 8.3.3.3 Hand floating—Wooden hand floats encourage
correct irregularities at a time when significant amounts of proper workmanship and timing. If used too early on any
material can be moved with relatively little effort. This sim- type of concrete, they stick, dig in, or can tear the surface.
ple substitution of tools can routinely produce up to a 50 per- Used too late, they roll the coarser particles of fine aggregate
cent increase in floor flatness. out of the surface, at which time use of a magnesium float
In block placements for slabs on ground, and for suspend- held in a flat position would be preferable. Wooden floats
ed-slab placements, a wide bull float or modified highway more easily fill in low spots with mortar; they should also be
straightedge can also be used to advantage. Applied at an an- used in areas where embedded hardeners or other special
gle of approximately 45 to the axis of the placement strip and purpose aggregates will be applied, floated, and finished by
extending across the joint between the current strip and the hand only. The use of wooden hand floats has declined large-
strip just previously placed, these tools can remove many ir- ly due to the need for periodic replacement because of wear
regularities that would otherwise remain if they were used or breakage, and the greater effort and care in timing re-
only in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the placement quired in using them. Used at the proper time, their floating
strip. action is unequaled by other hand tools.
Magnesium hand floats require less effort. Like magne- The modified highway straightedge is used in a cutting
sium bull floats, they slide along largely on fines. They can and filling operation to achieve surface flatness. When using
be used on concrete from the time of placement to beyond this, or any, restraightening tool, it is desirable to overlap
the point of stiffening when a wooden float cannot be used. previous work with the tool by at least 50 percent of the tool
Magnesium floats are best used in the initial smoothing of width. It is also desirable to use the tool in at least two direc-
the surface near screeds, walls, columns, or other projections, preferably in perpendicular directions to each other.
tions, and during placing, screeding, and bull floating, when For strip placements, this can be accomplished by using the
a wooden float would dig in or tear the surface. Magnesium straightedge at a 45 angle to the axis of the strip, and toward
floats can also be used on air-entrained concrete that is not to the end of the strip, followed by use of the straightedge at a
receive a troweled finish, or following wooden or power 45 angle toward the beginning of the strip. The cutting and
floating to produce a more uniform swirl finish not quite as filling operation taking place in these two directions from the
roughly textured. Well-worn magnesium floats develop an edge of a placement strip will enable the straightedge passes
edge almost as sharp as a steel trowel’s, so care should be ex- to cross at right angles, and to produce a flatter, smoother
ercised to use them flat to avoid closing the surface too early floor. Straightedging in a direction parallel to the strip-cast
or causing blisters. operation and to the construction joints is possible, but less
Composition hand floats using resin-impregnated canvas desirable because this would require the finisher to stand in
surfaces are smoother than wooden floats and only slightly the plastic concrete or on a bridge spanning the strip. This
rougher than magnesium floats. They are similar to magne- “cut and fill” process can also be performed after power-
sium hand floats and should be used in the same manner. floating operations (Section 8.3.10) to further improve the
floor’s flatness.
8.3.4 Highway-type straightedging—The use of a modi-
For slabs on ground with an embedded metallic or mineral
fied highway straightedge for restraightening of the surface
hardener, coloring agents, or other special-purpose material,
varies with the type of slab being installed. Experienced fin-
the use of a modified highway straightedge plays an impor-
ishers can use this tool early in the finishing process instead
tant part in reestablishing surface flatness after application of
of an 8- to 10-ft-wide (2.4- to 3-m) bull float. Care is needed,
the material. These products are generally applied after ini-
however, because the straightedge tends to dig into the con-
tial screeding or strikeoff, and even the best of applications
crete if it is used improperly. Initial restraightening with the
will create minor irregularities in the surface. After the hard-
modified highway straightedge, should immediately follow
ener or special-purpose material has been worked into the
screeding. Restraightening should be completed before any
surface of the concrete using a wooden bull float, a follow-
excess moisture or bleed water is present on the surface.
up pass using the modified highway straightedge is desirable
When specified differences between successive 1-ft (300-
to restraighten the surface after the embedded metallic, min-
mm) slopes are 3/ 16 in. (5 mm) or less—flatness higher than
eral, and special-purpose material or its coating has absorbed
F F20 (Section 8.15)—a modified highway straightedge is sufficient moisture.
recommended to smooth and to restraighten the surface after Some embedded metallic dry-shake hardeners and colored
power floating or any floating operation that generates sig- dry-shake hardeners are applied immediately after the initial
nificant amounts of mortar. A weighted modified highway power float pass. When these materials are relatively fine, it
straightedge can also be used after power-trowel operations is necessary to wait until this point in the finishing operation
to scrape the surface, reducing local high spots. Filling of to begin their application. When applied too early in the fin-
low spots is generally not appropriate after scraping with a ishing process, they tend to be forced below the surface by
weighted modified highway straightedge. finishing operations. The use of a modified highway
The flatness exhibited by any concrete floor will be deter- straightedge to embed these materials and to restraighten the
mined almost exclusively by the effectiveness of corrective surface after their application is a critical component of the
straightedging employed after each successive strikeoff, finishing process.
floating, and troweling step. Without restraightening, each The committee recommends mechanical spreaders for use
step performed in a conventional concrete floor installation in the application of metallic or mineral hardeners, colored
tends to make the surface less flat. Straightedges are capable dry-shake hardeners, or other special-purpose materials.
of restraightening, or reflattening the plastic concrete, since Hand spreading sometimes results in an inadequate and un-
they alone contain a reference line against which the result- even application of the material.
ing floor profile can be compared. Restraightening opera- 8.3.5 Waiting—After initial floating and restraightening
tions are most effective when new passes with the modified have been completed, a slight stiffening of concrete is neces-
highway straightedge overlap previous passes by about 50 sary before proceeding with the finishing process. Depend-
percent of the straightedge width. In contrast, traditional 4- ing on job conditions, it is usually necessary to wait for this
to 5-ft-wide (1.2- to 1.5-m) bull floats, power floats, and stiffening to occur. Waiting time can be reduced or eliminat-
power trowels are by nature wave-inducing devices. To the ed by the use of dewatering techniques. No subsequent oper-
extent that further restraightedgings can only reduce floor- ation should be done until the concrete will sustain foot
wave amplitudes and enlarge floor-wave lengths, floor sur- pressure with only about 1 /4 in. (6 mm) indentation.
face flatness can be further improved until Class 9 floor sur- 8.3.6 Dewatering techniques—For slabs on ground, the
face quality is obtained. use of dewatering techniques as an alternative to waiting
should be thoroughly discussed by key parties before imple- ing decorative, nonfunctional groves in the concrete surface.
mentation by the contractor. Either vacuum mats, or a blotter The jointer should have a 1/ 8-in. (3-mm) radius for floors.
of cement on top of damp burlap, applied to the surface of Because of limitations on bit length, hand-tooled joints
freshly placed concrete, can be used to remove significant aren’t practical for slabs greater than 5 in. (125 mm) thick
amounts of water. While this process quickly prepares the where the groove depth is 1 /4 of the slab thickness.
surface for final floating and troweling, it should only be un- It is good practice to use a straight 1x8- or 1x10-in. board
dertaken by those with successful experience in the use of (25x200- or 25x250-mm) as a guide when making the joint,
these techniques. The application of dry cement directly to or groove, in a concrete slab. If the board is not straight it
the surface of freshly placed concrete should be avoided; this should be planed true. The same care should be taken in run-
practice promotes dusting of the floor surface and can result ning joints as in edging, because a hand-tooled joint can ei-
in reduced abrasion resistance. ther add to or detract from the appearance of the finished
Vacuum mats, or a blotter of cement on top of damp bur- slab.
lap, are applied after the concrete has been placed, compact- 8.3.9 Preformed joints—Preformed plastic and metal
ed, and floated. If vacuum mats are used, vacuum is applied strips are also available as an alternative to the use of jointers
for about 3 to 5 min. per 1 in. (25 mm) thickness of or saw cuts for making contraction joints. If used, they are in-
slab.36,37,38 serted in the fresh concrete at the time hand-tooled jointing
Vacuum dewatering has been used extensively in Europe. would take place. Proper performance of these strips is ex-
More detailed information is presented in References 36 tremely sensitive to installation. Plastic or metal inserts are
through 38. not recommended in any floor surface subjected to wheeled
8.3.7 Edging—Edging is not required or recommended on traffic (Section 3.2.5.3).
most floors. Edgers should be used only when specifically 8.3.10 Power floating—After edging and hand-jointing
required by the project documents. Where edging is re- operations (if used), slab finishing operations should contin-
quired, utilization of walk-behind edgers is discouraged be- ue with use of either the hand float or the power float. Power
cause their use can yield inconsistent results. If the floor is to floating is the normal method selected. The purposes of pow-
be covered with tile, an edger should not be used. If required, er floating are threefold: (1) to embed the large aggregate
a 1 /8 in. (3 mm) or smaller radius edge should be used for just beneath the surface of a mortar composed of cement and
construction joints subjected to regular vehicular traffic, al- fine aggregate from the concrete; (2) to remove slight imper-
though saw-cutting is the preferred method for this type of fections, humps, and voids; and (3) to compact the concrete
surface. and consolidate mortar at the surface in preparation for other
The edger is used to form a radius at the edge of the slab finishing operations. In the event that multiple floating pass-
(Section 8.2.6). Edging or stoning will also allow construc- es are required, each floating operation should be made per-
tion joints to be readily visible for accurate location of saw- pendicular to the direction of the immediately previous pass.
ing, when used. The second placement at a construction joint Nonvibratory, 24- to 36-in. diameter (0.6- to 1-m) steel
will often bond to the first placement. Sawing this joint en- disk-type floats are usually employed to float low-slump or
courages development of a clean, straight crack at the con- zero-slump concrete or toppings. They can also be used for
struction joint. Edging is most commonly used on sidewalks, additional compacting or floating following normal floating
driveways, and steps; it produces a neater looking edge that operations when the surface has stiffened to a point where it
is less vulnerable to chipping. Edging should not commence can support the weight of the machine without disturbing the
until most bleed water and excess moisture have left or been flatness of the concrete.
removed from the surface. Instead of being edged, construc- Troweling machines equipped with float-shoe blades can
tion joints of most floor work can be lightly stoned after the be used for floating. Later float passes can use pans clipped
bulkheads, or edge forms, are stripped and before the adja- to trowel blades.Troweling machines with combination
cent slab is placed. blades could be used, but are not recommended. Floating
8.3.8 Hand-tooled joints—Slabs on ground are jointed im- with a troweling machine equipped with normal trowel
mediately following edging, or at the same time, unless the blades should not be permitted. Contract documents should
floor is to be covered with tile. If the floor is to be covered also prohibit the use of any floating or troweling machine
with tile, jointing is unnecessary because random cracks are that has a water attachment for wetting the concrete surface
preferable to tooled joints under tile. For floors to be covered during finishing of a floor. Application of water by brush or
with quarry tile, ceramic tile, terrazzo pavers, or cast-in- machine during finishing promotes dusting of the floor sur-
place terrazzo, the joints in slabs on ground should be face.
aligned with joints in the rigid coverings. Many variables—concrete temperature, air temperature,
The cutting edge, or bit, of the jointing tool creates relative humidity, and wind—make it difficult to set a def-
grooves in the slab, called contraction joints (Section inite time to begin floating. The concrete is generally
3.2.5.3). For contraction joints, the jointing tool should have ready for hand floating when the water sheen has disap-
a bit deep enough to cut grooves that are one-quarter of the peared or has been removed, and the concrete will support
thickness of the slab. This forms a plane of weakness along a finisher on kneeboards without more than approximately
which the slab will crack when it contracts. Jointers with a 1 / 8 in. (3 mm) indentation. The slab surface is ready for
worn-out or shallow bits should not be used except for form- machine floating with the lightest machine available when
the concrete will support a finisher on foot without more 8.3.11 Troweling—The purpose of troweling is to produce
than approximately a 1 / 4 in. (6 mm) indentation, and the a dense, smooth, hard surface. Troweling is done immediate-
machine will neither dig in nor disrupt the levelness of the ly following floating; no troweling should ever be done on a
surface. surface that has not been floated by power or by hand. Use
Normally, concrete will be ready for power floating in the of a bull float or darby without following by hand or machine
same order in which it was placed. On a given placement, floating is not sufficient.
however, certain areas can become ready for power floating If troweling is done by hand, it is customary for the con-
before others. The areas that should be floated first generally crete finisher to float and then steel trowel an area before
include surfaces adjacent to screed guides, edge forms, moving kneeboards. If necessary, tooled joints and edges
blockouts, walls, and columns. Areas exposed to sun tend to should be rerun before and after troweling to maintain uni-
set more quickly than those protected by shade; surfaces ex- formity and true lines.
posed to wind also require attention before those protected Hand trowels that are short, narrow, or of inferior con-
from the wind. Generally, one or more finishers should be struction should not be used for first troweling. Mechanical
assigned to look after those areas that will set faster than the troweling machines can be used. The mechanical trowel can
overall placement. be fitted with either combination blades or with those intend-
As a general rule, and under slow-setting conditions when ed specifically for the troweling operation.
flatness tolerances are not high, power floating should be For the first troweling, whether by power or by hand, the
started as late as possible; this is indicated by minimum ma- trowel blade should be kept as flat against the surface as pos-
chine indentation or when a footprint is barely perceptible.
sible; in the case of power troweling, use a slow speed. If the
Under fast-setting conditions or when high-flatness toleranc-
trowel blade is tilted or pitched at too great an angle, an ob-
es are required, and with the understanding that abrasion re-
jectionable “washboard” or “chatter” surface will result. A
sistance of the slab can be reduced, floating should be started
trowel that has been properly “broken in” can be worked
as soon as possible; the maximum practical indentation is
quite flat without the edges digging into the concrete. Each
about ¼ in. (6 mm). When higher-flatness quality is re-
subsequent troweling should be made perpendicular to the
quired, the floating operation should generate sufficient mor-
previous pass. Smoothness of the surface can be improved
tar to assist in restraightening operations with the modified
by restraightening operations with the modified highway
highway straightedge. Flatness/levelness tolerances can re-
straightedge and by timely additional trowelings. There
quire restraightening of the surface before and after the float-
should be a time lapse between successive trowelings to per-
ing operation.
mit concrete to become harder. As the surface stiffens, each
The marks left by the edger and jointer should be removed
successive troweling should be made with smaller trowel
by floating, unless such marks are desired for decoration, in
blades or with blades tipped at a progressively higher angle
which case the edger or jointer should be rerun after the
floating operation. to enable the concrete finisher to apply sufficient pressure
for proper finishing. Additional troweling increases the com-
Generally, when the floating operation produces sufficient
paction of fines at the surface and decreases the water-ce-
mortar, restraightening after the floating operation is very
mentitious material ratio of concrete near the slab surface
beneficial. After the initial power-float pass, and while the
where the trowel blades agitate surface paste and hasten the
surface mortar is still fresh, the modified highway straight-
edge can be used to restraighten the slab surface by removing evaporation rate of water within the paste; this process re-
the troughs and ridges generated by the power float. This is sults in increased surface density and improved wear resis-
accomplished by cutting down the ridges and using that mor- tance. Extensive steel-troweling of surfaces receiving a
tar to fill the troughs. These operations should be completed colored dry-shake hardener can have a negative impact on
during the “window of finishability” described in the second the uniformity of color. Refer to Section 8.6.2 for a detailed
paragraph of this chapter. discussion.
The use of the power float, as previously described, tends The formation of blisters in the surface of the concrete dur-
to create troughs under the center of the machine in the di- ing troweling can be the result of entrained air or excessive
rection of travel, with ridges of mortar occurring just outside fines in the concrete mixture, of early troweling, or of an ex-
the perimeter of the blades. Around projections such as col- cessive angle of the trowel blades. Purposefully-added (en-
umns and sleeves, the power float tends to push mortar up trained) air is not recommended on surfaces to receive a
against the projection. If this mortar buildup is not removed hard-troweled finish (Section 6.2.7). If the air content is ac-
by the hand finisher, it will remain when the concrete hard- ceptable, then blister formation is an immediate indication
ens and the surface will be at a higher elevation than desired. that the angle of the trowel blade is too great for the surface
One method that allows proper grade to be maintained at in that area at that particular time for the concrete and job
these locations is to place a bench mark a specified distance conditions involved.
above design grade on the projection for subsequent use by Extensive steel-troweling leaves the concrete surface with
the finisher. While completing hand work around the column a very high sheen. Such surfaces become quite slippery when
or sleeve, the finisher can use a template to confirm that wet, and should be slightly roughened to produce a nonslip
proper grade has been maintained. Excess material can then surface if they are to be exposed to the weather. A smooth-
be removed as required. textured swirl finish can be produced by using a steel trowel
in a swirling motion (also known as a sweat finish) or by forced slabs, the saw cut using the conventional saw should be
1
brooming the freshly troweled surface. /3 of the slab depth. Typically, experience has shown that
A fine-broomed surface is created by drawing a soft-bris- when timely cutting is done with an early-entry saw, the depth
tled broom over a freshly troweled surface. When coarser can be the same as for plain concrete.
textures are desired, a stiffer bristled broom can be used after Regardless of the process chosen, saw cutting should be
the floating operation. A coarse-textured swirl finish can be performed (1) before concrete starts to cool, (2) as soon as
created after completion of the power float pass and subse- the concrete surface is firm enough not to be torn or damaged
quent restraightening using a modified highway straight- by the blade, and (3) before random-drying-shrinkage cracks
edge. A coarse-swirl pattern is normally created using a can form in the concrete slab. Shrinkage stresses start build-
hand-held wood or magnesium float (Section 8.13.4). ing up in the concrete as it sets and cools. If sawing is unduly
During periods of hot, dry, and windy weather, troweling delayed, the concrete can crack randomly before it is sawed.
should be kept to the minimum necessary to obtain the de- Additionally, delay can generate cracks that run off from the
sired finish. When ambient conditions create high water loss saw blade toward the edge of the slab at an obtuse or skewed
due to slab evaporation, fog spraying above the concrete or angle to the saw cut.
use of an evaporation retardant is necessary. After finishing,
any delay in protecting the slab with curing compounds or 8.4—Finishing Class 1, 2, and 3 floors (tile-
other water-retaining materials can result in an increase in covered, offices, churches, schools, hospitals,
plastic-shrinkage cracking, crazing, low surface strength, ornamental, and garages)
The placing and finishing operations described under Sec-
dusting, and early deterioration.
tion 8.3 should be followed. Multiple restraightening opera-
8.3.12 Saw-cut joints—On large flat concrete surfaces,
tions and two hand or machine trowelings are recommended,
rather than hand-tooling joints, it can be more convenient to
particularly if a floor is to be covered with thin-set flooring
cut joints with an electric or gasoline-driven power saw fit-
or resilient tile; this will give closer surface tolerances and a
ted with an abrasive or diamond blade, and using one of the
better surface for application of the floor covering.
following three types of saws: conventional wet-cut; con-
The use of silica fume concrete for parking garage con-
ventional dry-cut; or early-entry dry-cut.
struction lends itself to a “one pass” finishing approach. Af-
The early-entry dry-cut process is normally used when
ter initial strikeoff and bull floating have been completed, the
early sawing is desired. Early-entry dry-cut joints are
concrete placement strips can be textured using a broom.
formed using diamond-impregnated blades. The saw cuts
Normally, a light broom with widely-spaced, stiff bristles
resulting from this process are not as deep as those pro-
will be satisfactory for this purpose.
duced using the conventional wet-cut process—11 / 4 in. (32
Since silica-fume concrete exhibits virtually no bleeding,
mm) maximum. The timing of the early-entry process,
it is necessary to keep the surface moist during concrete
however, allows joints to be in place prior to development
finishing operations to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking.
of significant tensile stresses in the concrete; this increases
This normally requires use of a pressure fogger with a reach
the probability of cracks forming at the joint when suffi-
capable of covering the entire surface. Fogging should be
cient stresses are developed in the concrete. Care should be
performed continuously between finishing operations until
taken to make sure the early-entry saw does not ride up
the surface has been textured. The goal of the fogging op-
over hard or large coarse aggregate. The highest coarse ag-
eration should be to keep the concrete surface moist, but
gregate should be notched by the saw to ensure the proper
not wet. It is critical that curing operations commence as
function of the contraction joint. State-of-the-art early-en-
quickly as possible after texturing has been completed.29
try saws have an indicator that shows the operator if the
If decorative or nonslip finishes are desired, refer to proce-
saw cut becomes too shallow.
dures described in Section 8.13.
Typically, joints produced using conventional processes
are made within 4 to 12 hours after the slab has been finished
8.5—Finishing Class 4 and 5 floors (light-duty
in an area—4 hours in hot weather to 12 hours in cold weath-
industrial and commercial)
er. For early-entry dry-cut saws, the waiting period will typ- The placing and finishing operations described in Section
ically vary from 1 hour in hot weather to 4 hours in cold 8.3 should be followed. Three machine trowelings can be
weather after completing the finishing of the slab in that joint specified for increased wear resistance.
location. Longer waiting periods can be necessary for all
three types of sawing for floors with steel-fiber reinforce- 8.6—Finishing Class 6 floors (industrial) and
ment or embedded-mineral-aggregate hardeners with long- monolithic-surface treatments for wear resistance
slivered particles, such as traprock. Floors using embedded mineral or metallic hardeners are
The depth of saw cut using a conventional saw should be at usually intended for moderate or heavy traffic and, in some
least 1 /4 of the slab depth or a minimum of 1 in. (25 mm), cases, to resist impact. It is essential that these hardeners be
whichever is greater. The depth of saw cut using an early-entry properly embedded near the top surface of the slab in order
dry-cut saw should be 1 in. (25 mm) minimum, unless experi- to provide the required surface hardness, toughness, and im-
ence has shown that a shallower saw cut is sufficient. This rec- pact resistance.
ommendation assumes that the early-entry dry-cut saw is used Air content of the concrete should not be more than 3 per-
within the time constraints noted above. For steel-fiber-rein- cent if the concrete is not subject to freezing and thawing cy-
cles under service conditions. As with any commercial or 10. Restraighten the surface following the power-floating
industrial floor subjected to wheeled traffic, special care operation using a weighted modified highway straightedge if
should be exercised to obtain flat and level surfaces and its use is seen to be effective or necessary to achieve required
joints. Metallic hardeners should not be placed over concrete surface tolerances. One method of increasing the weight of a
with chloride ion contents greater than 0.1 percent by weight modified highway straightedge is to wedge a #11 bar inside
of cementitious material. The proposed mixture proportions the rectangular section of the straightedge.
should be used in the installation of any test panel or test 11. Continue finishing with multiple power trowelings as
placement. If adjustments to the concrete mixture are re- required to produce a smooth, dense, wear-resistant surface
quired, they can be made at that time. (Section 8.3.11). Provide a burnished (hard) troweled sur-
8.6.1 Embedded mineral-aggregate hardener—The appli- face where required by specification.
cation and finishing of embedded mineral-aggregate harden- 12. Cure immediately after finishing by following the cur-
ers should follow the basic procedures outlined below. ing material manufacturer’s recommendations. Curing
Concrete installations are subject to numerous conditions methods should be in accordance with those used and ap-
and variables. Experience is necessary to determine proper proved in construction of any test panel.
timing for the required procedures. It is recommended that 8.6.2 Metallic dry-shake hardeners and colored dry-shake
these procedures be discussed and agreed upon at the pre- hardeners—Metallic dry-shake hardeners and colored dry-
construction meeting: shake hardeners can be finer in texture than uncolored-min-
1. Place, consolidate, and strike off concrete to the proper eral-aggregate-dry-shake hardeners. This difference, along
grade. with the fact that the metallic dry-shake hardener has a high-
2. Compact and consolidate the concrete surface using a er specific gravity, dictates that the material normally be em-
bull float. bedded in the concrete later in the setting process than is
3. Restraighten the surface using a modified highway common for uncolored-mineral-aggregate-dry-shake hard-
straightedge. Occasionally, compacting, consolidating, and eners. Some metallic dry-shake hardeners are designed by
restraightening are accomplished in one step by using a wide their manufacturers to allow application of all the hardener
bull float or a modified highway straightedge with the at one time. When such procedures are used, however, cau-
straightedge rotated so its wide dimension is in contact with tion should be exercised to ensure that manufacturer’s rec-
the surface. ommendations are followed, and that the material is
4. Evenly distribute approximately two-thirds of the spec- thoroughly wetted-out, since a one-time application signifi-
ified amount of mineral-aggregate hardener immediately fol- cantly increases the possibility of surface delamination or re-
lowing the restraightening operation, and prior to the lated finishing problems. Typical installation techniques for
appearance of bleed water on the slab surface. The first ap- metallic dry-shake hardeners and colored dry-shake harden-
plication generally consists of a larger, coarser material than ers are similar to those described in Section 8.6.1, but the fol-
will be used in the final application. Distribution of the hard- lowing sequence is recommended: Refer to Section 8.13.1
ener by mechanical spreader is the preferred method. The for additional discussion.
concrete mixture should have proportions such that exces-
1. Place, consolidate, and strike off concrete to the proper
sive bleed water does not appear on the surface after applica-
grade.
tion of the hardener.
2. Compact and consolidate the concrete surface using a
5. As soon as the hardener darkens slightly from absorbed
bull float.
moisture, a modified highway straightedge should be used to
3. Restraighten the surface using a modified highway
embed the hardener as well as to remove any irregularities in
straightedge. A wide bull float or a modified highway
the surface.
straightedge can be used to accomplish both steps in one op-
6. Wait until the concrete sets up sufficiently to support the
eration.
weight of a power trowel with float shoes or a pan attached.
Combination blades should not be used. The float breaks the 4. Open the surface to promote movement of bleed water
surface and agitates concrete paste at the surface of the slab. to the top of the slab by using a wooden bull float. Steps 3
The first power-float passes should be across the placement and 4 can be accomplished in one operation if the wide bull
strip in the short direction. This will ensure that irregularities float or modified highway straightedge is made of wood.
