Introduction

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 What is AI? ............................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Systems that think like humans .................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Systems that think rationally ........................................................................................................ 2
2.3 Systems that act like humans ....................................................................................................... 2
2.4 Systems that act rationally ............................................................................................................ 3
3 The foundation of Artificial Intelligence(AI).......................................................................................... 3
3.1 Philosophy ..................................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.1 Dualism ................................................................................................................................. 3
3.1.2 Materialism ........................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.3 Induction ............................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.4 Confirmation theory.............................................................................................................. 3
3.2 Mathematics ................................................................................................................................. 4
3.3 Economics ..................................................................................................................................... 4
3.4 Neuroscience ................................................................................................................................ 4
3.5 Psychology .................................................................................................................................... 4
3.6 Computer engineering .................................................................................................................. 5
3.7 Control theory and Cybernetics .................................................................................................... 5
3.8 Linguistics ...................................................................................................................................... 5
4 The History of Artificial Intelligence ...................................................................................................... 5
4.1 The gestation of artificial intelligence (1943-1955) ...................................................................... 5
4.2 The birth of artificial intelligence (1956)....................................................................................... 6
4.3 Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952-1969) ...................................................................... 6
4.4 A dose of reality (1966-1973) ....................................................................................................... 6
4.5 Knowledge-based systems: The key to power? (1969-1979) ....................................................... 7
4.6 A1 becomes an industry (1980-present)....................................................................................... 7
4.7 The return of neural networks (1986-present) ............................................................................. 7
4.8 AI becomes a science (1987-present) ........................................................................................... 7
4.9 The emergence of intelligent agents (1995-present) ................................................................... 7
2 WHAT IS AI?
In computer science, artificial intelligence, sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence
demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans.

2.1 SYSTEMS THAT THINK LIKE HUMANS

"The exciting new effort to make computers think . . . machines with minds, in the full and
literal sense."

(Haugeland, 1985)"[The automation of] activities that we associate with human thinking,
activities such as decision-making, problem.

If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have some way of
determining how humans think. We need to get inside the actual workings of human minds.
There are two ways to do this: through introspection trying to catch our own thoughts as they
go by-and through psychological experiments. Once we have a sufficiently precise theory of the
mind, it becomes possible to express the theory as a computer program. If the program's
input/output and timing behaviors match corresponding human behaviors, that is evidence that
some of the program's mechanisms could also be operating in humans.

2.2 SYSTEMS THAT THINK RATIONALLY

"The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models." (Chamiak and
McDermott, 1985) "

The study of the computations that makeit possible to perceive, reason, and act." (Winston,
1992).

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "right thinking," that is,
irrefutable reasoning processes. His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that
always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises-for example, "Socrates is a
man; all men are mortal; therefore, Socrates is mortal."

2.3 SYSTEMS THAT ACT LIKE HUMANS

"The art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence when performed
by people."

(Kurzweil, 1990) "The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment,
people are better." (Rich and Knight, 1991).

The Ring Test, proposed by Alan Turing (195O), was designed to provide a satisfactory
operational definition of intelligence. Rather than proposing a long and perhaps controversial
list of qualifications required for intelligence, he suggested a test based on indistinguishability
from undeniably intelligent entities-human beings. The computer passes the test if a human
interrogator, after posing some written questions, cannot tell whether the written responses
come from a person or not.
 The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:

 natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English.

 knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
 automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw
new conclusions;
 machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate
patterns.

2.4 SYSTEMS THAT ACT RATIONALLY

"Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of intelligent agents."

(Poole et al., 1998) "A1 . . .is concerned with intelligent

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "right thinking," that is,
irrefutable reasoning processes. His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that
always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises-for example, "Socrates is a
man; all men are mortal; therefore, Socrates is mortal."

3 THE FOUNDATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE(AI)

3.1 PHILOSOPHY
 Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
 How does the mental mind arise from a physical brain?
 Where does knowledge come from?
 How does knowledge lead to action?

3.1.1 Dualism
He held that there is a part of the human mind (or soul or spirit) that is outside of
nature, exempt from physical laws.

3.1.2 Materialism
An alternative to dualism is materialism, which holds that the brain's operation
according to the laws of physics constitutes the mind.

