1.

3 Units of Measurement
The four basic quantities—length, time, mass, and force—are not all
independent from one another; in fact, they are related by Newton’s
second law of motion, F = ma. Because of this, the units used to measure
these quantities cannot all be selected arbitrarily. The equality F = ma is
maintained only if three of the four units, called base units, are
defined and the fourth unit is then derived from the equation.

The astronaut’s weight is diminished

since she is far removed from the
gravitational field of the earth. (©
NikoNomad/ Shutterstock)
 SI Units. The International System of units, abbreviated SI after the
1 French “Système International d’Unités,” is a modern version of the
1 kg metric system which has received worldwide recognition. As shown in
Table 1–1, the SI system defines length in meters (m), time in seconds (s),
and mass in kilograms (kg). The unit of force, called a newton (N), is
9.81 N derived from F = ma. Thus, 1 newton is equal to a force required to give
(a) 1 kilogram of mass an acceleration of 1 m>s2 (N = kg m>s# 2).
If the weight of a body located at the “standard location” is to be
determined in newtons, then Eq. 1–3 must be applied. Here measurements
give g = 9.806 65 m>s2; however, for calculations, the value g = 9.81 m>s2
will be used. Thus,

W = mg (g = 9.81 m>s 2 ) (1–4)

Therefore, a body of mass 1 kg has a weight of 9.81 N, a 2-kg body weighs

19.62 N, and so on, Fig. 1–2a.

U.S. Customary. In the U.S. Customary system of units (FPS)

length is measured in feet (ft), time in seconds (s), and force in pounds
(lb), Table 1–1. The unit of mass, called a slug, is derived from F = ma.
Hence, 1 slug is equal to the amount of matter accelerated at 1 ft>s2 when
acted upon by a force of 1 lb (slug# = lb s2>ft).
Therefore, if the measurements are made at the “standard location,”
1 slug where g = 32.2 ft>s2, then from Eq. 1–3,

W
m = (g = 32.2 ft>s2) (1–5)
32.2 lb g
(b)
And so a body weighing 32.2 lb has a mass of 1 slug, a 64.4-lb body has
Fig. 1–2 a mass of 2 slugs, and so on, Fig. 1–2b.

TABLE 1–1 Systems of Units

Name Length Time Mass Force

International meter second kilogram newton*

System of
N
Units m s kg kg # m
SI ¢ ≤
s2
U.S. Customary foot second slug* pound
FPS
lb # s2

ft s ¢ ≤ lb
ft
*Derived unit.
 1.4 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 9

Conversion of Units. Table 1–2 provides a set of direct conversion

factors between FPS and SI units for the basic quantities. Also, in the 1
FPS system, recall that 1 ft = 12 in. (inches), 5280 ft = 1 mi (mile),
1000 lb = 1 kip (kilo-pound), and 2000 lb = 1 ton.

TABLE 1–2 Conversion Factors

Unit of Unit of
Quantity Measurement (FPS) Equals Measurement (SI)
Force lb 4.448 N
Mass slug 14.59 kg
Length ft 0.3048 m

1.4 The International System of Units

The SI system of units is used extensively in this book since it is intended
to become the worldwide standard for measurement. Therefore, we
will now present some of the rules for its use and some of its
terminology relevant to engineering mechanics.

Prefixes. When a numerical quantity is either very large or very

small, the units used to define its size may be modified by using a prefix.
Some of the prefixes used in the SI system are shown in Table 1–3. Each
represents a multiple or submultiple of a unit which, if applied
successively, moves the decimal point of a numerical quantity to every
third place.* For example, 4 000 000 N = 4 000 kN (kilo-newton) =
4 MN (mega-newton), or 0.005 m = 5 mm (milli-meter). Notice that the
SI system does not include the multiple deca (10) or the submultiple
centi (0.01), which form part of the metric system. Except for some
volume and area measurements, the use of these prefixes is to be avoided
in science and engineering.

TABLE 1–3 Prefixes

Exponential Form Prefix SI Symbol
Multiple
1 000 000 000 109 giga G
1 000 000 106 mega M
1 000 103 kilo k
Submultiple
0.001 10–3 milli m
0.000 001 10–6 micro m
0.000 000 001 10–9 nano n

*The kilogram is the only base unit that is defined with a prefix.
 Rules for Use. Here are a few of the important rules that describe
1 the proper use of the various SI symbols:
• Quantities defined by several units which are multiples of one
another are separated by a dot to avoid confusion with prefix
notation, as indicated by N = kg m>s#2 = kg m s -2 .# Also, (meter-
second), whereas ms (milli-second). #
• The exponential power on a unit having a prefix refers to both the
unit and its prefix. For example, mN2 = (mN)2 = mN #mN. Likewise,
mm2 represents (mm)2 = mm mm. #
• With the exception of the base unit the kilogram, in general avoid
the use of a prefix in the denominator of composite units. For
example, do not write N>mm, but rather kN>m; also, m>mg should
be written as Mm>kg.
• When performing calculations, represent the numbers in terms of
their base or derived units by converting all prefixes to powers of
10. The final result should then be expressed using a single prefix.
Also, after calculation, it is best to keep numerical values between
0.1 and 1000; otherwise, a suitable prefix should be chosen. For
example,
(50 kN)(60 nm) = 3 50 ( 103 ) N 4 3 60 ( 10 - 9 ) m 4
= 3000 ( 10 - 6 ) N # m = 3 ( 10 - 3 ) N # m = 3 mN # m