resulting from the power floating can be easily identified and 5. Wait until the concrete sets up sufficiently to support the
corrected in subsequent operations. weight of a power trowel.
7. Apply the remaining one-third of the specified mineral 6. Break the surface using a power trowel with float shoes
aggregate, preferably at right angles to the first application. or a pan attached.
This material generally consists of finer-size aggregate and 7. Evenly distribute approximately two-thirds of the spec-
is most often broadcast over the surface of the slab by hand. ified amount of metallic dry-shake hardener or colored dry-
8. Restraighten the surface using a modified highway shake hardener. Application of the material by mechanical
straightedge. Remove irregularities and move excess materi- spreader is the preferred method.
al to low spots. 8. Restraighten the surface after application of the metallic
9. Embed the mineral-aggregate fines using a power trow- dry-shake hardener or colored dry-shake hardener to remove
el with float shoes or a pan attached. irregularities. Some contractors find that embedding the ma-
terials and restraightening can be accomplished in one step 8.7.1 Bonded monolithic two-course floors—For these
using a modified highway straightedge. floors, the topping course is placed before the base course
9. Complete initial embedment and prepare the surface for has completely set. Any excess moisture or laitance should
additional material by using a power trowel with float shoes be removed from the surface of the base course, and the sur-
or a pan attached. face floated before the top course is placed. When the top-
10. Apply the remaining one-third of the specified amount ping is being placed, the concrete in the base slab should be
of metallic dry-shake hardener or colored dry-shake harden- sufficiently hard that footprints are barely perceptible. The
er, preferably at right angles to the first application. use of a disk-type power float can be necessary to bring suf-
11. Embed metallic dry-shake hardener or colored dry- ficient past to the surface to allow restraightening to take
shake hardener using a power trowel with float shoes or a place. The power-floating operation should be followed by a
pan attached. Thorough embedment and integration of the minimum of two power trowelings. This method of topping
metallic dry-shake hardener or colored dry-shake hardener application is generally not appropriate for a suspended slab.
with the concrete by floating is very important. Failure to ac- 8.7.2 Deferred bonded two-course floors—Caution: Bond-
complish this goal can result in blistering or delamination of ing of two-course floors is a highly critical operation requir-
the slab. ing the most meticulous attention to the procedure
12. Restraighten the surface following the power-floating described. Even with such care, such bonding has not always
operation using a weighted modified highway straightedge, been successful. As a result, it is recommended that contrac-
if effective. tors using this type of construction for heavy-duty industrial
13. Continue finishing with multiple power trowelings as applications be experienced and familiar with the challenges
required to produce a smooth, dense, wear-resistant surface presented.
(Section 8.3.11). Proper and uniform troweling is essential. Locations of joints in the base course should be marked so that
Colored surfaces should not be burnished—hard-troweled; joints in the topping course can be placed directly over them.
the result would be uneven color and a darkening of the sur- After the base course has partially set, the surface should
face. be brushed with a coarse-wire broom. This removes laitance
14. Cure immediately after finishing by following the cur- and scores the surface to improve bond of the topping course.
ing material manufacturer’s recommendations. Curing It is recommended that concrete base courses be wet-cured
methods should be in accordance with those used and ap- a minimum of 3 days (Sections 9.2.1 and 9.2.2). Shrinkage-
proved in construction of any test panel. Colored floors compensating concrete base courses should be wet-cured a
should not be cured with plastic sheeting, curing paper, minimum of 7 to 10 days, and preferably until the topping is
damp sand, or wet burlap. These materials promote uneven applied. Refer to ACI 223 for additional information.
color, staining, or efflorescence. If the topping is to be applied immediately after the mini-
mum 3-day curing time has elapsed, the curing cover or wa-
8.7—Finishing Class 7 floors (heavy-duty ter should be removed from the slab and any collected dirt
industrial) and debris washed or hosed off. After most free water has
The topping course of heavy-duty industrial floors should evaporated or has been removed from the surface, a bonding
have a minimum thickness of 3 /4 in. (19 mm). The concrete grout should be scrubbed in. The bonding grout should be
topping used should have a maximum slump of 3 in. (75 composed of one part cement, 1.5 parts fine sand passing the
mm) unless a water-reducing admixture or high-range water- No. 8 sieve (2.36 mm), and sufficient water to achieve the
reducing admixture is used to increase the slump, or unless consistency of thick paint. The grout should be applied to the
dewatering techniques are used. Because of the relatively floor in segments, keeping only a short distance ahead of the
small amount of concrete in the topping course and the low concrete topping placing operations that follow it.
slump required, concrete for the topping could be job-mixed. While the bonding grout is still tacky, the topping course
Embedded metallic dry-shake hardeners, mineral-aggre- should be spread and screeded. The use of a disk-type power
gate dry shakes, and colored dry-shakes can be applied to float is suggested, followed by a minimum of two power
produce the desired combination of increased wear resis- trowelings.
tance or color as described in Sections 8.6.1 and 8.6.2, re- If 3 to 7 days are to elapse between placing the base and
spectively. the topping course, the surface of the base course should be
The base course should be screeded and bull floated; close protected from dirt, grease, plaster, paint, or other substances
maintenance of the elevation tolerance for the base course that would interfere with the bond. Immediately before plac-
surface is important. Class 7 floors can be constructed in two ing the topping, the base course should be thoroughly
ways: (1) the topping installation can be bonded monolithi- cleaned by scrubbing with a brush and clean water. Most ex-
cally to the base slab before the base slab has completely set, cess water should be removed and a thin coat of grout, as de-
or (2) the topping can be deferred for several days. scribed previously, scrubbed in. While this grout is still
For suspended slabs, it is recommended that the deferred tacky, the topping course should be spread and screeded, as
bonded approach be used. This will allow the structure to de- described previously.
flect under its own weight prior to application of the topping. If the floor is to be subjected to construction activities after
The additional weight of the topping will have little impact curing and before application of the topping, more thorough
on subsequent deflection of the slab. cleaning can be necessary. One method of cleaning the base
slab is to scrub the surface with water containing detergent. struction and that do not change during the life of the floor
If oil or grease has been spilled on the floor, a mixture of so- surface (that is, defined traffic). A typical example of a de-
dium metasilicate and resin soap is useful. If this method is fined-traffic floor would be a distribution center that uses
used, the floor should then be rinsed thoroughly with water. very-narrow aisles and high-bay racking systems. In this type
Shot-blasting, sand-blasting, or mechanical scarification by of facility, tolerances across aisles and the joints that parallel
scabbling can also be employed in lieu of cleaning with de- them are less critical than those along the axis of the aisle. This
tergent to achieve a bondable surface. type of floor surface is often referred to as “superflat.”
In some circumstances, it can be convenient or desirable to Floor surfaces in the second group are less common, but
bond the topping with an epoxy adhesive appropriate for the should support traffic in all directions (that is, random traf-
particular application. Methods are described in ACI 503R, fic). A typical example of a random-traffic floor would be a
and a standard specification is given in ACI 503.2. television or movie studio. The random nature of traffic in
Joints in the topping above the joints in the base slab these facilities requires that tolerances across placement
should be saw-cut to a depth equal to twice the thickness of strips and their joints should match those achieved parallel to
the topping, and should match the location of joints in the the axis of the strip.
base slab, where applicable. Finishing procedures required to produce Class 9 floors
represent the most rigorous and demanding floor installation
8.8—Finishing Class 8 floors (two-course technology now being performed. If discipline and preplan-
unbonded) ning are a part of the overall process, however, installation of
The unbonded topping for Class 8 floors should be a min- Class 9 floors is neither complex nor especially difficult.
imum of 4 in. (100 mm) thick. An unbonded topping thick- Proper timing and execution of various procedures will usu-
ness of 3 in. (75 mm) has been used with some success for ally ensure that the floor produced is of a predictable quality.
Class 3 floors, but thickness for strength and control of curl- Class 9 floor construction requires that (1) the slabs be
ing is less important for a Class 3 slab because of its duty, constructed in long strips less than 20 ft (6 m) in width; (2)
loading, and because it may also be covered. A Class 8 floor the concrete slump be adjusted onsite to within ± 1 /2 in. (± 13
is intended for industrial applications where strength and mm) of the target slump; (3) the slump at point of deposit be
control of curling is more important. The base course, sufficient to permit use of the modified highway straightedge
whether old or new, should be covered with plastic sheet, to close the floor surface without difficulty after the initial
felt, a sand cushion, or other approved bond-breaker, spread strikeoff; (4) the “window of finishability” be sufficient for
as wrinkle-free as possible. the concrete contractor to perform the necessary finishing
The topping slab should contain sufficient steel reinforce- operations; and (5) the concrete supplier use enough trucks
ment to limit the width of shrinkage cracks in the topping and to ensure an uninterrupted concrete supply. In addition, since
the displacement of the topping concrete on either side of environmental factors can significantly alter the setting rate
any cracks that might form. Although reinforcing steel is of concrete, an effort is usually made to construct Class 9
normally discontinued at joints, engineering considerations floors out of the weather.
can make it desirable to carry reinforcement through con- On Class 9 defined-traffic floors, construction joints be-
struction joints in specified locations in a topping. Rein- tween placement strips are located out of the traffic pattern
forcement that is continuous through contraction and where racks abut each other. These surfaces are evaluated by
construction joints will cause restraint against movement taking measurements only in locations matching the wheel-
that will inevitably result in cracks in the concrete. paths of the vehicles that will eventually use the floor. The
Concrete for the top course should comply with the re- part of the floor surface falling under racks is not tested.
quirements of Table 6.2.1. While the same construction techniques are required to
Power floats and power trowels are recommended and produce Class 9 random-traffic floors—television studios or
usually required. The practice of completing troweling by similar surfaces—the entire floor surface should be evaluat-
hand is counterproductive because hand troweling is less ef- ed because the entire surface will be subjected to traffic. The
fective than power troweling in compacting the surface. contractor is cautioned that grinding of the entire length of
Embedded mineral-aggregate hardeners for increased the joints will be necessary to produce Class 9 quality across
wear resistance can be applied as described in Section 8.6.1. the width of concrete placement strips.
Embedded metallic dry-shake hardeners and colored dry- On most projects with Class 9 defined-traffic floors, sur-
shake hardeners can be applied as described in Section 8.6.2. faces are measured for flatness and levelness immediately
following the final troweling of each placement; placements
8.9—Finishing Class 9 floors (superflat or critical are frequently scheduled for consecutive days. Where Class
surface tolerance required) 9 random-traffic quality should be achieved across multiple
Floor surfaces of this quality can be subdivided by func- strips, initial testing should take place as each strip is placed,
tion into two separate groups. Refer to Section 8.9.1 for spe- but final testing should be deferred until the installation is
cial considerations dealing with construction of Class 9 floor complete.
surfaces. Nonetheless, it is imperative that surface-profile testing
The more common group of these floor surfaces should sup- and defect identification be accomplished on each new slab
port vehicular traffic along paths that are defined prior to con- as soon as possible. To maintain satisfactory results, the con-
tractor requires continuous feedback to gage the effective- approved before the contractor is permitted to proceed with
ness of construction techniques against ever-changing job the balance of the superflat-floor construction.
conditions (Section 8.9.1). Superflat-floor tolerances should be inspected within 24
Achieving Class-9-quality levels on suspended slabs is hours after slab installation. This eliminates the possibility of
impractical in a one-course placement. Deflection of the sur- large areas being placed before any tolerance problem is dis-
face between supports occurs after removal of supporting covered. In narrow-aisle warehouses, tolerances are mea-
shores. If the surface were to meet Class 9 requirements in a sured using a continuous recording floor profileograph or
shored condition, it is very likely that the deflected surface other device. In these facilities, floor tolerances are generally
after shores are removed would be less level than is required written around the lift-truck wheel dimensions, and compli-
to meet Class 9 requirements. Two-course placements utiliz- ance measurements and corrections are required only in the
ing methods similar to those discussed for Class 7 and Class future wheel tracks.
8 floors provide the best opportunity for achieving Class-9- In television studios and other similar random-traffic in-
quality levels on suspended floors. stallations, the use of FF and F L to specify the floor-surface
8.9.1 Special considerations for construction of Class 9 tolerances is appropriate. Measurements for compliance
floor surfaces—Certain specialized operations—narrow- should be made in accordance with ASTM E1155 (Section
aisle warehouses, ice rinks, television studios, and air-pallet 8.15).
systems—require extraordinarily flat and level floors for
proper equipment performance. Such superflat floors gener- 8.10—Toppings for precast floors
ally exhibit FF numbers and FL numbers above 50 in the di- Many types of precast floors require toppings. These in-
rection of travel for the particular application. Refer to clude double-tees, hollow-core slabs, and other kinds of pre-
Section 8.15 for additional discussion. cast floor elements. When these floors are to be covered with
The floor-finish tolerance employed in the contract speci- bonded or unbonded toppings, the procedures in Section
fication should meet the equipment supplier’s published re- 8.7.2 or 8.8 should be followed as appropriate. High-strength
quirements unless there is reason to doubt the validity of concrete is often used for precast floor elements; roughening
such requirements. In any case, written approval of the con- of the surface of such members can be difficult if delayed too
tract floor tolerance should be obtained from the appropriate long.
equipment supplier prior to finalizing the bid package. In this
way, equipment warranties will not be jeopardized, and the 8.11—Finishing structural lightweight concrete
special superflat nature of the project will be identified to This section concerns finishing structural lightweight con-
key parties from the outset. crete floors. Finishing very-lightweight insulating-type con-
Superflat floors have very specific design requirements. cretes—having fresh weights of 60 lb per cu ft (960 kg/m3 )
Chief among these is the limit imposed on placement width. or less—that are sometimes used below slabs generally in-
In general, superflat floors cannot be produced if construc- volves little more than screeding.
tion joint spacing exceeds 20 ft (6 m). Since hand-finishing Structural lightweight concrete for floors usually contains
procedures and curling effects are known to make floors in expanded shale, clay, slate, or slag coarse aggregate; ex-
the vicinity of construction joints less flat than in the “mid- panded shale is most common. The fine aggregate can con-
dle” of the slab, joints should be located out of the main traf- sist of manufactured lightweight sand, natural sand, or a
fic areas, or provision should be made for their correction. combination of the two, but natural sand is most common.
Contraction joints oriented transverse to the longitudinal The finishing procedures differ somewhat from those used
axis of a Class-9-placement strip can curl and reduce surface for a normal weight concrete; in lightweight concrete, the
flatness along aisles. Limited placement width, consequent density of the coarse aggregate is generally less than that of
increased forming requirements, and reduced daily-floor the sand and cement. Working the concrete has a tendency to
production are primary factors that increase the cost of Class bring coarse aggregate rather than mortar to the surface. This
9 floors. should be taken into account in the finishing operations.39
The prebid meeting is an essential component of any su- Observing the following simple rules will control this ten-
perflat project. Since floor flatness/levelness is one of the dency so that structural lightweight concrete can be finished
primary construction requirements, a thorough prebid re- as easily as normal weight concrete, provided the mixture
view of the design, specification, and method of compliance has been properly proportioned:
testing is required. This will enable the prospective contrac- 1. The mixture should not be over-sanded in an effort to
tor to price the project realistically (thereby avoiding costly bring more mortar to the surface for finishing. This usually
misunderstandings and change orders), and will greatly in- will aggravate rather than eliminate finishing difficulties.
crease the chances of obtaining the desired results at the low- 2. The mixture should not be under-sanded in an attempt
est possible cost. to meet the unit weight requirements. Neither mixing to the
To further reduce the risk of significant problems, the in- recommended slump nor entrainment of air will effectively
stallation of test slabs has become a standard part of super- control segregation in such a mixture.
flat-floor construction. Generally, if the contractor is 3. The lightweight-concrete mixture should be propor-
inexperienced with superflat construction or with the con- tioned to provide proper workability, pumpability, finishing
crete to be used, at least two test slabs should be installed and characteristics, and required setting time, to minimize segre-
gation or the tendency for coarse-aggregate particles to rise 1:2; but the manufacturer’s directions should be followed.
above the heavier mortar. The nonslip monolithic surface treatment procedure is the
4. Some lightweight aggregates can require further control same as that outlined for the colored treatment (Section
of segregation or bleeding, or both. For this purpose, use not 8.6.2). A swirl finish produced using natural or colored em-
less than 4 percent entrained air in accordance with ACI bedded mineral or metallic hardeners provides increased
211.2. wear resistance and also produces a long-lasting, nonslip fin-
5. Presaturate lightweight aggregates for use in concrete ish (Section 8.13.1).
that will be pumped, in accordance with the manufacturer’s 8.13.3 Exposed aggregate surface treatment—Exposed
recommendations. aggregate surfaces are commonly used to create decorative
6. Overworking or over-vibrating lightweight concrete effects. Both the selection of the aggregates and the tech-
should be avoided. A well-proportioned mixture can gener- niques employed for exposing them are important to the ef-
ally be placed, screeded, and bull floated with approximately fect obtained; test panels should be made before the job is
half the effort considered good practice for normal weight started. Colorful, uniform-sized gravel or crushed aggregate
concrete. Excess darbying or bull floating are often principal is recommended.
causes of finishing problems, since they only serve to drive Aggregates should not be reactive with cement (ACI
down the heavier mortar that is required for finishing, and to 201.2R). Aggregates can be tested by using ASTM C 227, or
bring an excess of the coarse aggregate to the surface. by petrographic examination (ASTM C 295). If information
7. A magnesium darby or bull float should be used in pref- or a service record is lacking, the aggregates and the cement
erence to wood. Metal will slide over coarse aggregate and aggregate combinations should be evaluated using the guide-
embed it rather than tear or dislodge it. line in the appendix to ASTM C 33.
8. The surface should be floated and flat troweled as soon Flat particles, sliver-shaped particles, and particles smaller
as surface moisture has disappeared and while the concrete than 1 /4 in. (6 mm), do not bond well. As a result, they can
is still plastic. If floating is being done by hand, use a mag- easily become dislodged during the operation of exposing
nesium float. If evaporation is not taking place soon enough the aggregate. The use of aggregate ordinarily used in con-
(while concrete is still plastic), other measures should be tak- crete is not satisfactory unless the aggregate is sufficiently
en. Water and excess moisture should be removed from the uniform in size, bright in color, and can be closely packed,
surface with as little disturbance as possible. A simple but re- and uniformly distributed.
liable method is to drag a loop of heavy-rubber garden hose
Immediately after the slab has been screeded, and darbied
over the surface.
or bull floated, the selected aggregate should be broadcast
and evenly distributed so that the entire surface is completely
8.12—Nonslip floors
covered with one layer of the select aggregate. Initial embed-
Nonslip surfaces are produced by using the following fin-
ding of the aggregate is usually done by patting with a darby
ishing procedures: swirl or broom finish (Section 8.13.4), or
or the broad side of a short piece of 2- x 4-in. (50- x 100-mm)
nonslip special-purpose aggregate (Section 8.13.2). The
lumber. After the aggregate has been thoroughly embedded
nonslip special-purpose aggregate is recommended for
heavy-foot traffic. and as soon as the concrete will support the weight of a fin-
isher on kneeboards, the surface should be floated using a
References 40 and 41 describe methods of measuring and
magnesium hand float, darby, or bull float until aggregate is
evaluating the relative skid resistance of floors.
entirely embedded and slightly covered with mortar. This
8.13—Decorative and nonslip treatments operation should leave no holes in the surface.
8.13.1 Colored dry-shake-hardener surface treatment— Shortly after floating, a reliable surface set retarder can be
The installation of a colored surface treatment is particularly sprayed over the surface in accordance with the manufactur-
sensitive to the finishing and curing techniques employed by er’s recommendations. Retarders may not be necessary on
the contractor. It is recommended that sample panels be con- small jobs, but they are generally used on large jobs to ensure
structed prior to beginning actual placement on the project in better control of the exposing operations. Use of a surface set
order to confirm that the proposed procedures are adequate, retarder ordinarily permits several hours to elapse before
and that the uniformity of color is acceptable. Any sample brushing and hosing the surface with water exposes the ag-
panel should be larger than 100 sq ft (9 m2 ) and should be gregate. It is important to note that the proper timing for ex-
prepared using the concrete mixture and finishing and curing posing the aggregate is critical whether or not a retarder has
techniques planned for the project.42 been used, and this timing is very dependent upon the tem-
Coloring agents are normally included with an embedded perature and other weather conditions. Recommendations of
hardener when a hardener is applied and color is desired. the retarder manufacturer should be followed closely.
Finishing procedures should follow the steps described in Operations to expose the aggregate should begin as soon
Section 8.6.2. as the surface can be brushed and washed without overex-
8.13.2 Nonslip monolithic surface treatment—Before be- posing or dislodging the aggregate. If it becomes necessary
ing applied to the surface, the slip-resistant material (Section for finishers to move about on the newly exposed surface,
5.4.8) should be mixed with dry portland cement if not al- kneeboards should be used, gently brought into contact with
ready so formulated. Proportions usually range from 1:1 to the surface, and neither slid nor twisted on it. If possible,
however, finishers should stay off the surface entirely be- 2. Curled joints
cause of the risk of breaking the aggregate bond. 3. Surface irregularities that might show through thin
If a smooth surface is desired, as might be the case in an inte- floor coverings, such as resilient tile
rior area, no retarder should be used. The aggregate is not ex- 4. Poor resistance to wear, when this is due to a weak
posed until the surface has hardened. Exposure is accomplished floor surface with sound concrete underneath
after hardening entirely by grinding. If grinding is followed by 5. Rain damage
polishing, a terrazzo-like surface can be produced. 8.14.1 Cautions—Grinding does not always produce the
Alternative methods of placement are available. A top desired effect, and it sometimes makes the floor look worse.
course, 1 in. (25 mm) or more thick, that contains the select It can also adversely affect the floor’s resistance to wear, par-
aggregate can be applied, or the monolithic method can be ticularly in industrial applications where the surface is sub-
used. The monolithic method does not use aggregate seed- ject to heavy traffic and abuse. For these reasons, it is usually
ing; the select aggregate to be exposed is mixed throughout wise to make a small trial section before starting full-scale
the concrete during batching. repairs. Only wet grinding should be used, primarily to min-
Tooled joints are not practical in exposed-aggregate con- imize dust, and also because diamond-disk grinders are more
crete because the aggregate completely covers the surface. effective when used with water.
Decorative or working joints are best produced by wet-cut 8.14.2 Types of grinders—Many types of grinders are
sawing (Section 8.3.12). Another method of providing joints available. The two types most often used on floor slabs are
is to install permanent strips of wood (redwood, cypress, or
diamond-disk grinders and stone grinders.
cedar) before placing concrete (Fig 3.2.5.3.a).
8.14.2.1 Diamond-disk grinder—This grinder uses one or
Exposed-aggregate slabs should be cured thoroughly.
more diamond-impregnated steel disks. Each disk is mount-
Care should be taken that the method of curing does not stain
ed horizontally and is driven by a vertical shaft. The most
the surface. Straw, earth, and any type of sheet membrane,
common type of diamond-disk grinder has a single 10-in.
such as polyethylene or building paper, can cause discolora-
(250-mm) grinding disk powered by a gasoline engine or
tion (Section 9.2.2).
electric motor of 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.4 kW). Bigger, more
8.13.4 Geometric designs, patterns, and textures—Con-
powerful machines are available for floors that need exten-
crete surfaces are frequently scored or tooled with a jointer
sive grinding. Diamond-disk grinders are much faster than
to produce various decorative patterns. For random geomet-
stone grinders, and are usually the better choice to correct
ric designs, the concrete should be scored after it has been
Problems 1 and 2 above.
screeded, bull floated or darbied, and excess moisture has
left the surface. Scoring can be done using a jointer, a 8.14.2.2 Stone grinder—This grinder uses multiple abra-
groover, or a piece of pipe bent to resemble an S-shaped sive blocks, called stones, mounted on one or more steel
jointer tool. The tool is made of 1 / 2- or 3 / 4-in. (15- or 19-mm) disks. The abrasive material is usually silicon carbide. The
pipe, about 18 in. (450 mm) long. Cobblestone, brick, tile, most widely used type of stone grinder has two disks with
and many other patterns can be impressed deeply into par- three stones on each disk. One-disk and four-disk machines
tially-set concrete slabs with special imprinting tools (Refer- are also available. Stone grinders can be effective on Prob-
ence 42). See PCA’s Finishing Concrete Slabs with Color lems 3 through 5 above, particularly where the floor surface
and Texture (PA 124M) for patterned concrete. is soft, or where the amount of material to be removed is
A swirl-float finish or swirl design can be produced using small.
a magnesium or wooden hand float, or a steel finishing trow-
el. After the concrete surface has received the first power- 8.15—Floor flatness and levelness
float pass and subsequent restraightening using a modified 8.15.1 Floor flatness/levelness tolerances—Tolerances for
highway straightedge, a float should be worked flat on the various floor uses should conform to the requirements set
surface in a semicircular or fanlike motion using pressure. A forth in ACI 117. A discussion of floor flatness/levelness is
finer-textured swirl design can be obtained with the same given in the commentary to ACI 117.
motion by using a steel finishing trowel held flat. An alterna- ACI 117 specifies that overall conformance to design
tive method is to draw a soft-bristled broom across the slab grade shall be within 3 / 4 in. (19 mm) of design elevation. For
in a wavy motion. suspended cast-in-place concrete slabs, this tolerance is to be
After the concrete has set sufficiently that these surface achieved before removal of any supporting shores. For sus-
textures or patterns will not be marred, the slab should be pended slabs on metal deck, this tolerance for overall con-
moist-cured. Plastic membranes or waterproof curing paper formance to design grade does not apply, since tolerances for
should not be used on colored concrete (Sections 9.2.1 and erected steel frames are not consistent with those for form-
9.2.2). work in cast-in-place concrete frames.
8.15.1.1 F-number system—It is recommended that both
8.14—Grinding as a repair procedure flatness and levelness requirements be described by Face
Grinding can be used to repair certain surface defects. Floor Profile Numbers. 43 Two separate F-numbers are re-
Grinding has been used successfully to repair the following quired to define the required flatness and levelness of the
kinds of problems: constructed floor surface. Refer to the Commentary on ACI
1. Unacceptable flatness and levelness 117 for additional discussion of this method.
SLABS ON GRADE
Composite Composite
flatness (F F) levelness (FL ) Typical use Typical class
Noncritical: mechanical rooms, nonpub-

