‘Modern’ Physics

At the beginning of the twentieth century, two new theories

revolutionized our understanding of the world and modified ‘old’
physics that had existed for over 200 years:

Relativity: Describes objects moving close to or at the speed of light

(spaceships, photons, electrons…)

Quantum Mechanics: Describes microscopic objects (atoms,

electrons, photons….)

Both theories explained phenomena that existing physics was unable

to deal with.

Both theories challenged our fundamental intuition and perception of

the world: space-time, mass-energy, locality, causality….
Relativity
 Reference Frames
A reference frame is a coordinate system in which an experimenter makes
measurements of position and time. It is at rest with respect to the
experimenter.

Experimenters at rest with respect to each other share the same reference
frame. Examples: Students in a classroom, drivers driving their cars at the
same velocity.

An event is labeled by coordinates (x,y,z,t)

 Reference Frames
An inertial frame of reference is one which a free body (isolated
particle) has no acceleration: it remains at rest or moving in a straight
line. (Newton’s law of inertia applies: Sum of external forces = 0).

A reference frame moving with constant velocity relative to an inertial

frame is also an inertial frame.

Which of the following can be considered as inertial frames of reference ?

• A physics laboratory
• A skydiver
• A train moving at constant velocity
• A plane while taking-off

Newtonian (Galilean) Relativity

The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
 Galilean Transformations
Consider two inertial reference frames S and S’ that are moving with a
constant velocity relative to each other.

The axes of both frames are parallel to each other.

The origins of both frames coincide at t=0.

Event P
 Galilean Transformations
An observer in frame S measures the coordinates of an event to be
(x, y, z,t)
An observer in frame S’ measures the coordinates of an event to be
( x !, y!, z!, t ! )
The relative velocity between the two frames is v
How are the positions and velocities in the two frames related?

Event P
 Galilean Transformations
Galilean transformation of position

Event P

x = x ! + vt
y = y!
z = z!
! ! !
In general, r = r ! + vt
 Galilean Transformations
Galilean transformation of velocity
x = x ! + vt
y = y!
z = z!

dx dx ! dvt dx !
= + = +v
dt dt dt dt

u x = u x! + v
u y = u y!
uz = uz!
! ! !
In general, u = u! + v
 Galilean Transformations
Example: Find the roundtrip times taken
by the two boats as measured by an t1
observer on the shore if the boats travel at
speed c with respect to the river.
t2

1
!
2L 2L " v2 % 2 2L " 1 v 2 %
t1 = = $ 1! 2 ' ( $ 1+ 2
+!'
c2 ! v 2 c # c & c # 2c &

!1
L L 2Lc " 2L % " v 2 % " 2L % " v 2 %
t2 = + = 2 = $ ' $ 1! 2 ' ( $ ' $ 1+ 2 +!'
c+v c!v c !v 2
# c &# c & # c &# c &
 Galilean Transformations
Galilean transformation of acceleration
u x = u x! + v
u y = u y!
uz = uz!

du x du x! dv
= +
dt dt dt ax = ax!
dv du y du y! ! !
=0 = ay = ay! a = a!
dt dt dt
duz duz! az = az!
=
dt dt
Observers in inertial frames (moving at constant velocity) measure the same
acceleration and hence the same force.

Newtonian (Galilean) Relativity: Newton’s laws are the same in

all inertial frames.
 The speed of light
Assumption: Light waves travel in a medium called the ether
The speed of light in the rest frame of the ether is
c = 300,000,000 m/s
Using the Galilean transformations, the speed of light moving
parallel to a reference frame that is moving with speed v with
respect to the ether would be
c! = c ± v
Question: Does the Galilean velocity transformation apply to the speed of light ?

If the earth is moving through the ether, then changes in the speed
of light in the earth’s reference frame would indicate its motion
through the ether.
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Recall boats in the river example:
Roundtrip time of light in arm 1 (from
M0 to M2)
!1
L L " 2L % " v 2 %
t2 = + = $ ' $ 1! 2 '
c+v c!v # c &# c &
" 2L % " v 2 %
( $ ' $ 1+ 2 +!'
# c &# c &

Roundtrip time of light in arm 2 from

(M0 to M1)
!1
2L 2L " v 2
% 2
t1 = = $ 1! 2 '
c2 ! v 2 c # c &

2L " 1 v 2 %
( 1+ +!'
c $# 2 c 2 &
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Time difference:

Lv 2
!t = t 2 " t1 # 3
c

• Time difference results in an interference

pattern at the telescope.
• If the apparatus is rotated by 90 degrees,
the role of the two arms is interchanged
causing a shift in the interference pattern.
• If the wavelength of the light is λ, the shift is

2c
Shift ! #t
"

Null result: No shift was observed!

 Einstein’s Postulates of Special Relativity

1. Principle of relativity: The laws of physics are the same in

all inertial reference frames

2. The speed of light is constant in all inertial frames and is

independent of the observer’s and the source’s velocity.