MODULE-2, MODERN PHYSICS

Black Body Radiation:

A body which completely absorbs radiations of all wavelengths incident on it is called
a black body. When supplied with energy, a black body will radiate electromagnetic waves of all
wavelengths. The radiation emitted by a black body is called black body radiation.

Black Body Radiation Spectrum:

To study the distribution of radiant energy over different wavelengths, the black body
is maintained at a constant temperature. When a graph of intensity versus wavelength was plotted for
the radiation emitted by the black body at different temperatures, a set of curves were obtained as
shown below.

It can be observed from the graphs that

1. For every temperature there is a curve
2. At a given temperature, a black body emits energy over a continuous range of wavelength
3. Energy is not distributed uniformly throughout the wavelength range
4. At every temperature, there is a particular wavelength at which maximum energy is
emitted
The wavelength at which maximum emission of energy takes place shifts towards shorter
wavelength side with increase in temperature of the black body
Wein’s Displacement Law:
The law states that “the wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely proportional to
the absolute temperature of the emitting body, because of which the peaks of the energy
curves for different temperatures get displaced towards the lower wavelength side” i.e
1
𝜆𝑚 𝛼 or λmT=constant=2.898×10-3mK
𝑇

Wein’s law:The relation between the wavelength of emission and the temperature of
the source is
Uλ ⅆλ = C1 λ−5 ⅇ−C2 ∕λT ⅆλ
This spectrum is called Wein’s law of energy distribution in the blackbody radiation
Drawbacks of Wein’s law:
Wein’s law holds good for the shorter wavelength region and high temperature of the
source. It failed to explain gradual drop in intensity of radiation corresponding to
longer wavelength greater than the peak value

Rayleigh-Jeans Law:

Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation on the basis of principle of
equipartition of energy. The principle of equipartition of energy suggests that an
average energy kT is assigned to each mode of vibration. The number of
vibrations/unit volume whose wavelength is in the range of λ and λ+dλ is given by 8πλ-
4
dλ.
The energy/unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is
Uλd λ = 8πkTλ-4dλ where k is Boltzmann constant= 1.38x10-23
This is Rayleigh-Jeans equation. Accordingly, energy radiated by the blackbody
decreases with increasing wavelength.
Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans Law: (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe)
1. Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter
wavelength side but it does not happen so. A black body radiates mainly
in the infra-red or visible region of electromagnetic spectrum and intensity
of radiation decreases down steeply for shorter wavelengths. Thus, the
Rayleigh-Jeans Law fails to explain the lower wavelength side of the
spectrum. This is referred to as ultra-violet Catastrophe.
Planck’s radiation Law:
Max Planck derived an equation which successfully accounted for the spectrum of
blackbody radiation.
Planck postulated the following assumptions in his theory:
1. The atomic oscillators in a body cannot have any arbitrary amount of energy. They
could have only discrete units of energy given by ‘ En = nh ’ where n → any positive
integer, → is the frequency of oscillation, h → Planck’s constant.
2. The atomic oscillators cannot absorb or emit energy of any arbitrary amount. They
absorb or emit energy in indivisible discrete units. The amount of radiant energy in
each unit is called a quantum of energy, and carries an energy of ‘ E = h ’. It
represents the smallest quantity of energy of radiation of that frequency.

Based on this quantum theory, Planck derived an expression for the energy density of radiation
emitted by a black body in the wavelength range  and  + d , and is given by

8  hc  1 d
Ed =
 5
  KT
hc

e − 1
This is called Planck’s radiation law. The law agrees with the experimental observation of black
body radiation and is valid for all wavelengths.
Wave Particle Dualism:
According to wave theory, light waves leave a source with their energy spread out
continuously through the wave pattern. According to the quantum theory, light consists of a stream
of photons each small enough to be absorbed by a single electron. Both views have strong
experimental support. Hence we can think of light as having a dual character. “The property of light
of behaving as both a particle and a wave is called wave – particle duality.”

De – Broglie’s Hypothesis:
In 1924 Louis de – Broglie put forward a hypothesis that, since nature loves
symmetry if radiation behaves as particle under certain circumstances and as waves under certain
other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as particles to
exhibit properties attributed to only waves under appropriate circumstances.
According to him “A moving material particle is associated with a wave.” The waves associated
with material particles are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves.