3.1.3 Induction
David Hume's (171 1-1776) A Treatise of Human Nature (Hume, 1739) proposed what is
now known as the principle of induction: that general rules are acquired by exposure to
repeated associations between their elements.

3.1.4 Confirmation theory

The confirmation theory of Carnap and Carl Hempel (1905-1997) attempted to
understand how knowledge can be acquired from experience. Carnap's book The Logical
 Structure of the World (1928) defined an explicit computational procedure for
extracting knowledge from elementary experiences.

3.2 MATHEMATICS
 What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
 What can be computed?

Philosophers staked out most of the important ideas of k1, but the leap to a formal science
required a level of mathematical formalization in three fundamental areas: logic, computation,
and probability.

3.3 ECONOMICS
 How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?
 How should we do this when others may not go along?
 How should we do this when the payoff may be fix in the future?

The science of economics got its start in 1776, when Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1723-
1790) published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. While the
ancient Greeks and others had made contributions to economic thought, Smith was the first to
treat it as a science, using the idea that economies can be thought of as consisting of individual
agents maximizing their own economic well-being.

3.4 NEUROSCIENCE
 How do brains process information?

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. The exact way in which
the brain enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science. It has been appreciated for
thousands of years that the brain is somehow involved in thought, because of the evidence that
strong blows to the head can lead to mental incapacitation. It has also long been known that
human brains are somehow different; in about 335 B.C. Aristotle wrote, "Of all the animals, man
has the largest brain in proportion to his size." Still, it was not until the middle of the 18th
century that the brain was widely recognized as the seat of consciousness. Before then,
candidate locations included the heart, the spleen, and the pineal gland.

3.5 PSYCHOLOGY
 How do humans and animals think and act?

The origins of scientific psychology are usually traced to the work of the German physicist
Hermann von Helmholtz (1 82 1-1 894) and his student Wilhelm Wundt (1 832-1920).Helmholtz
applied the scientific method to the study of human vision, and his Handbook of Physiological
Optics is even now described as "the single most important treatise on the physics and
physiology of human vision" (Nalwa, 1993, p.15). In 1879, Wundt opened the first laboratory of
experimental psychology at the University of Leipzig. Wundt insisted on carefully controlled
 experiments in which his workers would perform a perceptual or associative task while
introspecting on their thought processes.

3.6 COMPUTER ENGINEERING

 How can we build an efficient computer?

For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things: intelligence and an artifact. The
computer has been the artifact of choice. The modern digital electronic computer was invented
independently and almost simultaneously by scientists in three countries embattled in World
War 11.

3.7 CONTROL THEORY AND CYBERNETICS

 How can artifacts operate under their own control?

Ktesibios of Alexandria (c. 250 B.c.) built the first self-controlling machine: a water clock with a
regulator that kept the flow of water running through it at a constant, predictable pace. This
invention changed the definition of what an artifact could do. Previously, only living things could
modify their behavior in response to changes in the environment.

3.8 LINGUISTICS
 How does language relate to thought?

In 1957, B. F. Skinner published Verbal Behavior. This was a comprehensive, detailed account of
the behaviorist approach to language learning, written by the foremost expert in the field. But
curiously, a review of the book became as well known as the book itself, and served to almost
kill off interest in behaviorism.

4 THE HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

With the background material behind us, we are ready to cover the development of A1 itself.

4.1 THE GESTATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (1943-1955)

The first work that is now generally recognized as A1 was done by Warren McCulloch and
Walter Pitts (1943).

They drew on three sources:

 Knowledge of the basic physiology and function of neurons in the brain

 A formal analysis of propositional logic due to Russell and Whitehead
 Turing's theory of computation.

They proposed a model of artificial neurons

 In which each neuron is characterized as being "on" or "off," with a switch to "on"
occurring in response to stimulation by a sufficient number of neighboring neurons.
  The state of a neuron was conceived of as "factually equivalent to a proposition which
proposed its adequate stimulus."

4.2 THE BIRTH OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (1956)

10 people from Dartmouth College started work on AI. Two researchers from Carnegie Tech,13
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, rather stole the show. Although the others had ideas and in
some cases programs for particular applications such as checkers, Newel1 and Simon already
had a reasoning program, the Logic Theorist (LT), about which Simon claimed, "We have
invented a computer program capable of thinking non-numerically, and thereby solved the
venerable mind-body problem."