lic areas, surfaces to have raised com-
20 15 1 or 2
puter flooring, surfaces to have thick-set
tile, and parking structure slabs
Carpeted areas of commercial office

25 20 buildings or lightly-trafficked office/indus- 2
trial buildings
Thin-set flooring or warehouse floor with 2, 3, 4, 5,

35 25 moderate or heavy traffic 6, 7, or 8
Warehouse with air-pallet use, ice, or

45 35 9
roller rinks
>50 >50 Movie or television studios 3 or 9
SUSPENDED SLABS
Composite flatness Composite

Typical use Typical class
(FF) levelness (FL )
Noncritical: mechanical rooms, nonpub-

lic areas, surfaces to have raises com-
20 15 2 or N/A puter flooring, surfaces to have thick-set 1 or 2
tile, and parking structure slabs
Carpeted areas of commercial office

25 20 1 or N/A buildings 2
30 20 2 or N/A Surfaces to receive thin-set flooring 2, 3, or 4
>50 >50 1,3 Movie or television studios 3 and 9
NOTES:
1. Multidirectional quality of this level requires grinding of joints.
2. Levelness F-number only applies to level slabs shored at time of testing.
3. This levelness quality on a suspended slab requires a two-course placement.
Fig. 8.15.1.1
The Flatness F-number (FF ) controls local surface bumpi- result of deflection. Because of these post-construction
ness by limiting the magnitude of successive 1-ft (300-mm) changes, it is likely that measurements of an existing project
slope changes when measured along sample measurement will yield results of a lower quality than can be achieved by
lines in accordance with ASTM E 1155. the contractor because all of the post-construction changes
The Levelness F-number (FL ) controls local conformance just described create slightly diminished FF /FL measurement
to design grade by limiting differences in departures from results. When measurement of a similar satisfactory floor is
design grade over distances of 10 ft (3 m) when measured not possible or practical, the flatness/levelness quality levels
along sample measurement lines in accordance with ASTM provided in Figure 8.15.1.1 have been found to be reasonable
E 1155. for the stated applications.
The F-number pair is always written in the order FF /FL. In 8.15.1.2 The 10-ft (3-m) straightedge method—The older
theory, the range of flatness and levelness F-numbers ex- method of using a 10-ft (3-m) straightedge can also be used
tends from zero to infinity. In practice, FF and FL values gen- to measure floor flatness, but it is much less satisfactory than
erally fall between 12 and 45. The scale is linear, so the the F-number system. There is no nationally accepted meth-
relative flatness/levelness of two different floors will be in od for taking measurements or for establishing compliance
proportion to the ratio of their F-numbers. For example, an of a test surface using this tolerance approach. This lack of
FF 30/FL 24 floor is twice as flat and twice as level as an an accepted standard test procedure often leads to conflict
FF 15/FL 12 floor. and litigation. The straightedge-tolerance method also has a
On random-traffic floors—those with varied and unpre- number of other serious deficiencies. Refer to the Commen-
dictable traffic patterns—two tiers of specified FF /FL values tary on ACI 117 for additional discussion.
should be indicated: one for the composite values to be When straightedge tolerances are specified, the Commit-
achieved (Specified Overall Value), and one for the mini- tee emphasizes that 100 percent compliance with 10-ft (3-m)
mum quality level that will be accepted without repair (Min- straightedge tolerances is unrealistic. Compliance with four
imum Local Value). of five consecutive measurements is more realistic, with a
Compliance with the Specified Overall Value is based on provision that obvious faults be corrected.
the composite of all measured values. For any given floor, 8.15.1.3 Other measurement methods—Measurement
the composite FF /FL values are derived in accordance with methods are not limited to the F-number (ASTM E 1155) or
ASTM E 1155, Section 9.10. the 10-ft (3-m) straightedge systems. Alternative tolerancing
Minimum Local Values represent the minimum acceptable systems that adequately control critical floor surface charac-
flatness and levelness to be exhibited by any individual floor teristics can be used.
section. Minimum Local Values are generally set at 67 percent 8.15.2 Precautions—Floor tolerance specification and
of the Specified Overall Values, and are not normally set low- measurement procedures are currently undergoing techno-
er than 50 percent of the specified overall FF/FL requirements. logical change. Much remains to be learned about which tol-
Minimum Local Values should never be less than FF 13/FL10, erances can be reasonably expected from a given
since these values represent the worst local results to be ex- construction method. On those projects where floor flat-
pected from any concrete floor construction method. ness/levelness constitutes a potential issue, the following
Remedial measures can be required: precautions are suggested:
If the composite value of the entire floor installation •The exact meaning of the flatness/levelness require-
(when completed) measures less than either of the spec- ment, and the exact method and time of measurement to
ified overall F-numbers, or determine compliance, should be established prior to
If any individual section measures less than either of the beginning construction.
specified Minimum Local FF/F L numbers. Sectional •The contractor should confirm an ability to satisfy the
boundaries are usually set at the column and half-col- floor tolerance requirement by profiling previous instal-
umn lines on suspended slabs, or at the construction lations.
and contraction joints for slabs on ground. They should •Where feasible, test slabs should be installed to verify
be no closer together than one-half bay. the effectiveness of proposed installation procedures
Remedial measures for slabs on ground might include under actual job conditions. If necessary, methods and
grinding, planing, surface repair, retopping, or removal and procedures should then be modified for the actual job
replacement. For suspended slabs, remedial measures are installation based on these results. The acceptance of
generally limited to grinding or use of an underlayment or the test slab by the owner as to tolerances and surface
topping material. Contract documents should clearly identify finish should clarify requirements for the project slab.
the acceptable corrective method(s) to be used. •The exact remedy to be applied to every possible floor
The selection of proper FF/F L tolerances for a project is tolerance deficiency should be confirmed.
best made by measurement of a similar satisfactory floor. 8.15.3 Factors influencing floor flatness and levelness—
This measurement is then used as the basis for the FF /F L tol- The flatness and levelness exhibited by a newly installed
erance specification for the new project. If this method is concrete slab on ground will depend upon the effectiveness
used, it is important to note that slab-on-ground floor surfac- of the specific placement and finishing procedures employed
es change after construction as a result of shrinkage and curl- during its construction. In general, the forming, placement,
ing, and that the surfaces of suspended slabs change as a and initial strikeoff phases of the installation will establish
Flatness/Levelness (FF/F L) Construction Guide

