Learning Model

ABSTRACT

The aim of the paper is to make people a learning model identifying all the things which
contribute and aids towards learning. The interest shown by psychologists in this area is
partially as a result of the interesting but complex nature of the concept of learning. The
introductory section tells about the three types of learning theories and its criticism followed
by the literature review. The discussion phase tells about the learning model. A person learns
throughout his life by his experience, through the environment, media, education, social
interactions, culture and by observing. A person is in a continuous phase of learning since he
is born. This learning model tells that how a person does keep on learning from childhood till
adult hood. They observes their environment, learns from the situation and research on the
topics. As they grow up they interact with the people, get education, learn from their culture
and values taught to them and last but not least learn from their experiences. This paper tells
that how learning takes place. Lastly a conclusion is made showing that learning occurs
throughout the life of an individual. From the childhood till the adulthood a person keeps on
learning. All these enhance the capabilities of a person. Thus a person should try to get and
learn the maximum out of these things to progress in life.
INTRODUCTION

A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time. It explains and
predicts behaviour and may be modified. Sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a
long time and later disproved. A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something
we cannot see or experience. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

Learning occurs all around us through different means. A person’s learning starts the day he
is born and ends when that person dies. Thus it’s important to study and research on this topic
that how learning process takes place. Different researchers came up with their own theories
and learning models. Thus a lot of learning models can be observed. After reading all those
theories I came up with my own model.

This learning model tells that how a person does keep on learning from childhood till adult
hood. They observes their environment, learns from the situation and research on the topics.
As they grow up they interact with the people, get education, learn from their culture and
values taught to them and last but not least learn from their experiences.

Learning is defined as:

“…a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to past experience.” (Coon, 1983)

“…a relatively permanent change in behavioural potential which accompanies experience

but which is not the result of simple growth factors or of reversible influences such as fatigue
or hunger.” (Kimble, 1961)

“…a biological device that functions to protect the human individual and to extend his
capacities.” (Howe, 1980)

Learning is a process of acquiring new knowledge, understanding and skills which can be
used in our daily lives. Learning involves our emotions as well as our intellectual processes
such as intelligence, perception and memory. New knowledge may be stored in our memories
but it can also help us to adapt and survive in our social and cultural environments. This may
be evident in behavior, which can be observed and assessed.
Learning occurs when there is a more or less permanent change in behaviour or behavioural
potential that results from experience. However, ideally the change in behaviour should be
long lasting and stable. It can be a change in behaviour or potential behaviour. (Howe Fine)

Learning involves multi-level interaction between individuals, groups and organisations, but
it is important to accept the wider innovation process that occurs for networks beyond one
individual organisation. (Anthony R. Zito and Adriaan Schout)

Over the previous one hundred years, psychologists have developed many theories of
learning each of which has adapted and evolved through application and research. This is a
dynamic area but to gain a general understanding of learning theories, it is useful to group
them into 3 broad areas.

Behaviourism: this is based on observable changes in behaviour. It focuses on a new

behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

Cognitive: It is based on the thought process behind the behaviour. Changes in behaviour are
observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind.

Constructivism: it is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the
world, through individual experiences. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to
problem solve in ambiguous situations. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

These are further discussed as follows:

Behaviourism

Behaviourism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle. The theory of

behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviours that can be observed and
measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). Some key players in the development of the behaviourist
theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

This theory states that:

 Experience is the basis of all learning. We are able to deal with infinite varieties of
influences by associating aspects that regularly occur together.
  Interaction between behaviour & environment is the basis of learning as individuals
develop behaviors to cope with their environment.
 Differential reinforcement can be used to shape behaviour through using rewards and
punishment. The individual eventually selects successful behaviour patterns for the
rewards available.
 Learning outcomes are predictable through a cause and effect relationship. Learning
for all who participate should be the same. Any differences in student learning will
result from different ability levels.

Critique of Behaviorism

Learning is seen as a response to a stimulus and the formation of habits rather than as an
intellectual process for understanding and knowledge development. This theory is more
concerned with learning that is observable through behaviour, than with new knowledge that
remains in the memory. It abstracts isolated events from their total context. An example could
be at the start of learning to drive a car when this is a dominant form of learning. However as
the learner becomes more competent in operating the vehicle, this learning becomes
automatic and the driver becomes less aware of changing gear or braking and accelerating.
The learner then needs to learn to ‘read the road’ and drive safely anticipating other traffic
and pedestrian behaviors. This needs a constructivist approach that combines knowledge,
understanding and skill to become a proficient driver. It de-humanizes learning by almost
seeing the learner as a robot. This has manipulative undertones but it has been successful in
behaviour modification programs. Such learning has very little lasting value without
reinforcement and periodic reward. However, it has been successful in cognitive behaviour
therapy. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

The Basics of Cognitive

Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through
contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although
they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a
motivator. However, even while accepting such behaviouristic concepts, cognitive theorists
view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures
through which humans process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990)
The cognitive view of learning, like the behaviourist view, sees knowledge as given and
absolute. Many of the information processing models of teaching and learning are based on
the cognitive view of learning. Also note that some of the theorists discussed so far can be
classified as either behaviourist or cognitive. This is so because of the close relationship
between certain of the ideas connected to memorisation.