4.3 EARLY ENTHUSIASM, GREAT EXPECTATIONS (1952-1969)

The early years of A1 were full of successes-in a limited way. Given the primitive computers and
programming tools of the time, and the fact that only a few years earlier computers were seen
as things that could do arithmetic and no more, it was astonishing whenever a computer did
anything remotely clever.

 GPS was probably the first program to embody the "thinking humanly" approach.

The success of GPS and subsequent programs as models of cognition led Newel1 and Simon
(1976) to formulate the famous physical symbol system hypothesis, which states that "a
physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent action."
What they meant is that any system (human or machine) exhibiting intelligence must operate by
manipulating data structures composed of symbols. We will see later that this hypothesis has
been challenged from many directions.

4.4 A DOSE OF REALITY (1966-1973)

From the beginning, A1 researchers were not shy about making predictions of their coming
successes.

The following statement by Herbert Simon in 1957 is often quoted:

It is not my aim to surprise or shock you-but the simplest way 1 can summarize is to say that
there are now in the world machines that think, that learn and that create. Moreover, their
ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in a visible future-the range of
problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been
applied.

 The first kind of difficulty arose because most early programs contained little or no
knowledge of their subject matter; they succeeded by means of simple syntactic
manipulations.
 The second kind of difficulty was the intractability of many of the problems that A1 was
attempting to solve. Most of the early A1 programs solved problems by trying out
different combinations of steps until the solution was found.
  A third difficulty arose because of some fundamental limitations on the basic structures
being used to generate intelligent behavior.

4.5 KNOWLEDGE-BASED SYSTEMS: THE KEY TO POWER? (1969-1979)

The picture of problem solving that had arisen during the first decade of A1 research was of a
general-purpose search mechanism trying to string together elementary reasoning steps to find
complete solutions. Such approaches have been called weak methods, because, although
general, they do not scale up to large or difficult problem instances. The alternative to weak
methods is to use more powerful, domain-specific knowledge that allows larger reasoning steps
and can more easily handle typically occurring cases in narrow areas of expertise. One might say
that to solve a hard problem, you have to almost know the answer already.

4.6 A1 BECOMES AN INDUSTRY (1980-PRESENT)

The first successful commercial expert system, R 1, began operation at the Digital Equipment
Corporation (McDermott, 1982). The program helped configure orders for new computer
systems; by 1986, it was saving the company an estimated $40 million a year. By 1988, DEC7s A1
group had 40 expert systems deployed, with more on the way. Du Pont had 100 in use and 500
in development, saving an estimated $10 million a year. Nearly every major U.S. corporation had
its own A1 group and was either using or investigating expert systems.

4.7 THE RETURN OF NEURAL NETWORKS (1986-PRESENT)

Although computer science had largely abandoned the field of neural networks in the late work
continued in other fields. Physicists such as John (1982) used tech- niques from statistical
mechanics to analyze the storage and optimization properties of net- works, treating collections
of nodes like collections of atoms. Psychologists David Rumelhart and Geoff continued the study
of neural-net models of As we discuss in Chapter 20, the real impetus came in the mid-1980s
when at least four different groups reinvented the back-propagation learning algorithm first
found in 1969 by and Ho. The algorithm was applied to many learning problems in computer
science and psychology, and the widespread dissemination of the results in the collection
Parallel Distributed Processing (Rumelhart and 1986) caused great excitement.

4.8 AI BECOMES A SCIENCE (1987-PRESENT)

Recent years have seen a revolution in both the content and the methodology of work in
artificial It is now more common to build on existing theories than to propose brand new ones,
to base claims on rigorous theorems or hard experimental evidence rather than on intuition,
and to show relevance to real-world applications rather than toy examples.

4.9 THE EMERGENCE OF INTELLIGENT AGENTS (1995-PRESENT)

Perhaps encouraged by the progress in solving the subproblems of AI, researchers have also
started to look at the "whole agent" problem again. The work of Allen John Laird, and Paul
Rosenbloom on SOAR 1990; Laird et al., 1987) is the best-known example of a complete agent
architecture. The so-called situated movement aims to understand the workings of agents
embedded in real environments with continuous sensory inputs. One of the most important
environments for intelligent agents is the Internet. systems have become so common in web-
based applications that the suffix has entered everyday language. Moreover, technologies
underlie many Internet tools, such as search engines, recommender systems, and Web site
construction systems.