Notes:
1. These descriptions illustrate typical tolerance levels and construction procedures for floor surfaces in which direction and location of traffic may vary (random-traffic
pattern). Most surfaces must accommodate random-traffic patterns.
2. The use of F-numbers to specify tolerances allows the specifier and contractor independent control of surface waviness and levelness. The Flatness F-number (FF)
controls waviness; the Levelness F-number (FL ) controls local levelness.
Flatness quality is primarily a function of finishing technique (tools and procedures used after initial strikeoff). Levelness quality is mainly dependent on accuracy of
formwork and initial strikeoff.
3. The tolerance examples illustrate average to high floor tolerances; specified quality levels should be dictated by facility use.
4. Descriptions of placing and finishing methods are intended to assist the contractor in evaluation and “fine-tuning” of relative costs associated with producing the var-
ious levels of quality in flatness and levelness.
5. Finishing sequences described in this table require a slight modification when a metallic hardener, mineral-aggregate hardener, pigmented hardener, or pigment is to
be applied. Refer to Section 8.6 for detailed discussion of suggested techniques. Proposed techniques for application of hardener and finishing concrete should be
confirmed with a successful panel installation.
Table 8.15.3.a— Slabs on grade: flatness Table 8.15.3.a— Slabs on grade: levelness
Typical specification Typical specification Typical forming and strikeoff

requirements Typical finishing requirements requirements requirements
1. Smooth surface using 4 to 5 ft 1. Set perimeter forms (optical or

wide bull float. laser instruments).
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has Specified overall value - 15 2. Use block placements of varying
disappeared. Minimum local value - 10 dimensions. Use wet screed strike-
Specified overall value - 20
3. Float surface with one or more off techniques to establish initial
Minimum local value - 15 passes using a power float (float-shoe grade.
blades or pans).
4. Make multiple passes with a power
trowel (trowel blades).
1. Set perimeter forms (optical or
1. Smooth and restraighten surface laser instruments).
using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float. Specified overall value - 20 2. Use block placements of varying
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has Minimum local value - 15 dimensions. Use wet screed strikeoff
disappeared. techniques to establish initial grade.
3. Float surface with one or more 3. Check grade after strikeoff. Repeat
Specified overall value - 25 passes using a power float (float-shoe strikeoff as necessary.
Minimum local value - 17 blades or pans).
4. Restraighten surface following
paste-generating float passes using 1. Set edge forms using optical or
10 ft wide highway straightedge. laser instruments. Optical instru-
5. Make multiple passes with a power ments provide more accurate eleva-
trowel (trowel blades). tion control.
Minimum local value - 17 2. Use strip placements with maxi-
1. Smooth and restraighten surface mum widths of 50 ft. Utilize edge
using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float. Apply forms to establish initial grade.
in two directions at 45 deg angle to 3. Use vibratory screed for initial
strip. strikeoff.
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has
disappeared. 1. Set edge forms using optical or
3. Float surface with one or more laser instruments. Optical instru-
passes using a power float (float-shoe ments provide more accurate eleva-
blades or pans). tion control.
4. Restraighten surface following 2. Use strip placements with maxi-
Specified overall value - 35 paste-generating float passes using mum widths of 30 ft. Utilize edge
Minimum local value - 24 10 ft wide highway straightedge. Use Specified overall value - 30
Minimum local value - 20 forms to establish initial grade.
in two directions at 45 deg angle to 3. Use vibratory screed for initial
strip. Use supplementary material to strikeoff.
fill low spots. 4. Check grade after strikeoff. Repeat
5. Make multiple passes with a power strikeoff as necessary.
trowel (trowel blades are preferable). 5. Use a laser screed in lieu of rigid
6. Restraighten surface after trowel strikeoff guides and vibratory screed
passes using multiple passes with to produce this same quality.
weighted highway straightedge to
scrape the high spots. No filling of 1. Set edge forms using optical
low spots is done at this stage.
instrument to ± 1/ 16 in accuracy.
Use straightedge to identify form
1. Smooth and restraighten surface high spots; place top surface to fit
using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float or
highway straightedge. Apply in two inside 1/ 16 in envelope.
directions at 45 deg angle to strip. 2. Use strip placements with maxi-
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has mum widths of 20 ft. Utilize edge
disappeared. Specified overall value - 50 forms to establish initial grade.
3. Float surface with one or more Minimum local value - 35 3. Use vibratory screed for initial
Specified overall value - 50 passes using a power float (float-shoe strikeoff.
Minimum local value - 35 blades or pans). First float pass 4. Check grade after strikeoff. Repeat
should be across width of strip. strikeoff as necessary.
4. Restraighten surface following 5. Follow vibratory screed pass with
paste-generating float passes using two or three hand straightedge passes
10 ft wide highway straightedge. Use along the axis of the strip.
in two directions at 45 deg angle to 6. Use a laser screed in lieu of rigid
strip. Use supplementary material to strikeoff guides and vibratory screed
fill low spots. to produce this same quality.
Table 8.15.3.b— Suspended slab: flatness Table 8.15.3.b— Suspended slab: levelness
Typical specification Typical specification Typical forming and strikeoff

requirements Typical finishing requirements requirements requirements
1. Smooth surface using 4 to 5 ft

Level and shored until after wide bull float. Level and shored until after
testing: 2. Wait until bleed water sheen has testing:
Specified overall value - 20 disappeared. 1. Set perimeter forms (optical or
Minimum local value -15 laser instruments).
Unshored: 3. Float surface with one or more Minimum local value -10
passes using a power float (float-shoe 2. Use block placements of varying
Specified overall value - 20 Unshored:
blades or pans). dimensions. Use wet screed strikeoff
Minimum local value - 15 Specified overall value - N/A
4. Make multiple passes with a power techniques to establish initial grade.
trowel (trowel blades). Minimum local value - N/A
1. Smooth and restraighten surface

using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float.
Level and shored until after 2. Wait until bleed water sheen has
testing: disappeared. Level and shored until after
Specified overall value - 25 3. Float surface with one or more testing: 1. Set perimeter forms (optical or
Minimum local value -17 passes using a power float (float-shoe laser instruments).
Unshored: blades or pans). 2. Use block placements of varying
Specified overall value - 25 Minimum local value -15
4. Restraighten surface following dimensions. Use wet screed strikeoff
Minimum local value - 17 paste-generating float passes using Unshored: techniques to establish initial grade.
10 ft wide highway straightedge. Specified overall value - N/A 3. Check grade after strikeoff. Repeat
5. Make multiple passes with a power Minimum local value - N/A strikeoff as necessary.
trowel (trowel blades).
1. Smooth and restraighten surface

using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float. Apply
in two directions at 45 deg angle to 1. Use a two-course placement to
strip. achieve this levelness quality. Top-
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has ping slab must be placed using slab
Level and shored until after disappeared. on grade techniques after shoring has
testing: been removed.
3. Float surface with one or more
Specified overall value - 30 2. Set edge forms using optical
Minimum local value -24 passes using a power float (float-shoe
blades or pans). Level and shored until after instrument to ±1 / 16 in accuracy. Use
Unshored:
Specified overall value - 30 4. Restraighten surface following testing: straightedge to identify form high
Minimum local value - 24 paste-generating float passes using Specified overall value - N/A spots; place top surface to fit inside
10 ft wide highway straightedge. Use 1
Minimum local value -N/A /16 in envelope.
in two directions at 45 deg angle to
Unshored: 3. Use strip placements with maxi-
strip. Use supplementary material to
fill low spots. Specified overall value - 50 mum widths of 20 ft. Utilize edge
forms to establish initial grade.
5. Make multiple passes with a power Minimum local value - 30
trowel (trowel blades are preferable). 4. Use vibratory screed for initial
strikeoff.
1. Smooth and restraighten surface 5. Check grade after strikeoff. Repeat
using 8 to 10 ft wide bull float or strikeoff as necessary.
highway straightedge. Apply in two 6. Follow vibratory screed pass with
directions at 45 deg angle to strip. two or three hand straightedge
2. Wait until bleed water sheen has passes along the axis of the strip.
disappeared.
3. Float surface with one or more
Level and shored until after (float-shoe blades or pans). First float Metric Equivalents
testing: pass should be across width of strip.
Specified overall value - 50 4. Restraighten surface following
Minimum local value - 35 paste-generating float passes using 1/
Unshored: 10 ft wide highway straightedge. Use in = 1.5 mm
16
Specified overall value - 50 in two directions at 45 deg angle to
Minimum local value - 35 strip. Use supplementary material to
4 ft = 1.2 m
fill low spots. 5 ft = 1.5 m
5. Make multiple passes with a power 8 ft = 2.4 m
trowel (trowel blades are preferable).
6. Restraighten surface after trowel
10 ft = 3 m
passes using multiple passes with 20 ft = 6.1 m
weighted highway straightedge to
scrape the high spots. No filling of
30 ft = 9.1 m
low spots is done at this stage. 50 ft = 15.2 m
the floor’s relative levelness, while subsequent finishing op- differences and plan accordingly. Refer to Chapter 3 for
erations (floating, restraightening, and troweling) will deter- more detailed discussion of behavior of different types of
mine the floor’s relative flatness. Any factor that structural systems.
complicates placing or finishing operations will have an ad- The FL levelness tolerance should only be applied to slabs
verse effect upon the flatness/levelness produced. on ground that are level and to suspended slabs that are both
The flatness and levelness F-numbers normally obtained level and shored at the time data are taken. The F L levelness
using a given floor construction procedure are summarized tolerance should not apply to slabs placed on unsupported
in Tables 8.15.3.a and 8.15.3.b. form surfaces. It should not be applied to cambered or in-
These are the floor-finish tolerances expected to be clined slab surfaces. Concrete slabs placed over unshored
achieved by competent, knowledgeable finishers under structural steel and metal deck surfaces can exhibit signifi-
“standard” job conditions. Difficult job environments could cant deflection in the hardened state. The resulting slab sur-
result in significantly lower values. Both specifiers and con- faces have occasionally required extensive repair to achieve
tractors should approach each new concrete floor project us- a product satisfactory for applied finishes or partitions.
ing the guidelines set forth in Section 8.15.2. 8.15.4 Timeliness of tolerance measurement—To establish
8.15.3.1 Flatness—On those projects where flatness is an the flooring contractor’s compliance with specified floor tol-
important consideration, precautions should be taken to pro- erances, the contract documents should stipulate that floor
vide an adequate construction environment. Of particular tolerance compliance tests be performed and defective areas
concern for both slabs on ground and suspended slabs are: identified. This should be completed by the owner’s agent as
•Workability, finishability, and setting times of concrete soon as possible, preferably within 24 hours after placement,
to be used and be reported to key parties as soon as possible, but not lat-
•The “window of finishability,” which should be suffi- er than 72 hours after installation. For suspended cast-in-
cient for the contractor to perform the required finish- place slabs, tests for acceptance should be conducted before
ing operations forms and shoring have been removed. In this way, the ef-
•Sun, wind, rain, temperature, other exposure conditions, fects of deflection and shrinkage on the tolerance data can be
and their effects on personnel and concrete minimized.
•Light levels As a practical matter, measurements for suspended-slab
•Timeliness of concrete delivery construction should usually be made within a few hours of
•Consistency of delivered slump slab placement. In vertical construction, the only available
•Consistency of final setting time surface for staging materials is often the slab that has just
•Site accessibility been placed and finished. Failure to take advantage of this
8.15.3.2 Levelness—For slabs on ground, accuracy of very short window of availability following completion of
formwork and initial strikeoff establish the overall levelness finishing operations will hamper, if not preclude, the toler-
of the surface. Form spacing, therefore, is an important con- ance data collection.
sideration when developing a construction program intended Early measurement also relates directly to the contractor’s
to produce a certain quality. The use of block-placement performance. If methods and procedures require modifica-
techniques with wet-screed strikeoff provides the least accu- tion, changes can be made early on, minimizing the amount
rate control of grade. Block placements with moveable rigid- of unsatisfactory floor surface and repair required. At times,
screed guides provides an improvement in the levelness later measurements will be needed to see whether other in-
quality that can be achieved. Further improvement in level- fluences have impacted flatness or levelness. For example,
ness generally requires the use of either strip placements and slabs on ground are subject to edge curling in the weeks fol-
vibrating screeds, or self-propelled laser-guided strike-off lowing construction; cast-in-place suspended slabs deflect
equipment. Strip widths up to 50 ft (15.2 m) have provided from their supported position when shores are removed.
levelness quality comparable to that which can be achieved These possible later changes are affected by various design
using moveable dry-screeds in a block placement. Reducing choices as well as the implementation of these choices by the
the width of strips improves the ability of the contractor to contractor. For slabs on ground, such design choices include
produce level surfaces because there is less tendency for the slab thickness, joint spacing, use of reinforcing steel, and va-
vibrating screed to oscillate or deflect, and the controlling por retarders. Inadequate curing can also accelerate curling
edge form elevations are closer together. The highest quality of slabs on ground. For cast-in-place suspended slabs, de-
of levelness can be achieved using strip widths between 10 flection can be influenced by a number of variables, includ-
and 20 ft (3 and 6 m). This width allows the contractor to fol- ing depth of the structure, quantity of reinforcing steel, form-
low the vibrating screed with hand straightedging operations stripping procedures, and concrete strength when shoring is
to remove any imperfections in the surface left by the vibrat- removed.
ing screed. Since curling of slabs on ground will adversely affect flat-
Levelness of suspended slabs is dependent on accuracy of ness/levelness in service, methods to limit curling (Section
formwork and strikeoff, but is further influenced by behavior 11.11) should be identified in the contract documents. Con-
of the structural frame during and after completion of concrete with the lowest practical water content and low-shrink-
struction. Each type of structural frame behaves somewhat age characteristics should be required. In addition, base
differently; it is important that the contractor recognize those conditions should not be such that the concrete underside re-
mains wet while the top dries out. Joint spacings, load trans- 5. Increase the amount of fine aggregate passing the No.
fer device, and reinforcement should be designated to 50, 100, and 200 (300, 150, and 75 µm) sieves to near the
minimize curling. Proper curing measures are essential, and maximum allowable amount. More water (and possibly
should be started as soon as possible after final finishing. more cement) can be needed due to more paste being re-
These requirements should be clearly defined in the contract quired; more shrinkage could result.
documents and adhered to during the concreting operations. 6. Use the lowest practicable water content.
7. Avoid admixtures that augment bleeding.
8.16—Treatment when bleeding is a problem 8. Use an accelerating admixture (see Section 5.6.3 for po-
Prolonged bleeding can occur with poorly-proportioned tentially deleterious effects).
mixtures, poorly-graded aggregates, excessive slump, or un- 9. Use concrete approaching the highest as-placed temper-
der conditions of low temperature, high humidity, or no air ature permitted by the contract documents. (Note: Except for
circulation. Bleed water may not evaporate, and the surface bleeding, there are benefits to be derived from placing con-
may not be sufficiently dry for floating and troweling. crete at the lowest permissible temperature.)
One method to remedy the problem is to use fans or blow- 10. Use dewatering techniques (Section 8.3.6).
er heaters of adequate size and in sufficient numbers to evap-
orate the excess moisture while the concrete is still plastic. 8.17—Delays in cold-weather finishing
Avoid using nonvented heaters, particularly those impinging Since concrete sets more slowly in cold weather and can be
on the surface of new concrete. They will cause carbonation damaged by freezing, measures should be taken to keep the
of the surface, which can create a soft, dusty, chalky surface concrete temperature above 50 F (10 C). Appropriate curing
(Section 11.4). procedures (Section 9.5.1) should be provided to prevent
If the concrete is firm enough for floating, but the surface moisture loss and to keep every portion of the slab (including
is still wet, the following methods can be used to obtain a dri- the edges) above freezing temperature. Any of the concrete’s
er surface: tendencies toward bleeding will be considerably aggravated
1. Drag a rubber hose slowly over the entire surface; the by the slower setting, and more work will be required to take
concrete should be stiff enough so that only water is re- care of it properly (Section 8.16). Many extra hours of finish-
moved. In limited small areas that are difficult to reach with ers’ time will be required unless acceptable means can be
a hose, a single pass of a trowel tipped on edge can be used found to shorten the setting time. Often, some extra expense
to remove water; however, slowly dragging a hose is much to speed up the operation is justified by whichever of the fol-
less likely to damage the surface, and this method should be lowing methods are most appropriate and least costly for a
used for the problem whenever possible. particular situation. Before adopting any method, tests should
2. Where required after removal of bleed water, apply ad- be made with job materials at job temperature conditions to
ditional concrete to fill low spots. This can be accomplished confirm that acceptable results will be obtained.
by discharging a small amount of concrete in a container dur- 1. Where it can be used without violating the precautions
ing placing operations. The material in the container should of Section 5.6.3, a 1 percent to 2 percent addition of calcium
have setting characteristics similar to those of the in-place chloride by weight of cement will accelerate setting signifi-
concrete. cantly. When used, it should be added as a water solution.
In general, the bleeding tendencies of concrete can be re- 2. Where the use of calcium chloride is prohibited:
duced significantly by the following actions. Every reason- a. A change to high-early-strength cement (Type III), or
able effort should be made to take such measures when use of a larger amount of Type I or II cement than usu-
bleeding is a problem: ally required, can provide sufficient acceleration. Use
1. Correct any aggregate gradation deficiency problem of these modifications can modestly increase shrinkage
where materials of the required size gradations are econom- and curling. Increases in cement content above approx-
ically available. The use of gap-graded aggregates results in imately 600 to 625 lb per cu yd (355 to 370 kg/m3 ) can
increased bleeding. Ideally, combined gradation of all aggre- cause additional drying shrinkage and cracking in the
gates should yield a percent retained on each sieve below the hardened concrete.
largest and above the No. 100 (150 µm) of somewhere be- b. Noncorrosive, nonchloride accelerating admixtures are
tween 8 percent and 18 percent. The most common deficien- available. The dosage rate can be varied to provide the
cy is in the 3 /8 in., No. 4, No. 8, or No. 16 (9.5 mm, 4.75 mm, optimum acceleration.
2.36 mm, or 1.18 mm) sieve sizes. c. An increase in concrete temperate to 70 F (21 C) will
2. Use more cement if paste content is low. noticeably reduce the setting time (although a low as-
3. Use pozzolan to replace part of cement or as an addition placed concrete temperature has many benefits). ACI
to the cement. (Note: Pozzolan should be finer than cement, 306R.
and if the pozzolan is fly ash, it should conform to the re- d. Early access for floating can be achieved by the appli-
quirements of ASTM C 618.) cation of dewatering techniques after first strikeoff and
4. Use the maximum allowable amount of entrained air. bull floating (Section 8.3.6).
The use of air-entrained concrete containing in excess of 3 3. The water-cementitious material ratio should be re-
percent air for hard-troweled surfaces can promote develop- duced and the minimum slump selected that can be easily
ment of blisters, delamination, and surface peeling. handled and placed.
4. Overworking the concrete should be avoided during the 9.2.3.1 Polyethylene (plastic) film—Polyethylene film and
strikeoff and bull-floating operations. other plastic sheet materials are available in clear, white, or
black and are easily handled; the white is especially good for
CHAPTER 9—CURING, PROTECTION, AND JOINT covering fresh concrete subject to sunlight. These films
FILLING avoid leaving a residue that can prevent the bond of new con-
crete to hardened concrete or the bond of resilient floor cov-
9.1—Purpose of curing
erings to concrete. Plastic films are particularly effective for
After proper placement and finishing of suitable quality
curing the base slab of two-course floors. However, they can
concrete, curing is the single most important factor in
leave blotchy spots on the slab and should not be used for
achieving a high quality slab. The primary purpose of curing
is to slow the loss of moisture from the slab. A longer period colored concrete or where appearance of the slab surface is
of moisture retention permits more complete hydration of the important. The sheets should be spread as soon as possible
cement, resulting in greater strength. See ACI 308 for details after finishing operations without marring the surface finish.
as to recommended curing time and minimum recommended Edges of sheets should be lapped a sufficient distance to pre-
temperatures. vent moisture loss and sealed with tape, mastic, or glue, or
held in place with wood planks or sand. Construction traffic
9.2—Methods of curing should be restricted because the film can be extremely slip-
Moisture retention can be enhanced by several methods in- pery.
cluding moisture addition, moisture retaining covers, and 9.2.3.2 Waterproof paper—Waterproof paper has the
liquid membrane-forming curing compound. The character- same advantages and disadvantages as plastic film, except
istics of curing materials are set forth in detail in Section 5.9. that discoloration is less likely. It should be light in color; the
9.2.1 Water curing—Water curing by ponding, sprinkling, edges should be lapped and sealed, and left in place for the
or soaking should only be employed on slab areas without duration of the curing period. Tears caused by construction
joints or where the water is positively confined by dams to traffic should be repaired to maintain proper moisture reten-
prevent flooding the base course or saturating the sub- tion.
base/subgrade. This is necessary to limit potential slab curl- 9.2.4 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds—Ap-
ing due to moisture gradients and to preserve compaction of plication of liquid membrane-forming curing compounds is
the soil support system. Water used for curing should closely the most widely used method for curing concrete. Advantag-
match the concrete temperature at time of application. Fog- es are relatively low in-place cost, early access to the floor,
ging can provide the most satisfactory approach. Care should and the elimination of subsequent monitoring of the curing
be taken to maintain continuous wetting and to prevent iso- process. Disadvantages include the potential for insufficient
lated dry spots. Water curing should be used for shrinkage- and uneven coverage, conflict with regulations on the release
compensating concrete slabs. of volatile organic compounds, interference with bond of
9.2.2 Wet covering—When properly applied and main- surfacing materials, and variability of quality and solids con-
tained, burlap and other wet coverings provide a continuous tent. Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds should
supply of moisture uniformly distributed on the slab surface.
be applied as soon as finishing operations are complete,
Burlap has been the most commonly used wet covering; wet
while the surface is still damp, but without free water. Ma-
burlap tends to reduce the temperature of the hydrating con-
chine spraying is preferable, but manual spraying is accept-
crete slabs. Moist hay, straw, earth, or sand have been used,
able if accomplished with sufficient care to ensure uniform
but their use is usually too labor-intensive for large projects
and complete coverage. White-pigmented or fugitive-dye
and can discolor the surface. If sand or earth is used, it should
compounds help assure even coverage and can be considered
be applied at least 1 in. (25 mm) deep and kept continuously
to reflect light and heat for floors exposed to sunlight. Gen-
wet during the curing period. Wet coverings should be laid
over the concrete as soon as finishing operations are com- erally, the curing compound should meet or exceed the min-
plete and surface marring can be avoided. Exposed concrete imum moisture retention requirements of ASTM C 309
edges should be carefully covered. The coverings should be (Section 5.9.3).
kept wet so that a film of moisture remains continuously in Curing compounds leave a film that can interfere with the
contact with the concrete throughout the curing period. Bur- adhesion of other materials to the treated surface; they
laps are available that resist rot and fire or that reflect light— should not be used on the base slab of a bonded two-course
reducing heat absorption from sunlight—or a combination floor. Their use should also be avoided on surfaces that will
thereof. Coverings with burlap on one side and polyethylene later be covered with resilient floor coverings, protective
on the other are also available; the polyethylene is helpful in coatings, sealers, or other special treatments. Where applica-
keeping the burlap moist longer, but it makes rewetting more ble, a letter of compatibility should be issued prior to the use
difficult. of a curing compound on a floor receiving a subsequent fin-
9.2.3 Moisture retaining coverings—Although not usually ish. Curing compounds can also aggravate tire marking
as effective as water curing and wet coverings, moisture re- problems from forklift traffic; special nonmarking tires can
taining coverings are widely used due to their convenience. be effective in minimizing these problems.
9.3—Curing at joints fore freezing. See Section 4.6 for other concrete placement
It is important that edges of joints be cured to ensure max- conditions and refer to ACI 306R for more information on
imum concrete strength and further reduce the potential for cold-weather concreting procedures.
curling. Joints are cured adequately when wet coverings or 9.5.2 Hot-weather considerations—In hot weather, curing
moisture-retaining coverings are used. If a liquid membrane- procedures should begin immediately following or even be-
forming curing compound is used, it may have to be removed fore the final finishing operations to prevent surface drying.
later if a joint filler is installed. Alternatively, joints can be Continuous moist-curing methods—water curing and wet
temporarily filled with wet sand or compressed backer rod coverings—are the most effective because they provide ade-
during the curing period. If sand is used, it should be rewet- quate moisture and tend to prevent excessive heat build-up.
ted periodically. Moisture-retaining coverings limit evaporation; conditions
creating temperature gradients in the slab should be avoided.
9.4—Curing of special concretes Curing compounds used for exterior work should be white-
Colored concretes and metallic-hardened floors require pigmented. See Section 4.6 for other concrete placement
special curing techniques. Refer to Section 8.6 and recom- conditions, and refer to ACI 305R for more information on
mendations of the materials manufacturer. hot-weather concreting procedures.
9.5—Length of curing 9.6—Preventing plastic shrinkage cracking