Cognitive learning theory focuses on the processes of:

 Thinking
 Concept formation
 Reasoning
 Problem-solving

Constructivism
This theory states that:

 Learning is continuous. It is a function of the natural and continual variability in the

world and our actions upon it

 Learning involves constructing cognitive representations (abstract models) to reflect

variable experiences

 Learning involves verifiable mental operations that reflect these abstractions. These
evolve and change over time to incorporate new knowledge

 Motivation to learn is an intrinsic desire, which is not only dependent on reward but
on other factors such as a desire for knowledge and self improvement

 New experiences are continuously assimilated into existing schemata, which are
always changing to accommodate new experiences in a continual, dynamic process of
consolidation & growth.
Critique of Constructivism

Constructivism places emphasis on activities in the brain which cannot be measured as easily
as stimulus /response Learning. It claims that some learning cannot be measured in this way.
Grades and other formal assessment methods should be eliminated in favor of students’ own
forms of assessment. This would be difficult for the purposes of comparison within and
between groups and ages of pupils. It is difficult to know when the infant or child develops a
concept. Children develop at different stages over time so how helpful is it to generalize to
developmental stages.
Constructivist approaches seem to be based on ‘common sense’ learning & understanding,
we need to understand the basics before we develop our understanding of more complex
knowledge. However, this is a useful approach to all learning but is criticized by some as
being too vague and liberal. It is useful where class members are at different stages of
learning (mixed ability) but can be criticized for ‘holding back more able pupils’. This type
of learning may initially take longer to establish new knowledge but it can prove more
effective over time. Constructivism is especially relevant to IL skills sessions where the
trainer needs to engage the students and build upon what they already understand. The new
learning needs to have relevance to their needs.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This paper discuss about the present research develops and tests a new theoretical model of
the observational learning processes by which modelling-based training interventions
influence computer task performance. (Mun Y.Y i, Fred D.Davis, 2003)

The social learning theory is the behaviour theory most relevant to criminology. Albert
Bandura believed that aggression is learned through a process called behaviour modelling. He
believed that individuals do not actually inherit violent tendencies. Albert Bandura argued
that aggression in children is influenced by the reinforcement of family members, the media,
and the environment. (Margaret Delores Isom, 1998)

This paper discuss about the criminals. They need to learn a set of values and attitudes that
support offending, and they need to learn specific behaviours for committing crimes. These
are all learned within the family and peer group. The people that surround a developing child
will demonstrate a range of attitudes towards the law and crime, some favourable and some
unfavourable. (Aidan Sammons)

The paper discusses how Piaget and Vygotsky commented on each other’s work. Then the
paper continues with a discussion of constructivism and activity theory. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

The Métis Holistic Lifelong Learning Model represents the link between Métis lifelong
learning and community well-being. It can be used as a framework for measuring success in
lifelong learning. (Draft, 2007)

This article introduces this special issue by contextualising learning theory within European
integration studies. There are important empirical and theoretical gaps in the study of
European integration which necessitate a greater attention to learning theory. This article
deploys a number of conceptual distinctions about learning and non-learning processes,
drawing from political science, international relations, public administration and
sociological/organisational studies. (Anthony R. Zito and Adriaan Schout)

There are many different theories of how people learn. This paper tells their application that
how students can learn and also how one can teach in educational programmes. (Lee Dunn,
2002)

The paper consists of five learning modules. Each module describes a learning theory and
how that learning theory can be applied to improving online teaching and training materials
(Peter J. Patsula, 1999)

This article discuss about the associationist, rational planning, social conditioning,
behaviourist, cognitive, holistic or gestalt views. (John Schostak and Katie Birch)

Key theories on learning have been discussed in this article like Kolb’s theory, Bloom’s
taxonomy etc (Judy McKimm, 2002)

A framework for theorising about mobile learning, to complement theories of infant,

classroom, workplace and informal learning has been offered in this paper. (Mike Sharples,
Josie Taylor, Giasemi Vavoula, 2005)
It discuss about the learning theories and the meaning of learning. (Howie Fine)

DISCUSSION

Learning theories form a distinct part of theoretical psychology. In recent years, many
psychologists have been dedicated to a study of learning theories. The interest shown by
psychologists in this area is partially as a result of the interesting but complex nature of the
concept of learning.