Numerical Calculations

Numerical work in engineering practice is most often performed by using

handheld calculators and computers. It is important, however, that the
answers to any problem be reported with justifiable accuracy using
appropriate significant figures. In this section we will discuss these topics
together with some other important aspects involved in all engineering
calculations.
Dimensional Homogeneity. The terms of any equation used to
describe a physical process must be dimensionally homogeneous; that is,
each term must be expressed in the same units. Provided this is the case,
all the terms of an equation can then be combined if numerical values
Computers are often used in engineering are substituted for the variables. Consider, for example, the equation
for advanced design and analysis. (© s = vt + 1 at2 , where, in SI units, s is the position in meters, m, t is time
Blaize Pascall/Alamy)
in
1.5 2
seconds, s, v is velocity in m>s and a is acceleration in m>s
2 . Regardless of

how this equation is evaluated, it maintains its dimensional homogeneity.

In the form stated, each of the three terms is expressed in meters
3m, ( m>s ) s, (m>s2)s2 4 or solving for a, a = 2s>t2 - 2v>t, the terms are
each expressed in units of m>s2 3m>s2, m>s2, ( m>s ) >s 4 .
Keep in mind that problems in mechanics always involve the
solution of dimensionally homogeneous equations, and so this fact can
then be used as a partial check for algebraic manipulations of an
equation.
 1.5 NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS 11

Significant Figures. The number of significant figures contained

in any number determines the accuracy of the number. For instance, the 1
number 4981 contains four significant figures. However, if zeros occur at
the end of a whole number, it may be unclear as to how many significant
figures the number represents. For example, 23 400 might have three
(234), four (2340), or five (23 400) significant figures. To avoid these
ambiguities, we will use engineering notation to report a result. This
requires that numbers be rounded off to the appropriate number of
significant digits and then expressed in multiples of (10 3), such as (103),
(106), or (10–9). For instance, if 23 400 has five significant figures, it is
written as 23.400(10 3), but if it has only three significant figures, it is
written as 23.4(103).
If zeros occur at the beginning of a number that is less than one, then
the zeros are not significant. For example, 0.008 21 has three
significant figures. Using engineering notation, this number is expressed
as 8.21(10–3). Likewise, 0.000 582 can be expressed as 0.582(10–3) or
582(10–6).

Rounding Off Numbers. Rounding off a number is necessary so

that the accuracy of the result will be the same as that of the problem
data. As a general rule, any numerical figure ending in a number greater
than five is rounded up and a number less than five is not rounded up.
The rules for rounding off numbers are best illustrated by examples.
Suppose the number 3.5587 is to be rounded off to three significant
figures. Because the fourth digit (8) is greater than 5, the third number is
rounded up to 3.56. Likewise 0.5896 becomes 0.590 and 9.3866
becomes
9.39. If we round off 1.341 to three significant figures, because the fourth
digit (1) is less than 5, then we get 1.34. Likewise 0.3762 becomes 0.376
and 9.871 becomes 9.87. There is a special case for any number that ends
in a 5. As a general rule, if the digit preceding the 5 is an even number,
then this digit is not rounded up. If the digit preceding the 5 is an odd
number, then it is rounded up. For example, 75.25 rounded off to three
significant digits becomes 75.2, 0.1275 becomes 0.128, and 0.2555
becomes 0.256.

Calculations. When a sequence of calculations is performed, it is

best to store the intermediate results in the calculator. In other words,
do not round off calculations until expressing the final result. This
procedure maintains precision throughout the series of steps to the final
solution. In this text we will generally round off the answers to three
significant figures since most of the data in engineering mechanics, such
as geometry and loads, may be reliably measured to this accuracy.
 General Procedure for Analysis

Attending a lecture, reading this book, and studying the example

problems helps, but the most effective way of learning the principles of
engineering mechanics is to solve problems. To be successful at this, it is
important to always present the work in a logical and orderly manner, as
suggested by the following sequence of steps:
• Read the problem carefully and try to correlate the actual physical
situation with the theory studied.
• Tabulate the problem data and draw to a large scale any necessary
1 diagrams.
• Apply the relevant principles, generally in mathematical form. When
When solving problems, do the work as writing any equations, be sure they are dimensionally homogeneous.
neatly as possible. Being neat will
stimulate clear and orderly thinking, • Solve the necessary equations, and report the answer with no more
and vice versa. (© Russell C. Hibbeler) than three significant figures.
1.6 • Study the answer with technical judgment and common sense to
determine whether or not it seems reasonable.
 Important Points
• Statics is the study of bodies that are at rest or move with constant
velocity.
• A particle has a mass but a size that can be neglected, and a rigid
body does not deform under load.
• A force is considered as a “push” or “pull” of one body on
another.
• Concentrated forces are assumed to act at a point on a body.
• Newton’s three laws of motion should be memorized.
• Mass is measure of a quantity of matter that does not change
from one location to another. Weight refers to the gravitational
attraction of the earth on a body or quantity of mass. Its
magnitude depends upon the elevation at which the mass is
located.
• In the SI system the unit of force, the newton, is a derived unit.
The meter, second, and kilogram are base units.
• Prefixes G, M, k, m, m, and n are used to represent large and
small numerical quantities. Their exponential size should be
known, along with the rules for using the SI units.
• Perform numerical calculations with several significant figures,
and then report the final answer to three significant figures.
• Algebraic manipulations of an equation can be checked in part
by verifying that the equation remains dimensionally
homogeneous.
• Know the rules for rounding off numbers.