Regardless of the method employed, the curing process Plastic shrinkage cracking occurs in newly floated or trow-
should begin as soon as finishing operations are complete. eled slabs when the rate of drying at the surface is more rapid
If concrete begins to dry excessively prior to completion of than the upward movement of bleed water. Plastic shrinkage
finishing operations, the surface should be protected by cracking occurs in the presence of such factors as moderate
fogging or use of a monomolecular film. The duration of to high winds, low relative humidity, and high concrete and
curing will vary with the method, ambient temperature, hu- air temperatures. The use of latex-modified concrete, high-
midity, and type of cement. With any type of cement, in range water reducers, and silica fume tends to increase plas-
temperatures above 40 F (5 C) 7 days of uninterrupted cur- tic shrinkage cracking potential since these materials usually
ing is normally recommended for water curing or moisture- reduce the bleed rate of concrete.
retaining-cover curing. This time period can be reduced to Vapor retarders/barriers immediately under the concrete
3 days when high-early-strength concrete is used and tem- may aggravate plastic and drying-shrinkage cracking and
peratures are 73 F (23 C) or higher. slab curling because the bottom of the slab loses little or no
9.5.1 Cold-weather considerations—Slabs should not be moisture while the top dries and shrinks at a faster rate.6,7,8
placed on a frozen base. Cold-weather protective measures If the rate of water evaporation from the concrete ex-
should maintain a concrete temperature above 50 F (10 C), ceeds 0.2 lb per sq ft per hr (1.0 kg/m 2 /hr), precautions
and appropriate curing procedures should be provided to should be taken to reduce evaporation (Fig. 2.1.5 of ACI
minimize moisture loss. Insulating blankets placed over the 305R). Measures helpful in preventing or reducing plastic
top of a curing membrane will retain heat, provided there is shrinkage cracking are given in Section 11.2.1; additional
no danger of serious loss of heat from below the slab—for information is presented in ACI 305R.
example, an upper floor of an open, unheated building. Par-
ticular care should be given to the corners and edges of the 9.7—Curing after grinding
slab, which are more vulnerable to rapid heat loss. The If grinding is required, it should be initiated as soon as the
amount of insulation required can be calculated from tables floor is hard enough to avoid dislodging aggregate particles.
furnished in ACI 306R. When there is a danger of freez- Curing should be maintained both before and after early
ing—particularly when mean daily temperatures are lower grinding.
than 40 F (4 C)—insulation is frequently not sufficient to
protect thin slabs of concrete used for floors, and auxiliary 9.8—Protection of slab during construction
heat is required. The area should be enclosed with tarpau- Protection should be provided against:
lins or plastic sheeting and heated with live steam or vented a. Heavy construction traffic
heaters. The use of salamanders, or other equipment that b. Hard-wheeled traffic
exhaust carbon dioxide gases into the area above the con- c. Impact and abrasion
crete floor, should be avoided because of the danger of car- d. Imposed loads (cranes, concrete trucks)
bonation of the fresh concrete; carbonation will result in a e. Stains (grease, oil, chemicals, paints, plaster, clay soil)
soft, dusty surface.21 f. Rubber tire marks
Where freezing is anticipated during or within a few days g. Deicers
following the curing period, consideration should be given h. Freezing
to protection of the concrete. Concrete saturated with water
is vulnerable to freezing damage; the use of thermal blan- 9.9—Temperature drawdown in cold storage and
kets or other protective measures can be necessary. The freezer rooms
curing method and procedure should cure the concrete sat- The temperature reduction in freezer and cold storage
isfactorily and allow appropriate drying of the concrete be- rooms should be gradual to control cracking caused by dif-
differential thermal contraction and to allow drying to re- CHAPTER 10—QUALITY CONTROL CHECKLIST
move excess moisture from the slab after curing. A typical
drawdown schedule might be as follows: 10.1—Introduction
Temperature Time The Committee recommends that details on a Quality Con-
1. Ambient to 35 F (1.7 C) 10 F (5.6 C) Per day (24 hours) trol Program be included in the contract documents. To ensure
2. Hold at 35 F (1.7 C) —— 2 to 5 days that the program will be fully complied with for the duration
3. 35 F (1.7 C) to final 10 F (5.6 C) Per day of the project, procedures should be presented to the involved
parties in the prebid meeting, and reviewed in detail at the pre-
9.10—Joint filling and sealing construction meeting. Since the eventual success of any
Materials for joint fillers and sealants are discussed in Sec- project is the result of a team effort, there should be a complete
tion 5.12. Construction and contraction joints are normally understanding and agreement regarding the provisions of the
Program before any concrete construction is started.
formed and sawn, or sawn only. Saw cuts should not be made
Many items involved with quality control will be covered
at the construction joints until a crack is perceptible where
in the preconstruction meeting, but some questions or con-
the adjacent placements abut each other. Isolation joints can
cerns will invariably come up on site that are not covered in
be formed with preformed fiberboard, polyethylene foam, or
the bid documents or at the meeting. Therefore, it is essential
similar materials before concrete placement begins. This is to have a person on site who has the experience and back-
described in Section 3.2.5.1 and detailed in ACI 504R. Back- ground necessary to use the best possible judgment. Person-
er rods should not be used in joints that will be exposed to nel with ACI certification can contribute greatly toward
heavy traffic. Isolation joints are sometimes sealed with resolving these concerns, as well as ensuring quality con-
an elastomeric sealant to prevent moisture, dirt, or debris struction in the field.
accumulation.
9.10.1 Time of filling and sealing—Concrete slabs on 10.2—Partial list of important items to be observed
ground continue to shrink for years; most shrinkage takes Additional background information regarding important
place within the first year. It is advisable to defer joint filling items such as concrete reinforcement, surface hardeners, and
and sealing as long as possible to minimize the effects of joint sealants can be applicable during the actual construc-
shrinkage-related joint opening on the filler or sealant. This tion phase.
is especially important where semirigid epoxy fillers are 10.2.1 Slump control and testing—The addition of water to
used in traffic-bearing joints; such epoxies have minimal ex- the concrete at the jobsite (Section 7.3.2) can be required to
ensure consistent placeability, workability, and finishability;
tensibility. If the joint should be filled before most of the
it is essential that no more water be added than is necessary
shrinkage has occurred, separation should be expected be-
to meet the overall project requirements. The Committee
tween the joint edge and the joint filler, or within the joint recommends that a specific amount of “trim water”—part of
filler itself. These slight openings can subsequently be filled the design mix water—be withheld at the plant to permit this
with a low-viscosity epoxy adhesive. If construction traffic onsite adjustment. Two procedures that help ensure adequate
dictates that joints be filled early, provisions should be made control of slump at the jobsite are: (1) be sure truck mixers
to require that the contractor return at a preestablished date come to the site with full water tanks, and (2) designate one
to complete the necessary work using the same manufactur- specific person to authorize adding water at the site.
er’s product. Earlier filling will result in greater separation, Testing, including provisions for handling and storing cylin-
and will lead to the need for more substantial correction; this ders or cores, should be completed in accordance with ASTM
separation does not indicate a failure of the filler. For cold procedures. This is particularly significant when air-entrained
storage and freezer room floors, the joint filler should be in- concrete is used; the actual air content is subject to change and
stalled only after the room has been held at its planned oper- requires repeated testing. When entrained air is prohibited, or
ating temperature for 48 hours. less than 3 percent total air is desired, the air content should be
9.10.2 Installation—Elastomeric sealants should be in- checked on the first truck, and occasionally thereafter.
stalled over a backer rod or other bondbreaker as described 10.2.2 Avoid delays—Anything that would result in slump
in ACI 504R. The use of elastomeric sealants over backer loss should be avoided—delays in delivery of concrete, de-
lays in placing or finishing operations, and interruptions by
rods is not recommended in joints exposed to solid-wheel
other trades. Although the mixture proportions may have
traffic. Semirigid epoxy and polyurea fillers should be in-
been approved, some minor adjustments could be required
stalled full-depth in saw-cut joints. Joints should be suitably due to locally available materials or jobsite conditions.
cleaned to provide optimum contact between the filler or 10.2.3 Forms, reinforcement, dowels, and joints—Forms,
sealant and bare concrete. Vacuuming is recommended rath- reinforcement, and dowels should be secured and remain
er than blowing the joint out with compressed air. Dirt, de- straight and true during the entire placing and finishing op-
bris, saw cuttings, curing compounds, and sealers should be eration. Unless otherwise stated in the contract documents,
removed. Cured epoxy fillers should be installed flush with reinforcement should be discontinued at joints. If the con-
the floor surface to protect the joint edges and re-create an in- tract documents indicate that reinforcement should continue
terruption-free floor surface. through joints, the engineer should be told that some random
cracking could result. The alignment of reinforcement along ery project. Also, it will be evident that the most common
joints should permit a straight sawcut to be effective and al- imperfections stem from failure to obey the basic rules of
low joints to open. Smooth dowels should be used in joints concrete finishing given in Section 8.3.3, such as “Any fin-
where load transfer is required. Dowels in contraction joints ishing operation performed while there is excess moisture or
should be positively supported and aligned. Any conditions bleed water on the surface will cause dusting or scaling” [and
that create restraint to the normal shrinkage process should also cause crazing and reduced resistance to wear]; and as is
be noted—for example, the condition of the base on which stated in Section 8.3.5, “No subsequent operation [after bull-
the concrete is placed. Although the practice of cutting every floating and restraightening] should be done until the con-
other bar or wire has been used with some success, there is crete will sustain foot pressure with only about 1/ 4 -in. (6-
always the possibility of some cracks forming in the interme- mm) indentation” [that is, no premature finishing].
diate panels due to partial restraint at the joint (Section Another common cause of floor and slab surface imperfec-
3.2.4). tions is the lack of prompt curing. The keyword is “prompt,”
10.2.4 Finishing—The finishing process should be dis- and the degree to which this can be accomplished, especially
cussed with the finishing foreman since no specification can in dry or windy weather, will improve the quality of floor
be sufficiently accurate as to the actual timing of most finish- and slab surfaces tremendously. Moist curing is best, provid-
ing operations. Slab edges should be given special attention, ed the slab is kept continuously moist (Section 9.2).
beginning with the initial floating step and continuing Rarely will there be a single cause for a given imperfec-
through the entire finishing process. tion; usually some combination will be responsible. The in-
If an aggregate- or metallic-surface hardener is used, the fluence of any cause will vary with the degree of its
hardener should be completely “wetted out” so no dry mate- departure from best practice, with the properties of the mate-
rial will be floated into the surface prior to machine floating. rials used, and with the ambient temperature and other
10.2.5 Curing, saw cutting, joint filling, and tolerances— weather conditions present during the work. Satisfactory re-
The proposed method of curing, the necessary timing for sults are more likely to be obtained if the causes mentioned
sawing joints, the protection of joint edges until the joints are for the various kinds of imperfections are carefully avoided.
filled, the timing of joint filling, and the protection required
of the completed floor should be reviewed in detail. There 11.2—Cracking
should be a complete understanding regarding the order in Cracking of concrete (Fig. 11.2) is a frequent complaint.
which the curing, sawing, and floor tolerance testing are to Cracking is caused by restraint (internal or external) of vol-
be performed. ume change, commonly brought about by a combination of
10.2.6 On-site meeting—After initial placement, it is pos- factors such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction, curl-
sible that additional onsite meetings may be necessary to re- ing, settlement of the soil support system, and applied loads.
view actual results and discuss any required adjustments in Cracking can be significantly reduced when the causes are
the overall plan. Also, backup procedures for equipment understood and preventive steps are taken. For example,
breakdowns should be discussed with the concrete superin- joints that are properly designed, detailed, and installed at
tendent—for example, pumps, troweling machines, spread- the proper spacing and time during construction will cause
ers, and saws. cracks to occur in the joints, where they remain inconspicu-
ous, instead of random locations.
CHAPTER 11—CAUSES OF FLOOR AND SLAB Contractors are not necessarily responsible for all cracks.
SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS Many floor or slab design features and concrete mixture pro-
portions are responsible for, or contribute to, cracking of
11.1—Introduction concrete construction. If a contractor believes there are prob-
Concrete is a forgiving material. But, concrete quality can
be adversely affected by conditions over which the engineer
or the contractor has little control. This chapter lists the con-
ditions and circumstances that can cause imperfections in
concrete floor and slab surfaces. Concrete is capable of pro-
viding a highly durable, serviceable, and attractive surface.
When it does not do so, there are always reasons. By keeping
the causes of certain imperfections in mind, it is possible to
reduce the likelihood of unsatisfactory results; these causes
will be described briefly in this chapter. When the corrective
action to eliminate a particular cause is not obvious, the most
promising suitable procedure described in preceding chap-
ters will be referenced.
In reviewing the causes of floor and slab surface imperfec-
tions, the reader should keep in mind the inherent character-
istics of portland cement concrete, such as drying shrinkage Fig. 11.2—Drying shrinkage cracks such as these are a fre-
cracking. Some curling and cracking can be expected on ev- quent cause of complaint
Fig. 11.2.2.1—Plastic shrinkage cracks are caused by Fig. 11.2.2.2—Crazing is a network of very fine superficial
rapid loss of mix water from the surface while the concrete surface cracks
is still plastic
lems with slab design, mixture proportions, or other prob- 9. Slabs restrained by a rutted or uneven base, and changes
lems, they should be pointed out prior to installation; the in slab thickness.
prebid and preconstruction meetings should be used for this 10. Reinforcement continuous through joints, thus pre-
purpose. Designers should pay careful attention to the causes venting joints from opening.
of cracking, and contractors need to understand floor and 11. Slabs cast upon a base which has a high coefficient of
slab design and concrete mixture proportioning in order to friction, such as an open-graded crushed stone. Such bases
avoid problems. Designers also should understand slab con- can be “choked-off” with a 1 /2 -in.-thick (13-mm) layer of
struction in order to avoid “building in” problems for the sand or a suitable fine-graded crushed-stone material. This
contractor. For more information on control, causes, evalua- will provide a smoother surface on which the slab can slide
tion, and repair of cracks in concrete structures, see ACI (Section 4.1.4).
224R and 224.1R. 11.2.2 Early cracking—Some cracking can occur before
11.2.1 Restraint—Since cracking is caused by restraint of the concrete has hardened. This can complicate the finishing
volume changes, normal volume changes would be of little operations considerably. Some examples are:
consequence if concrete were free of any restraint. But, since 1. Plastic-shrinkage cracking (Sections 9.6 and 11.2.2.1).
concrete in service is usually restrained by foundations, sub- Plastic-shrinkage cracks in the still-unhardened concrete can
grade, reinforcement, or connecting members, significant sometimes be closed by tamping and beating the surface
stresses can develop—particularly tensile stresses. The with a hand float. While this should be done, the more effec-
amount of drying shrinkage will be reduced somewhat by tak- tive protective measures listed in Section 11.2.2.1 also
ing practical measures to place the concrete with the lowest should be undertaken immediately to remove the causes of
possible water content. Water reduction through use of admix- plastic-shrinkage cracking in the remaining work.
tures—water-reducing admixtures meeting ASTM C 494, 2. Cracking from settlement of concrete around reinforc-
Types A and D, and air-entraining admixtures—has little ef- ing bars or other embedments (Sections 5.8 and 6.2.5).
fect on drying shrinkage.1,28,44 Thus, drying shrinkage of con- 3. Cracking along edges where forms are not rigid.
crete containing water reducers can still result in undesirable 4. Early thermal cracking.
cracking unless the following poor practices are prevented: 5. Damage from form removal.
1. Contraction joints spaced too far apart (Section 3.2.5.3). 11.2.2.1 Plastic-shrinkage cracking—Plastic-shrinkage
2. Contraction joints not deep enough. cracks (Fig. 11.2.2.1) are relatively short, shallow, random
3. Contraction joints not sawn early enough. (but sometimes parallel) cracks that can occur before final
4. Slabs strongly restrained at their perimeters by bond of finishing on days when wind, low humidity, and high con-
floor or slab concrete to foundation walls or other construc- crete and ambient temperatures occur. Surface moisture
tion, or by tying-in reinforcement to foundations, docks, and evaporates faster than it can be replaced by rising bleed wa-
tilt-up walls (Section 3.2.5). ter, causing the surface to shrink more than the interior con-
5. Isolation joints not provided around columns (Figs. crete. As the interior concrete restrains shrinkage of the
3.2.5.1.a and 3.2.5.1.b). surface concrete, stresses that exceed the concrete’s tensile
6. Omission of joint or omission of extra reinforcing steel strength develop, resulting in surface cracks. These cracks
placed diagonally to reentrant corners. range from a few inches to a few feet (about 100 mm to 1 m
7. Concrete mixtures of low strength with too little ce- or more) in length. They can be roughly parallel to one an-
ment, too much water, or both. Also, mixtures that include other and spaced from a few inches to two feet (about 100 to
any ingredient, such as aggregates or admixtures, with high- 600 mm) apart, but usually occur in a random, irregular pat-
shrinkage characteristics. tern. Crack formation begins at the surface and continues
8. Deficient curing, or no curing. downward for some distance, rapidly becoming narrower
with depth. Though usually only a few inches (approximate- 1. Curing with water that is more than 20 F (11 C) cooler
ly 25 to 75 mm) deep, they can go completely through the than the concrete.
slab. Following are some helpful measures to prevent or re- 2. Alternate wetting and drying of the concrete surface at
duce plastic-shrinkage cracking: early ages.
1. Dampen the base when no vapor retarder is used. 3. Overuse of jitterbugs, vibrating screeds, and bull floats
2. Erect windbreaks. (Section 8.3.2).
3. Erect sunshades. 4. Overworking and overtroweling, especially when the
4. Cool aggregates and mixing water before mixing. surface is too wet (Sections 8.3.10 and 8.3.11).
5. Prevent rapid drying by one of the following: 5. Premature floating and troweling (Section 8.3.3).
a. Protect concrete with moisture-retaining coverings 6. Dusting dry cement onto a surface to hasten drying be-
(Section 9.2.3) during any delay between placing and fore finishing.
finishing. 7. Too much clay and dirt in aggregates.
b. Cover with damp burlap or with white-polyethylene 8. Sprinkling water onto the surface of a slab during finish-
sheeting (Section 9.2.2) immediately after screeding ing.
and bull-floating. Keep burlap moist until the concrete 11.2.3 Other causes—Cracking can result from causes
is ready for finishing. Uncover only a small area at one other than shrinkage. Prominent causes are:
time, just ahead of the finishers. Begin curing as soon 1. Uneven support by a poorly prepared subgrade, subbase
as possible. or base, poor drainage, or uneven support due to curling of
c. Use monomolecular films to reduce evaporation slab edges (Section 11.11).
between the various placing and finishing operations. 2. Expansive clay in the subgrade.
d. Use a fog spray located upwind of the freshly-placed 3. Sulfates in subgrade soil or groundwater.
concrete. The spray device should use metered heads 4. Placing concrete over preformed joint filler (when plac-
and discharge spray into the air above the concrete. ing adjacent concrete).
6. Postpone each step of finishing (and its inherent rework- 5. Improper jointing and sealing (Sections 3.2.5, 5.12,
ing of the surface) as long as possible without endangering 9.10, and ACI 504R).
results. 6. Structural overloading, especially following the floor
7. Avoid the use of a vapor retarder where not needed. construction phase of a building project.
11.2.2.2 Crazing—Crazing, a pattern of fine cracks that do 7. Impact loads.
not penetrate much below the surface, is caused by minor 8. Disruption from expansive alkali-silica reaction.
surface shrinkage (Fig. 11.2.2.2). Crazing cracks are very 9. Disruption from corrosion of reinforcing steel.
fine and barely visible, except when the concrete is drying 10. Disruption from freezing and thawing along edges and
after the surface has been wet. They are similar to mud at corners.
cracking in shape and in generation. The cracks encompass 11. Earth movements from contiguous construction—for
small concrete areas less than about 2 in. (50 mm) in dimen- example, blasting or pile driving.
sion, forming a chicken-wire-like pattern. The term “map 12. Thermal contraction, such as a sharp drop in ambient
cracking” is often used to refer to cracks that are similar to temperature shortly after casting a floor or slab.
crazing cracks only more visible and involving larger areas 13. Early or excessive construction traffic.
of concrete. Although crazing cracks can be unsightly and 14. Improper design (for example, selection of an inade-
can collect dirt, crazing is not structurally serious and does quate safety factor), resulting in a slab of inadequate thick-
not necessarily indicate the start of future deterioration in in- ness for service conditions.
terior slabs.
When concrete is just beginning to gain strength, climatic 11.3—Low resistance to wear
conditions, particularly the relative humidity during the drying Low wear resistance is due primarily to low-strength con-
period in a wetting and drying cycle, are an important cause of crete, particularly at the surface. Such low strengths result
crazing. Low humidity, high air and concrete temperatures, from:
hot sun, or drying wind, either separately or in any combina- 1. Too much mixing water.
tion, can cause rapid surface drying that encourages crazing. 2. Use of concrete with too high a water-cementitious ma-
The conditions that contribute to dusting, as described in Sec- terial ratio.
tion 11.4, also will increase the tendency to craze. 3. Excessive slump, which promotes bleeding and carries
To prevent crazing, curing procedures should begin imme- softer, lighter-weight material (laitance) to the surface. After
diately—within minutes after final finishing, particularly af- considering the unavoidable causes for slump loss, use the
ter hard troweling. This is especially important when lowest practical water content and slump (Table 6.2.1).
weather conditions are adverse. When the temperature is 4. Overworking overwet concrete. This should not be con-
high, and the sun is shining with high winds and low humid- strued to mean that it is acceptable to use overwet concrete
ity, some method of moist curing should be used to stop rap- under any conditions. Whatever is placed must be worked,
id drying. The concrete should be protected against rapid but if concrete is overwet, the ready-mix plant should be
changes in temperature and moisture wherever feasible. Oth- called to make sure no more wet batches are delivered. In ad-
er conditions to be avoided that can cause craze cracking are: dition to producing a surface with low resistance to wear,
Fig. 11.4—Dusting is evident when a fine powdery material Fig. 11.5—Scaling is the loss of surface mortar, usually
can be easily rubbed off the surface of a slab exposing the coarse aggregate
overworking of overwet concrete also will cause segrega- sistant concrete is needed. Floating and troweling concrete
tion; fluid mortar will flow into low areas, settle, and leave with bleed water on the surface mixes the excess water back
low spots. into the surface, further reducing the strength and wear resis-
5. Premature floating and troweling, which works bleed wa- tance at the surface, and giving rise to dusting (Section
ter into the surface (see Section 8.16 if bleeding is a prob- 8.3.3). Dusting can also be caused by:
lem). 1. Overly wet mixes with poor finishing characteristics.
6. Excessive use of water by finishers (Section 8.3.3). 2. Insufficient cement (Table 6.2.4).
7. Excessive entrained air in the surface mortar (although 3. Excessive clay, dirt, and organic materials in the aggre-
occurrence of this is not common). gate.
8. Deficient curing (Chapter 9). 4. Use of dry cement as a blotter to speed up finishing.
9. Surface carbonation from unvented heaters used for 5. Water applied to the surface to facilitate finishing.
cold-weather protection (ACI 306R). 6. Carbonation of the surface during winter concreting,
10. Impairment of surface strength potential by early-age caused by unvented heaters (ACI 306R).
freezing (ACI 306R). 7. Inadequate curing, allowing rapid drying of the surface,
11. Opening slab to abrasive traffic before sufficient especially in hot, dry, and windy weather.
strength has developed. 8. Freezing of the surface (ACI 306R).
12. Poor finishing techniques and improper timing during
and between finishing operations (Section 8.3). 11.5—Scaling
Scaling is the loss of surface mortar and mortar surround-
11.4—Dusting ing the coarse aggregate particles (Fig. 11.5). The aggregate
Dusting (Fig. 11.4) is another aspect of weak concrete at is usually clearly exposed and often stands out from the con-
the surface of a floor or slab. Dusting (the development of a crete. Scaling is primarily a physical action caused by hy-
fine, powdery material that easily rubs off the surface of draulic pressure from water freezing within the concrete; it is
hardened concrete) can occur either indoors or outdoors, but not usually caused by chemical corrosive action. When pres-
is more likely to be a problem when it occurs indoors. Dust- sure exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, scaling can re-
ing is the result of a thin, weak surface layer, called laitance, sult if entrained-air voids are not present in the surface
which is composed of water, cement, and fine particles. concrete to act as internal pressure relief valves. The pres-
Fresh concrete is a fairly cohesive mass, with the aggre- ence of a deicing solution in water-soaked concrete during
gates, cement, and water uniformly distributed throughout. freezing causes an additional buildup of internal pressure.
A certain amount of time must elapse before the cement and However, properly designed and placed air-entrained con-
water react sufficiently to stiffen and develop hardened concrete will withstand deicers for many years.
crete. During this period, the cement and aggregate particles Deicers such as sodium chloride, urea, and weak solutions
are partly suspended in the water. Because the cement and of calcium chloride do not chemically attack concrete; how-
aggregates are heavier than water, they tend to sink. As they ever, deicers containing ammonium sulfate or ammonium ni-
move downward, the displaced water and fines move up- trate will rapidly disintegrate concrete and should not be
ward and appear at the surface, resulting in more water and used. Several deicers, particularly those containing chloride
fines near and at the surface than in the lower portion of the ions, can accelerate corrosion of embedded steel. Prominent
concrete. This laitance—the weakest, most permeable, and among the causes of scaling are:
least wear-resistant material—is at the top surface, exactly 1. Permeable and poor-quality concrete due to:
where the strongest, most impermeable, and most wear-re- a. High water-cementitious material ratio (over 0.50).
b. Excessive slump for prevailing job conditions (Table