According to Wakefield, learning can be described as a relatively permanent change in the

behaviour of an individual based on his/her experiences or discoveries. Thus the processes of
experience and discovery lead to a new understanding of the world and ourselves, and enable
us to apply the acquired knowledge in new situations. Knowledge acquisition, then, involves
processes that transform data from experience into organised information.

No theory can be found to be absolutely superior to others. Nevertheless, new discoveries

take our understanding of the process of learning to a new and refined level.

The model I have developed tells how learning takes place in the life of an individual. This
learning model tells that how a person does keep on learning from childhood till adult hood.
He observes his environment, learns from the situation and research on the topics. As he
grows up he interacts with the people, get education, learns from his culture and values taught
to him and last but not least learns from his experiences.
Figure1. The learning model

Each factor contributes in the learning of an individual. Learning might be positive or

negative depending on the situation. Each of these will be discussed separately.

OBSERVATION

An individual learns by observing things around him. He observes and makes a perception
that what is right and wrong. Observational learning is also known as imitation or modelling.
In this process, learning occurs when individuals observes and imitate others’ behaviour.
There are four component processes influenced by the observer’s behaviour following
exposure to models. These components include: attention; retention; motor reproduction; and
motivation (Bandura, 1977).
These four observational learning processes are:
 Attention: People cannot learn from modelled actions unless they are attentive when
observing them.
 Retention: Actions must be cognitively registered as symbolic representations in
memory in order to regulate future behaviour.
 Production: The retained symbolic memory of actions must be reconverted into overt
actions to generate desired responses.
 Motivation: The symbolic memory of actions will weaken unless the perceived
consequences of performing the actions are sufficiently favourable to cause repeated
performance (Mun Y.Yi & Fred D.Davis, 2003)

This emphasizes the importance of learning from experience through the learner observing
and modeling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. The highest level of
observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modelled behaviour
symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled
behaviour if it results in outcomes they value. They are more likely to adopt it if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value. (Peter
J. Patsula, 1999)

When we observe something it depends on a lot of things that whether we will imitate that
behaviour or not. It depends on the observed consequences of their actions. If the model is
observed to be reinforced (and the reinforcement has value for the observer) then imitation
becomes likely. If the model is punished then imitation becomes less likely (although the
behaviour may still have been learned, it is its expression that observed punishment inhibits).
There is a large body of research that shows that children can learn behaviour through
observation and that their willingness to imitate these behaviours is affected by the observed
consequences of a model’s actions. (Aldon Sammons)

Observational learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behaviour.
Reinforcement or punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviours they
learned by watching others. (Howie Fine)

The people who observe stand back, gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching
conclusions, listen before speaking and are thoughtful. (Alan Chapman, 2005)
SOCIAL INTERACTION

Learning also occurs by having social interaction with others. A child learns from his family,
later by his friends and the community. Thus a person learns a lot by other people.
Vygotsky emphasises that one cannot learn without the verbal interaction and activity with
others. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

In the work environment, each of these people plays a different role.  Ideally the manager is a
“coach” who helps the employee decides what to learn and when to look for improvement.  A
mentor takes a special interest in the person and actually monitors an employee’s progress
against specific goals.  Experts typically help out when asked, but they are usually busy doing
their “expertise.”  And peers are always around — some of whom teach us the right way to
do something, and some of whom teach us the wrong way. Through all these interactions an
individual can improve their performance, learn new skills, and advance their
careers. (Bersin, 2007)

One of the research papers discussing about the criminal behaviour said that the basic
prediction is that people who become offenders will have been socialized in families and
groups where there are some pro-criminal norms. A certain amount of evidence suggests that
criminal behaviour tends to run in families. (Aldon Sammons)

Learning is the process of creating knowledge that is the result of the transaction between
social knowledge and personal knowledge. Children are very likely to model their behaviour
on the observed behaviour of their parents. Learning is therefore dependent on social
interaction.

CULTURE

Lev Vygotsky said that social interaction plays a fundamental role. According to him culture
was a determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have cultures,
and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, human cognitive
development is affected to a larger or lesser extent by the culture in which individuals are
living, including family environments.

According to Vygotsky, culture seems to make two kinds of contributions to children’s

intellectual development. Firstly, children acquire much of the content of their thinking
(cognition) from it and, secondly, they acquire the processes or means of their thinking from
it. In short, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think.