6.2.1).
c. Overworking of wet concrete (Section 8.3.10).
d. Premature finishing operations (Section 8.3.3).
e. Inadequate curing (Chapter 9).
f. Low compressive strength at the surface (Section
6.2.3).
2. In concrete to be exposed to freezing and thawing in ser-
vice, little or no entrained air due to
a. Failure to use an air-entraining agent.
b. Air worked out by overworking overwet concrete in
premature finishing operations (Sections 8.3.10 and
8.3.3).
c. Air content too low due to: mixing too long, concrete Fig. 11.5.1—Mortar flaking over coarse aggregate particles
temperature too high for a given dosage of air-entrain- is another form of scaling that resembles a surface with
ing agent, or improper dispensing of air-entraining popouts
agent.
3. Air content too low to resist the effect of chemicals used
for snow and ice removal (Section 6.2.3).
4. Inadequate thermal protection, allowing freezing of the
surface at an early age.
5. Exposure of new concrete to freezing and thawing be-
fore it has been adequately cured, achieved a compressive
strength of 4000 psi (28 MPa), and allowed to air dry. Appli-
cation of deicing chemicals at this early age greatly increases
the likelihood of scaling.
6. Blistering (Section 11.7), which increases vulnerability
to scaling.
7. Inadequate slope to properly drain water away from the
slab; saturated concrete is more susceptible to damage from
freezing and thawing than drier concrete.
11.5.1 Mortar flaking—Mortar flaking over coarse aggre- Fig. 11.6—A popout is a small fragment of concrete broken
gate particles (Fig. 11.5.1) is another form of scaling. Aggre- away from the surface of a slab due to internal pressure,
leaving a shallow, typically conical, depression
gate particles with flat surfaces are more susceptible to this
type of imperfection than round particles. Mortar flaking oc-
casionally precedes more widespread surface scaling, but its the expansion of a piece of chert, soft fine-grained limestone,
presence is not necessarily an indication of an onslaught of shale, hard-burned lime, hard-burned dolomite, pyrite, or
more extensive scaling. coal. The first two are natural constituents of some aggre-
Mortar flaking over coarse aggregate particles is caused gates; the others sometimes find their way into aggregates as
essentially by the same actions that cause regular scaling and impurities. In some materials, the expansion is caused by
often results from placing concrete on hot, windy days. Ex- freezing or absorption of moisture; in others it is caused by a
cessive and early drying out of the surface mortar can alone chemical change. For example, popouts can occur from the
aggravate scaling; however, the moisture loss is accentuated
chemical reaction between alkalies in concrete and reactive
over aggregate particles near the surface because bleed water
siliceous aggregates. Popouts range in size from about 1/ 4 to
beneath the aggregates cannot readily migrate to the surface
2 in. (6 to 50 mm) or more in diameter.
to replenish the evaporated water. This combination of
\Because popouts usually do not significantly diminish the
bleed-water blockage, high rate of evaporation, and lack of
integrity of concrete flatwork, they are sometimes tolerated.
moisture necessary for cement hydration results in a dry-
mortar layer of low strength, poor durability, high shrinkage, Nevertheless, they are usually unsightly and interfere with
and poor bond with the aggregate. Upon freezing in a satu- the performance of any slab required to be smooth. On floors
rated condition, this thin, weakened mortar layer breaks with hard-wheeled traffic, popouts can degenerate into larger
away from the aggregate. Poor finishing practices can also imperfections. Early repair should minimize further prob-
aggravate mortar flaking. lems in high-traffic areas.
The occurrence of impurities in the concrete can be be-
11.6—Popouts yond the control of the floor constructor, since it usually oc-
Popouts are roughly cone-shaped pits left in the surface of curs inadvertently in the production and handling of ready-
flatwork after a small piece of concrete has broken away by mixed concrete or its constituents. The presence of naturally
internal pressure (Fig. 11.6). This pressure is generated by occurring chert or soft fine-grained limestone, however, can
be a continuing problem in some locales. Measures that can the concrete stays plastic. Usually, what is needed to relieve
be taken to alleviate the problem are: this condition is to reduce the amount of sand in the mix by
1. Switching to a nonoffending source of aggregate for 100 to 200 lb per cu yd (60 to 120 kg/m 3), and to replace the
floors and slabs, if possible. removed sand with a like amount of the smallest-size coarse
2. Using two-course construction with selected or import- aggregate available. The resulting slightly harsher mix should
ed aggregate without popout potential for the topping course. release most of the entrapped air using normal vibration. On
3. Using aggregates from which the offending particles days when surface crusting occurs, slightly modified finishing
have been removed by heavy-media separation, if available techniques may be needed, such as the use of wooden floats to
and economically feasible. keep the surface open, and flat troweling to avoid enfolding air
4. Using wet-curing methods such as continuous fogging, into the surface under the blade action.
or covering with wet burlap immediately after final finish- 2. Insufficient vibration during compaction that does not
ing. Wet-cure for a minimum of 7 days, since wet curing can adequately release entrapped air, or overuse of vibration that
greatly reduce or eliminate popouts caused by alkali-aggre- leaves the surface with excessive fines, inviting crusting and
gate reactivity.44 Avoid plastic film, curing paper, and espe- early finishing.
cially curing compounds, since they allow an accumulation 3. Finishing when the concrete is still spongy. Any tool
of alkalies at the surface. Impervious floor coverings or used to compact or finish the surface will tend to force the
membranes, such as wax, epoxy, or other coatings, should be entrapped air toward the surface. Blisters may not appear af-
avoided because they can aggravate popout development. ter the first finishing pass, but later, as the work progresses
5. Using the lowest practical slump possible to prevent po- to the second or third troweling. At this stage in finishing, the
tential popout-causing particles from floating to the surface. trowel blade is tilted to increase surface density; air and wa-
In some areas and situations, these measures may not be prac- ter just under the surface are forced ahead of the blade until
tical. Specific local practices have been developed that have enough is concentrated (usually near a piece of large aggre-
been helpful in minimizing popouts. For example, in some re- gate) to form a blister. Blisters, which can be full of air
gions ready mix producers can supply popout-free concrete. and/or water when punctured, also can appear at any time
during finishing operations and without apparent cause.
11.7—Blisters Floating the concrete a second time helps to reduce blister-
The appearance of blisters (Fig. 11.7) on the surface of a ing. Delayed troweling will depress the blisters even though
concrete slab during finishing operations is annoying and an it may not reestablish complete bond.
imperfection not easily repaired once the concrete hardens. To avoid blisters, the following should be considered:
These “bumps” can range in size from 1/ 4 to 4 in. (6 to 100
1. Avoid the use of concrete with excessively high slump,
mm) in diameter with a depth of about 1 /8 in. (3 mm). They
water content, air content, or fines.
appear when bubbles of entrapped air or water rise through
2. Use appropriate cement contents (Table 6.2.4).
the plastic concrete and are trapped under an already sealed,
airtight surface. This early closing of the surface frequently 3. Warm the base before placing concrete during cool
happens when the top of a slab stiffens, dries, or sets faster weather. During hot, dry, windy weather, reduce evaporation
than the underlying concrete. Experienced finishers attribute over the slab by using an evaporation retardant (monomolec-
blistering to the following: ular film), a fog spray, or a slab cover (polyethylene film or
1. An excessive amount of entrapped or entrained air held wet burlap).
within the concrete by excessive fines—material passing the 4. Avoid placing a slab directly on polyethylene film or any
Nos. 30, 50, and 100 sieves (600, 300, and 150 µm)—resulting other vapor retarder. Use a minimum 4-in.-thick (100-mm)
in a sticky mixture that can become more easily sealed during layer of trimmable, compactible granular fill (not sand) to sep-
the closing and troweling operations. Sticky mixtures have a arate the vapor retarder from the concrete (Section 4.1.5).
tendency to crust under drying winds, while the remainder of 5. Avoid overworking the concrete, especially with vibrat-
ing screeds, jitterbugs, or bull floats. Overworking causes
coarse aggregate to settle, and bleed water and excess fines
to rise to the surface. Properly vibrate concrete to release en-
trapped air.
6. Do not use pans for initial machine floating.
7. Do not attempt to seal (finish) the surface too soon.
Hand floating should be started when a worker standing on a
slab makes a 1 /4 -in. (6-mm) footprint; for machine floating,
the footprint should be only about 1/ 8 in. (3 mm) deep. If
moisture is deficient, a magnesium float should be used.
8. Use a wooden bull float on non-air-entrained concrete
to avoid early sealing. Magnesium or aluminum tools should
be used on air-entrained concrete. Slabs that incorporate a
surface hardener are more prone to blister if not properly fin-
Fig. 11.7—Blisters ished (Sections 8.6.1 and 8.6.2).
9. Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing dur- 3. Joint edge spalls caused by small-hard-wheeled vehi-
ing and between finishing operations (Section 8.3). The for- cles traveling across improperly installed or filled joints
mation of blisters is an immediate indication that the angle of (Sections 3.2.6, 5.12, and 9.10), and spalls on the upper
the trowel is too great for the surface in that area at that par- flange of the female side of keyed-construction joints.
ticular time with the concrete and job conditions involved. 4. Poor bonding of topping to base course in two-course
The position of the trowel should be flattened, and the blis- floors (Sections 8.7.1 and 8.7.2) due to:
tered area re-troweled immediately to eliminate and rebond a. Inferior quality of surface concrete in the base course.
the blisters. If frequent blistering occurs despite reasonable b. Unremoved contamination in, or poor preparation of,
care in the timing and technique employed in the finished the surface of the base course.
troweling, attention should be directed to the job and climat- c. Differences in shrinkage between topping and base
ic conditions, and to the concrete mixture. courses.
Most skilled finishers know when a concrete surface is d. Drying of the bonding grout before the topping con-
ready for the raised and final troweling and closing of the crete is placed.
surface, and how to accomplish this operation. However, cir- e. Excessive pressure developed at joints, where preformed
cumstances are often beyond their control. For instance, if joint material was topped by continuous concrete.
there are too few finishers for the climatic conditions, finish- f. Restraint of movement of deck slabs on supporting
ers may have to close some portions of a floor too early in walls and piers due to inadequate provision for such
order to get it troweled before it has set too much. Similarly, movement.
if supervisors insist that a floor be finished by a certain time,
whether it is ready or not, blisters, trowel marks, and poor 11.9—Discoloration
surfaces can result. Surface discoloration of concrete flatwork can appear as
gross color changes in large areas of concrete, as spotted or
11.8—Spalling mottled light or dark blotches on the surface, or as early light
Unlike scaling and blistering, spalling is a deeper surface patches of efflorescence. Laboratory studies to determine the
imperfection, often extending to the top layers of reinforcing effects of various concrete materials and concreting proce-
steel or to the horizontal joint between the base and topping dures show that no single factor is responsible for discolora-
in two-course construction. Spalls can be 6 in. (150 mm) or tion.46 Factors found to influence discoloration are calcium
more in diameter and 1 in. (25 mm) or more in depth, al- chloride admixtures, concrete alkalies, hard-troweled surfac-
though smaller spalls also occur. Spalls are caused by pres- es, inadequate or inappropriate curing, variations in water-
sure or expansion within the concrete, bond failure in two- cementitious material ratio at the surface, and changes in the
course construction, impact loads, fire, or weathering. Joint concrete mixture. Like many other surface imperfections,
spalls are often caused by improperly constructed joints. discoloration is generally a cosmetic nuisance, rather than a
Spalls can occur over corroding reinforcing steel because the structural or serviceability problem.
corrosion products (rust) occupy more volume than the orig- Dark areas do not necessarily denote inferior serviceabili-
inal steel, and the resultant pressure spalls the concrete. ty unless there is evidence that dry cement has been troweled
In addition to its poor appearance, spalling can seriously into the surface to absorb excess bleed water (Section 8.16).
impair the strength or serviceability of a floor or slab. Indoor The following are causes of dark areas:
spalling is more likely to result from improper joint design 1. The use of calcium chloride in concrete can discolor the
or installation or bond failure in two-course floor construc- surface (Fig. 11.9). Calcium chloride accelerates the overall
tion, but obviously this can happen outdoors as well. Causes hydration process, but has a retarding effect on the hydration
for the various kinds of spalling include: of the ferrite compounds in portland cement. The ferrite
1. Insufficient depth of cover over reinforcement.
2. Inferior concrete in the cover over reinforcing steel.
Such concrete can fail to protect the steel from disruptive
corrosion because of its high permeability due to:
a. Overworking overwet concrete during finishing (Sec-
tions 8.3.10 and 8.3.3).
b. Serious loss of entrained air during such wet-finishing
operations.
c. Problems with excessive bleeding during finishing,
especially in cold weather (Sections 8.16 and 8.17).
d. Inadequate or delayed curing.
e. Severe cracking that permits water and salts to attack
the steel.
f. Loss of bond between concrete and reinforcing steel
Fig. 11.9—Concrete slab discoloration due to the use of cal-
bars, caused by placement of concrete on top of exces- cium chloride admixture. Concrete in the upper part of the
sively hot steel during hot-weather concreting. photo did not contain the admixture
phases normally become lighter with hydration; however, in 2. Inaccuracy in setting grades for forms and screeds.
the presence of calcium chloride the retarded, unhydrated 3. Damage to grade settings of forms and screeds during
ferrite phases remain dark in color. construction.
2. Low spots where water stands longer before evaporating. 4. Strikeoff operation in which low spots are filled in with
3. Curing with waterproof paper and plastic sheets can extra-wet concrete. The wetter concrete settles more than the
cause a lighter color where the sheet is in contact with the surrounding areas during the interval between strikeoff and
surface, and a darker color where the sheet is not in contact floating operations.
with the surface. This type of discoloration is aggravated 5. Fresh concrete that is too wet or variably wet. A little
when concrete contains calcium chloride. working of such concrete results in areas with excessive
4. Changes in the water-cementitious material ratio of con- mortar at the surface, which settles more than the surround-
crete mixtures can significantly affect color. Such a change ing areas.
can result from localized changes in construction practices, 6. Failure to frequently check grades, levels, and slopes
from a batch-to-batch variation in the concrete’s water or ce- with long straightedges (Sections 8.2.5 and 8.3.4), and to
mentitious material content, or from steel troweling. A high properly build up low spots in areas thus detected.
water-cementitious material ratio will usually produce a
7. Tooling joint grooves without removing the small
light-colored concrete, a low ratio a darker color. Repeated
amount of mortar displaced. The ridge of mortar formed in
hard-steel troweling in areas of advanced setting reduces the
this way can act as a dam.
water-cementitious material ratio at the surface, darkening
its color. 8. Failure to check the finished grade following strikeoff
5. Changes in source or type of cement. Individual brands when wet-screeds are used (Section 8.3.2).
and types of cement can differ in color; therefore, changing 9. Poor lighting during placing and finishing.
brand or type of cement in the middle of a job can noticeably 10.Deflection of suspended slabs between supports after
change the color of concrete. removal of supporting shores.
6. Uneven application of dry-shake materials, such as min-
eral-aggregate or metallic hardeners. 11.11—Curling
7. Changes in the amount, source, and chemistry of a min- Curling is the distortion (rising up) of a slab’s corners and
eral admixture. The extent of the discoloration will depend edges due to differences in moisture content or temperature
upon the color and the amount of admixture used. Some min- between the top and bottom of a slab. The top dries out or
eral admixtures resemble portland cement and have no ef- cools, and contracts more than the wetter or warmer bottom.
fects on concrete color. Silica fume can give concrete a dark- If the curled section of a slab is loaded beyond the flexural
gray tint. Dark-gray fly ashes can also give concrete a darker strength of the concrete, cracks will develop parallel to the
color, whereas tan- or beige-colored fly ashes, if used in joints at which curling occurs.
large quantities, can produce a tan color in concrete. Slabs also can be dished in the center because the centers
Light-colored areas can simply be the result of contrast to were finished lower than the screeds. This is readily apparent
adjacent dark areas; these would not normally impair ser- from straightedging after finishing. There are a number of
viceability. However, if light-colored areas are caused by lo- ways to reduce slab curling:
cal overworking of excessively wet concrete, the surface will 1. Equalize moisture content and temperature between the
be weaker and serviceability can be impaired. This can be top and bottom of a slab.
caused by high concrete water content or finishing while 2. Use a concrete mixture with low-shrinkage characteris-
there is excess moisture or bleed water on the surface. tics, that is, a stony concrete mixture with large maximum-size
Light-colored areas also can be caused by efflorescence (a coarse aggregate at the highest quantity consistent with the re-
crystalline deposit—usually white in color—that occasional- quired workability. Such mixtures minimize water content.
ly develops on the surface of concrete slabs after construc- 3. Use a permeable (porous) dry—or almost dry—base.
tion is completed). Moisture present in hardened concrete 4. Use shrinkage-compensating concrete.
dissolves soluble salts. These salts in solution migrate to the
5. Place a generous amount of reinforcement in the top
surface by evaporation or hydraulic pressure where the water
third of the slab. One percent reinforcement could be justi-
evaporates and leaves a deposit of salt at the surface. If the
fied in the direction perpendicular to the slab edge or con-
water, the evaporation, or the salts are not present, efflores-
struction joint, and for about 10 ft (3 m) in from the slab edge
cence will not occur.
or construction joint.
11.10—Low spots and poor drainage 6. Use post-tensioning.
Puddles or “bird baths” on an outdoor concrete slab after a Some of the measures that can reduce moisture differen-
rain, or on a floor after hosing, characterize poor slab or floor tials between the top and the bottom of a slab are:
surface drainage or serviceability. Among the primary causes: 1. Cure the slab well, particularly during early ages. Use of
1. Inadequate slope. Positive drainage requires a slope of a continuous moist cure or a high-solids curing compound
1 (Sections 5.9.3 and 9.2.4)—especially during the first few
/4 in. per ft (20 mm/m) for an exterior slab; for an interior
floor slab, 1 /16 in. per ft (5 mm/m) minimum is adequate for days—can greatly reduce the rate of water lost from the con-
drainage, but 1 /8 in. per ft (10 mm/m) is preferred. crete and help reduce moisture differentials.
2. After proper curing, further reduce moisture loss from Placing concrete at lower temperatures can reduce thermal
the top of slabs by using coatings, sealers, and waxes. These contraction from cooling. Curling magnitude can diminish
also reduce carbonation, which adds to surface shrinkage. with age as moisture and temperature equalize throughout
3. If a vapor retarder is necessary, use a minimum 4-in.- the slab thickness. In addition, creep probably reduces curl-
thick (100-mm) layer of trimable, compactible granular fill ing over a period of months.
(not sand) between the vapor retarder and concrete slab (Sec- Concrete strength should be only as high as necessary for
tion 4.1.5). Material conforming to ASTM D 448, No. 10, the floor or slab to fulfill its function (Tables 2.1 and 6.2.1).
with plenty of rock fines, has been used successfully. If the Excessively high strengths reduce creep and this can accen-
fill is dry—or almost dry—this will permit some moisture tuate curling. However, high strength quality concrete slabs
loss from the slab bottom. The fill should be designed so that have less cracking due to higher early flexural and tensile
it does not retain water. strengths.
Measures to reduce the shrinkage potential of a concrete
mixture include: 11.12—Analysis of surface imperfections
1. Reduce total water content of concrete by: The cause of most surface imperfections can be deter-
a. Maintaining the proper slump (Table 6.2.1). mined by petrographic (microscopic) analysis on samples of
b. Reducing the as-mixed temperature of the concrete. the concrete. A petrographic analysis of concrete is per-
c. Avoiding delays in placement that require large quanti- formed in accordance with ASTM C 856.
ties of retempering water. Samples for the analysis are usually 4-in.-diameter (100-
d. Selecting hard aggregates that are well graded for mm) drilled cores or saw-cut sections. Broken sections can
good workability at minimum water contents, and con- be used, but cores or saw-cut sections are preferred because
tain a minimum of fines. Aggregates should be gener- they are less apt to be disturbed. Samples should represent
ally rounded or cubical in shape, with a minimum of concrete from both the problem and the nonproblem areas.
flat or elongated particles. The petrographer should be provided with a description and
e. Increasing the maximum size of coarse aggregate and photographs of the problem, in addition to information on
using coarser sand. the concrete mixture proportions, construction practices
f. Reducing the sand content to the lowest level consis- used, and environmental conditions. A field review by a pe-
tent with adequate workability and mixing water trographer, engineer, or concrete technologist is also helpful
requirements. in analyzing the imperfection.
g. Using a high-range water-reducing admixture (super- The petrographic report often includes the probable cause
plasticizer) with good shrinkage-reduction history and of the problem, extent of distress, the general quality of the
tests. concrete, and expected durability and performance of the
2. Avoid aggregates known to have high-shrinkage poten- concrete. Corrective action, if necessary, would be based to
tial, such as sandstone, slate, hornblende, and some types of a great extent on the petrographic report.
basalt. Hard, rigid aggregates that are difficult to compress
provide more restraint to shrinkage of cement paste in con- CHAPTER 12—SELECTED REFERENCES
crete than softer aggregates. Quartz, granite, feldspar, lime-
stone, dolomite, and some basalt aggregates generally 12.1—Specifications and recommended
produce concretes with low drying shrinkage (ACI 224R). references
The documents of the various standards-producing organi-
3. Minimize aggregate gap-grading.
zations referred to in this Guide are listed below with their
4. Avoid admixtures or concrete constituents that increase
serial designation:
drying shrinkage.33,44 Use of a water-reducing admixture—
or other admixture conforming to ASTM C 494 and intended
American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
for reducing the water demand of concrete—will not neces-
tion Officials (AASHTO)
sarily decrease the drying shrinkage of concrete. Unless con-
cretes contain very low levels of calcium chloride or M 182 Standard Specification for Burlap Cloth Made from
triethanolamine, drying shrinkage generally will be in- Jute or Kenaf
creased. Chlorides can get into concrete from admixtures, T 26 Standard Method of Test for Quality of Water to Be
water, aggregates, or cement. Used in Concrete
5. Dewatering techniques (Section 8.3.6) of fresh concrete
slab surfaces can significantly reduce water content, and thus American Concrete Institute (ACI)
help reduce slab curling. However, since vacuum mats do 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
not extend fully to the edges of the forms and screeds, it is 117 Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Con-
possible for the joints at the forms and screeds to end up crete Construction and Materials
slightly higher than the overall slab surface after vacuum de- 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
watering is completed. Where wheeled traffic—especially 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
automated guided vehicles—will be involved, this should be Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete
taken into consideration during screeding, leveling, and bull 211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
floating to the forms and screeds. Structural Lightweight Concrete
211.3 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for No- American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Slump Concrete ANSI/ASCE 3 Standard for the Structural Design of
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete Composite Slabs
212.4R Guide for the Use of High-Range Water-Reducing ANSI/ASCE 9 Standard Practice for Construction and In-
Admixtures (Superplasticizers) in Concrete spection of Composite Slabs
222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete
223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Com- American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Con-
pensating Concrete ditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures 90.1 Energy Conservation in New Building Design
224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in Con- (Sections 1 through 9)
crete Structures
224.3R Joints in Concrete Construction
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
226.1R Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag as a Ce-
A 36 Specification for Structural Steel
mentitious Constituent in Concrete
A 184 Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar
226.3R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain,
Placing Concrete for Concrete Reinforcement
305R Hot Weather Concreting A 416 Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-
306R Cold Weather Concreting Wire for Prestressed Concrete
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete A 497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, De-
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete formed, for Concrete Reinforcement
311.1R ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection (SP-2) A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
311.4R Guide for Concrete Inspection Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con- A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain
crete with Commentary Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
325.9R Recommendations for Construction of Concrete A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain
Pavements and Concrete Bases Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
330R Guide for Design and Construction of Concrete A 820 Specification for Steel Fibers for Use in Fiber Rein-
Parking Lots forced Concrete
332R Guide to Residential Cast-in-Place Concrete Con- C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
struction C 94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
347R Guide to Formwork for Concrete C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydrau-
360R Design of Slabs on Grade lic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube
421.1R Shear Reinforcement for Slab Specimens)
423.3R Recommendations for Concrete Members Pre- C 150 Specification for Portland Cement
stressed with Unbonded Tendons C 156 Test Method for Water Retention by Concrete Cur-
503R Use of Epoxy Compounds with Concrete ing Materials
503.2 Standard Specifications for Bonding Plastic Con-
C 157 Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hy-
crete to Hardened Concrete with a Multi-Compo-
draulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete
nent Epoxy Adhesive
C 171 Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing Con-
504R Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures
crete
515.1R A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproof-
C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Ce-
ing, Protective and Decorative Barrier Systems for
ment-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Meth-
Concrete
od)
544.1R State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Con-
crete C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for
544.2R Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Concrete C 295 Practice for Petrographic Examination of Aggre-
544.3R Guide for Specifying, Proportioning, Mixing, Plac- gates for Concrete
ing, and Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete C 309 Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Com-
544.4R Design Considerations for Steel Fiber Reinforced pounds for Curing Concrete
Concrete C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
C-640 Craftsman Certification Structural Concrete
C 387 Specification for Packaged, Dry, Combined Mate-
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) rials for Mortar and Concrete
A122.1 Specifications for Vermiculite Concrete Roofs and C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
Slabs on Grade C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Nat- American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
ural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Conditioning Engineers
Portland Cement Concrete 1791 Tullie Circle, NE
C 685 Specification for Concrete Made by Volumetric Atlanta, Ga. 30329
Batching and Continuous Mixing
C 806 Test Method for Restrained Expansion of Expan- American Society for Testing and Materials
sive Cement Mortar 100 Barr Harbor Dr.
C 845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement West Conshohocken, Pa. 19428-2959
C 878 Test Method for Restrained Expansion of Shrink-
age-Compensating Concrete 12.2—Cited references
C 979 Specification for Pigments for Integrally Colored 1. Ytterberg, R. F., “Shrinkage and Curling of Slabs on Grade,” Concrete
International: Design and Construction, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Concrete Apr. 1987, pp. 22-31; May 1987, pp. 54-61; and June 1987, pp. 72-81.
C 989 Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace 2. Campbell, Richard H., et al., “Job Conditions Affect Cracking and
Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars Strength of Concrete In Place,” ACI J OURNAL, Proceedings V. 73, No. 1,
C 1017 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in Jan. 1976, pp. 10-13.
3. Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Mak-
Producing Flowing Concrete ing Materials , STP 169-C, American Society for Testing and Materials,
C 1116 Specification for Fiber-Reinforced Concrete and Philadelphia, 1994, (Note especially Chapter 19, “Abrasion Resistance,”
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C 1151 Test Method for Evaluating the Effectiveness of 4. Spears, Ralph, and Panarese, William C., Concrete Floors on Ground ,
EB075D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 2nd Edition, 1983, revised
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C 1157 Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic 5. Gustaferro, Armand H., “Are Thickness Tolerances for Concrete
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D 448 Classification for Sizes of Aggregate for Road and 391.
6. Anderson, T., and Roper, H., “Influence of an Impervious Membrane
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D 994 Specification for Preformed Expansion Joint Filler Institute of Engineers, Brisbane, Australia, Aug. 1977, pp. 51-56.
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D 2240 Test Method for Rubber Property—Durometer Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, 1990.
Hardness 11. “Reinforcing Steel in Slabs-on-Grade,” WRI/CRSI Engineering
E 96 Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Ma- Data Report #37, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, 1991.
12. Design and Construction of Post-Tensioned Slabs on Ground, Post-
terials
Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, 1980.
E 1155 Test Method for Determining Floor Flatness and 13. Post-Tensioning Manual, 3rd Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute,
Levelness Using the F-Number System Phoenix, 1981.
14. Schrader, Ernest K., “A Proposed Solution to Cracking by Dowels,”
Concrete Construction, Dec. 1987, pp. 1051-1053.
The above publications may be obtained from the follow-
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Washington, D.C 20001 18. “Panel Heating,” Heating, Ventilating, Air-Conditioning Guide, V.
36, American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Atlanta, 1955,
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Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094 20. “Precast Leave-in-Place Screed Rails for Floor Construction,” Con-
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21. Kauer, J. A., and Freeman, R. L., “Effects of Carbon Dioxide on
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25. Metallic Type Conductive and Spark-Resistant Concrete Floor Fin-
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Command, Apr. 1984, 14 pp.
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Be?,” Research Department Bulletin RX119, Portland Cement Associa- ington, D.C., Mar. 1962, 22 pp.
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Grade Floors,” Concrete Technology Today, PL823B, Portland Cement
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28. Martin, Ross, and Phelan, William S., “How Do Admixtures Influ- Garber, George, “Post-Tensioning for Crack-Free Superflat Floors,”
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29. ACI Committee 226, “Silica Fume in Concrete,” ACI Materials “Load Transfer Across Joints in Floors,” Concrete Technology Today,
Journal, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mar.-Apr. 1987. PL814B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Dec. 1981.
30. “The Effect of Various Surface Treatments Using Magnesium and Zinc Nussbaum, Peter J., “Reflections on Reinforcing Steel in Slabs on
Fluosilicate Crystals on Abrasion Resistance of Concrete Surfaces,” Concrete Grade,” Concrete Technology Today, PL922B, Portland Cement Associa-
Laboratory Report No. C-819, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver. tion, Skokie, July 1992.
31. Tatnall, P. C., and Kuitenbrouwer, L., “Steel Fiber Reinforced Con- Packard, Robert G., “Slab Thickness Design for Industrial Concrete
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32. Balaguru, P. N., and Shah, S. P., Fiber Reinforced Cement Compos- ciation, Skokie, 1976, 16 pp.
ites, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992, 530 pp. “Reinforcing Steel in Slabs on Grade,” Concrete Technology Today,
33. Tremper, Bailey, and Spellman, D. C., “Shrinkage of Concrete—Com- PL921B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Mar. 1992.
parison of Laboratory and Field Performance,” Highway Research Record, Ringo, Boyd, “Effect of Design Variables on Floor Thickness Require-
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34. Kosmatka, Steven H., and Panarese, William C, Chapter 7, “Propor- Ringo, Boyd C., and Anderson, Robert B., “Choosing Design Methods for
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tures, EB001T, 13th Edition, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1988, Suprenant, Bruce, “Construction of Elevated Concrete Slabs—Under-
Revised 1994, pp. 77-93. standing the Effect of Structural Systems,” Concrete Construction, V. 35,
35. Martin, Ross, “Discussion, Proposed Revisions to Specifications for No. 11, Nov. 1990, pp. 910-917.
Structural Concrete for Buildings (ACI 301-72) (Rev. 1981),” ACI J OUR - Tipping, Eldon, and Suprenant, Bruce, “Construction of Elevated Con-
NAL , Proceedings V. 80, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1983, p. 548. crete Slabs—Practice and Procedures,” Concrete Construction , V. 36, No.
36. Wenander, Harold, “Vacuum Dewatering Is Back,” Concrete Con- 1, Jan. 1991, pp. 32-42.
struction, V. 20, No. 2, Feb.1975, pp. 40-42. Tipping, Eldon, and Suprenant, Bruce, “Construction of Elevated Con-
37. Wenander, Harold; Danielsson, Jan. L.; and Sendker, F. T., “Floor crete Slabs—Measuring and Evaluating Quality,” Concrete Construction,
Construction by Vacuum Dewatering,” Concrete Construction, V. 20, No. V. 36, No. 3, Mar. 1991, pp. 260-268.
2, Feb. 1975, pp. 43-46. Tipping, Eldon, “Tolerance Conflicts and Omissions in Suspended Slab
38. Malinowski, Roman, and Wenander, Harold, “Factors Determining Construction,” Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 14, No.
Characteristics and Composition of Vacuum-Dewatered Concrete,” ACI 8, Aug. 1992, pp. 33-37.
JOU RNA L, Proceedings V. 72, No. 3, Mar. 1975, pp. 98-101. Tipping, Eldon, “Controlling the Quality of Suspended Slab Construc-
39. “Floor Finishing,” Lightweight Concrete Information Sheet No. 7, tion,” Concrete International: Design & Construction , V. 14, No. 8, Aug.
Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, Bethesda, 1958, 4 pp. 1992, pp. 38-40.
40. Brungraber, Robert J., “New Portable Tester for the Evaluation of the Tobin, Robert E., “How to Double the Value of Your Concrete Dollar,”
Slip-Resistance of Walkway Surfaces,” NBS Technical Note No. 953, U.S. Concrete Technology Today, PL852B, Portland Cement Association,
Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, Skokie, June 1985.
D.C., July 1977, 43 pp.
41. Brungraber, Robert J., “Overview of Floor Slip-Resistance Research Chapter 4
with Annotated Bibliography,” NBS Technical Note No. 895, U.S. Depart- Anderson, Robert B., “Soil Information Needed for Slab Design,” Con-
ment of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., Jan. crete Construction, Apr. 1992, pp. 289-290.
1976, 108 pp. ACI Committee 332, “Guide for Construction of Concrete Floors on
42. Kosmatka, Steven H., Finishing Concrete Slabs With Color and Tex- Grade,” ACI JOU RNA L, Proceedings V. 59, No. 10, Oct. 1962, pp. 1377-
ture, PA124H, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1991, 40 pp. 1390.
43. Face, Allen, “Floor Flatness and Levelness—The F-Number Sys- “Concrete Screed Rails Used for Concrete Placed on Metal Decks,”
tem,” Construction Specifier, V. 40, No. 4, Apr. 1987, pp. 24-32. Concrete Construction, Apr. 1991, pp. 341-342.
44. Whiting, D., and Dziedzic, W., “Effects of Conventional and High- Fitzpatrick, Robert, “Designing Durable Industrial Floor Slabs,” Con-
Range Water Reducers on Concrete Properties,” Research and Develop- crete International, Jan. 1996, pp. 38-39.
ment Bulletin RD107T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1992. Schmidt, Norbert O., and Riggs, Charles O., “Methods for Achieving
45. “Popouts: Causes, Prevention, Repair,” PCA’s Concrete Technology and Measuring Soil Compaction,” Concrete Construction, Aug. 1985, pp.
Today, June 1995. 681-689.
46. Greening, N. R., and Landgren, R., “Surface Discoloration of Con- “Subgrades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements,” Concrete Informa-
crete Flatwork,” Research Department Bulletin RX203, Portland Cement tion , IS029P, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1991, 24 pp.
Association, Skokie, 1966.
Chapter 5
Bimel, Carl, “Trap Rock Aggregates for Floor Construction,” Concrete
12.3—Additional references Construction, Oct. 1988, pp. 946 and 948.
“Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge Structures,” NCHRP Report
Chapter 1 No. 244, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1981, 138 pp.
“Concrete Specifications: Read and Write Them Carefully,” Concrete “A Contractor’s Guide to Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures,”
Technology Today, PL941B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Mar. Concrete Construction, Mar. 1990, pp. 279-286.
1994. “Fly Ash in Concrete,” Concrete Construction, May 1982, pp. 417-427.
“Fly Ash—Its Effect on Concrete Performance,” Concrete Technology Hester, Weston T., “Superplasticizers in Ready Mixed Concrete (A Prac-
Today, PL833B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Sept. 1983. tical Treatment of Everyday Operations),” NRMC Publication No. 158,
Goeb, Eugene O., “Do Plastic Fibers Replace Wire Mesh in a Slab on National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Jan. 1979.
Grade?,” Concrete Technology Today, PL891B, Portland Cement Associa- Kosmatka, Steven H., “Repair with Thin-Bonded Overlay,” Concrete
tion, Skokie, Apr. 1989. Technology Today , PL 851B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Mar.
Gulyas, Robert J., “Dry Shake for Floors,” Concrete Construction, Mar. 1985.
1984, pp. 285-289. Lien, Rob, “Pan Floats Help Make Nestlè’s Floors Sweet,” Concrete
Kosmatka, Steven H., “Floor Covering Materials and Moisture in Con- Construction, May 1995, pp. 439-444.
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tion, Skokie, Sept. 1985. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1995, 20 pp.
Moens, J., and Nemegeer, D., “Designing Fiber Reinforced Concrete Phelan, William C., “Floors that Pass the Test,” Concrete Construction ,
Based on Toughness Characteristics,” Concrete International , Nov. 1991, Jan. 1989, pp. 5-11.
pp. 38-43. Reed, Ray, and Schmidt, Greg, “Long-Strip Concrete Placement,” Con-
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PL893B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Nov. 1989. Suprenant, Bruce A., “Finishing Non-Bleeding Concrete,” Concrete
Robinson, Chuck; Colasanti, Angelo; and Boyd, Gary, “Steel Fibers Construction, May 1992, pp. 386-389.
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ADDENDUM
GUIDE FOR CONCRETE FLOOR AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION
(302.1R-96)
Vapor Retarder Location
The report of ACI Committee 302, “Guide for Concrete As a result of these experiences, and the difficulty in ade-
Floor and Slab Construction (ACI 302.1R-96)” states in quately protecting the fill course from water during the con-
section 4.1.5 that “if a vapor barrier or retarder is required struction process, caution is advised on the use of the
due to local conditions, these products should be placed granular fill layer when moisture-sensitive finishes are to be
under a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) of trimable, compactible, applied to the slab surface.
granular fill (not sand).” ACI Committee 302 on Construction The committees believe that when the use of a vapor retarder
of Concrete Floors, and Committee 360 on Design of Slabs on or barrier is required, the decision whether to locate the
Ground have found examples where this approach may have retarder or barrier in direct contact with the slab or beneath a
contributed to floor covering problems. layer of granular fill should be made on a case-by-case basis.
Based on the review of the details of problem installations, Each proposed installation should be independently eval-
it became clear that the fill course above the vapor retarder uated by considering the moisture sensitivity of subsequent
can take on water from rain, wet-curing, wet-grinding or cut- floor finishes, anticipated project conditions and the poten-
ting, and cleaning. Unable to drain, the wet or saturated fill tial effects of slab curling and cracking.
provides an additional source of water that contributes to The following chart can be used to assist in deciding where to
moisture-vapor emission rates from the slab well in excess of place the vapor retarder. The anticipated benefits and risks asso-
the 3 to 5 lb/1000 ft2/24 h (1.46 to 2.44 kg/100 m2/24 h) ciated with the specified location of the vapor retarder should be
recommendation of the floor covering manufacturers. reviewed with all appropriate parties before construction.
ADDENDUM
GUIDE FOR CONCRETE FLOOR AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION
(302.1R-96)
Flow Chart for Location of Vapor Retarder/Barrier