Knowledge and concepts are not seen as constructions that are created by the single
individual, but it is historical and cultural founded mental artefacts and phenomena, which
the individual takes up and makes his own. So far, there seems to be quite agreement between
Piaget and Vygotsky in the sense that what the individual must learn is a social product of
past generation (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

ENVIRONMENT

Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment. Piaget sees the
individual as the source of learning, and that children learn by continuous interaction and
experience with their environment. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

Environmental experiences are a second influence of the social learning of violence in

children. Albert Bandura reported that individuals that live in high crime rates areas are more
likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas (Bandura, 1976).

This assumption is similar to Shaw and McKay’s theory of social disorganization. They
believed that a neighbourhood surrounded by culture conflict, decay and insufficient social
organizations was a major cause of criminality (Bartollas, 1990).

EXPERIENCE

Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience. According to Kolb, learning is the

process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge
results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it.

The people who learn by having experiences are gregarious, seek challenge and immediate
experience, are open-minded and are bored with implementation. (Alan Chapman, 2005)

Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or
reading about the experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus
developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking. (Kraft & Sakofs,
1988)
MEDIA

Social learning theorists believe that the media are a powerful influence on the young, and on
some impressionable adults. These theorists are concerned about levels of violence in the
media and the impact of viewing violence on young people’s behaviour.

Research into the impact of celebrity role models in commercials on audience attitudes &
behaviours has shown them to be influential on some young people, in both positive and
negative ways. Social learning theorists see this as evidence of the influence of social
learning. Libraries have used this approach to promote boys’ reading through images of male
footballers claiming to enjoy reading. (Margaret Delores Isom, 1998)

Some organizations are setting up LinkedIn groups and forums for people to share ideas, but
that is in many ways an extension of networking or action learning that already exists, just
migrating to new platforms. While many of the social media and networking tools are great
communication and connection vehicles, they should not be looked at as tools to replace
formal learning strategies. But they can complement them.

Social learning is said to be open, informal, direct and easy. Open, because everybody or a
preselected group of people can follow what you are doing. Informal, as it is about the “here
and now”, a gestalt approach. It can be more structured if for example you search for specific
content, or a reaction to something someone else has just written about that has inspired you
to find out more. Direct, because people can connect to you, through the channel that the
original communication was made – blog, Twitter, Face Book etc. Easy, because new
technologies such as smart-phones are making it easier to stay connected to your social media
tools and updates them wherever you are and whenever you want. (Margaret Delores
Isom, 1998)

Social media is an excellent medium for professional development because it allows for
both synchronous and asynchronous participation. The participants are active learners—
that is, they are actively engaged in the construction of knowledge, not just passive
receivers of it. Social media usually can be captured, thus providing not only an archive of
the learning experience, but content that can be repurposed for future seminars, or courses.
(Leslie Madsen-Brooks, 2008)
Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behaviour modelling. Today, films and
television shows illustrate violence graphically. Violence is often expressed as an acceptable
behaviour, especially for heroes who have never been punished. Since aggression is a
prominent feature of many shows, children who have a high degree of exposure to the media
may exhibit a relatively high incidence of hostility themselves in imitation of the aggression
they have witnessed (Berkowitz, 1962).

EDUCATION

Learning through Education is an important part of our lives whether starting Primary school
or as an older person learning in university. Early childhood education often focuses on
children learning through playing. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

Education helps in learning a lot of things. It teaches us new concepts and subjects. We learn
how to do calculations and solve questions. It helps us to groom ourselves and we get to
enhance our personality through getting education and learning a lot new things.

One learns from the text provided to us. For example the employees get education in
management skills and learn new things and then apply these concepts in practical life.

CONCLUSION

Learning activity is undertaken throughout the life, whether formal or informal. In order to
create an enriching and dynamic society in the 21st century, it is vital to form a lifelong
learning society in which people can freely choose learning opportunities at any time during
their lives and in which proper recognition is accorded to those learning achievements.

Lifelong learning comprises two main aspects: the concept to comprehensively review
various systems including education, in order to create a lifelong learning society; and the
concept of learning at all stages of life. In other words, the concept of learning in the context
of lifelong learning encompasses not only structured learning through school and social
education but also learning through involvement in such areas as sports, cultural activities,
hobbies, recreation and volunteer activities, and also by our culture, environment, media,
experience and social interaction.

Lifelong learning covers the whole range of learning. That includes formal and informal
learning and workplace learning. It also includes the skills, knowledge, attitudes and
behaviours that people acquire in their day-to-day experiences. Thus an individual can learn
through these entire sources all his life.

Learning opportunities should be available to all citizens on an ongoing basis. In practice this
should mean that citizens each have individual learning pathways, suitable to their needs and
interests at all stages of their lives. The content of learning, the way learning is accessed, and
where it takes place may vary depending on the learner and their learning requirements.
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