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ACI 302.

Robert B. Anderson Edward B. Finkel William S. Phelan

2.2—Single-course monolithic floors: Classes 1, 2, 4, 5, 8.8—Finishing Class 8 floors (two-course unbonded)

Table 2.1—Floor classifications

Fig. 3.2.5.1.b—Isolation joints at columns

Fig. 3.2.5.1.a—Isolation joint at columns

loadings, or both, joints with dowels are recommended (Fig.

Fig. 3.2.5.3.a—Types of contraction joints

Fig. 3.2.5.2—Doweled construction joint

•Methods and quality of concrete curing

Table 3.2.7— Dowel size and spacing

4.4—Setting screed guides CHAPTER 5—MATERIALS

•Type C accelerating tial measurements. Data from an independent laboratory are

Table 6.2.4— Minimum cementitious materials requirements for floors*

is batched, each should be batched separately and in such a 7.3—Transporting

Fig. 8.1.1.1—Placing sequence: long-strip construction (left) is recommended; checkerboard construction

8.1—Placing operations 8.1.3 Jobsite transfer—Chutes should have rounded bot-

Fig. 8.2.1.2.1—Mechanical spreader Fig. 8.2.3.2—Laser controlled screed

Noncritical: mechanical rooms, nonpub-

Carpeted areas of commercial office

Thin-set flooring or warehouse floor with 2, 3, 4, 5,

Warehouse with air-pallet use, ice, or

>50 >50 Movie or television studios 3 or 9

Composite flatness Composite

Noncritical: mechanical rooms, nonpub-

Carpeted areas of commercial office

30 20 2 or N/A Surfaces to receive thin-set flooring 2, 3, or 4

>50 >50 1,3 Movie or television studios 3 and 9

Flatness/Levelness (FF/F L) Construction Guide

Typical specification Typical specification Typical forming and strikeoff

1. Smooth surface using 4 to 5 ft 1. Set perimeter forms (optical or

Typical specification Typical specification Typical forming and strikeoff

1. Smooth surface using 4 to 5 ft

1. Smooth and restraighten surface

1. Smooth and restraighten surface

9.5—Length of curing 9.6—Preventing plastic shrinkage cracking

b. Excessive slump for prevailing job conditions (Table

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