For a material paticle mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’, the deBroglie wavelength is given by

h h
= = ; Where mv = p, momentum of the particle.
p mv
This equation is known as de-Broglie equation.
De –Broglie wavelength of electrons:
If the electrons are accelerated by a potential difference of ‘V’ so that electrons
acquire a velocity ‘v’ then the work done on the electrons is ‘eV’. As a result the kinetic energy
1
gained by the electrons is mv 2 .
2
We can write
1
eV = mv 2 → (1)
2
Or 2eVm = m 2 v 2
 mv = 2meV
From de-Broglie’s equation,
h
=
mv
h
= → (2)
2meV
h
Or = → (3) ; (from (1)
2mE

1
Where E = mv 2 is the kinetic energy of the electrons.
2
Substituting m = 9.110−31 kg ; e = 1.6 10−19 C and h = 6.625 10−34 J − s in equation (2) we get
6.62510−34 12.26 10−10 12.260
= = =
2  9.110−31 1.6 10−19 V V V

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

According to deBroglie, a moving material particle is associated with a wave packet,
which has a small spread in the space. This wave nature implies that there are fundamental limits to
the accuracy with which we can measure particle properties such as position and momentum.
Consider the wave group shown below fig (a)
 The particle corresponding to this wave group may be located anywhere within the group
at a given time. The narrower its wave group, the more precisely a particles position can be specified
(fig (b)). But the wavelength λ of the waves in a narrow wave packet is not well defined. This means
h
that, since  = , the particle’s momentum is not a precise quantity.
p
On the other hand, a wide wave packet (fig (a)) has a clearly defined wavelength. The
momentum that corresponds to this wavelength is therefore a precise quantity. But the width of the
group is too large for us to be able to say exactly where the particle is at a given time.
Thus we have the uncertainty principle given by Heisenberg.
“It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the
same time.”
h
Mathematically ∆x .∆p ≥
4

Where ∆x → uncertainty in the position, ∆p → uncertainty in the momentum

ie “In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of
the corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than
h
( ).”
4
If we arrange matter, so that ∆x is small, corresponding to narrow wave group then ∆p will be
large. If we reduce ∆p in some way, a broad wave group is inevitable and ∆x will be large.

Energy-Time uncertainty principle:

It states that “In an simultaneous measurement of energy and time in a physical
process, the product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is
h
equal to or greater than ( ).”
4
h
ie ∆E .∆t ≥
4
Where ∆E → uncertainty in the energy, ∆t → uncertainty in the time

Angular displacement and Angular momentum uncertainty principle:

It states that “In an simultaneous determination of angular momentum and angular
displacement in a physical process the product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently present
h
in the measurement is equal to or greater than ( ).”
4
h
ie ∆L .∆ ≥
4

Where ∆L → uncertainty in the momentum, ∆ → uncertainty in the displacement

 Physical Significance:
The physical significance of the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is that one should
not think of the exact position or an accurate value for momentum of a particle. Instead one should
think of the probability of finding the particle at a certain position or of the most probable value for
the momentum of the particle. Similar interpretation is made for the conjugate pair ∆E and ∆t and
∆Land ∆ .

Applications of uncertainty principle:

Non-Existence of electrons in the nucleus:
h ----------------
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that ∆x .∆p ≥ (1)
4
The radius of a typical atomic nucleus is about 5×10−15 m . If the electron is present inside the
nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position is atmost equal to the diameter of the nucleus ie
∆x=10−14 m .
h
Then, from (1) ∆p ≥
4 .x

6.625 10−34
≥
4  3.14 10−14
Then the momentum of the electron must at least be equal to the uncertainty in the momentum i e
p = 0.527 10−20 kgm/s

The energy ‘E’ of the electron is given by

According to the theory of relativity, the energy E of a particle is:

𝑚0 𝑐 2
E = mc² =
√1−𝑣 2 ∕𝑐 2
Where ‘mo’ is the rest mass of the particle and ‘m’ is the mass when its
velocity is ‘v’.

𝑚02 𝑐 4 𝑚02 𝑐 6
𝐸2 = 2 = 2 2
− −(1)
1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐 2 𝑐 − 𝑣

Also, we know that momentum of the body is given by,

𝑚0 𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣 ⁄ 2
𝑐

𝑚02 𝑣 2 𝑚02 𝑣 2 𝑐 2
𝑃2 = = 2
1 − 𝑣 2⁄𝑐 2 𝑐 − 𝑣 2

Multiplying by c2, we have,

 2 2
𝑚02 𝑣 2 𝑐 2
𝑃 𝑐 = 2 − (2)
𝑐 − 𝑣2

Substracting (1) by (2)

𝑚02 𝑐 4 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 )
𝐸 2 − 𝑝2 𝑐 2 =
𝑐2 − 𝑣2

𝐸 2 = 𝑃2 𝐶 2 + 𝑚02 𝐶 4
We know rest mass of the electron, 𝑚0 = 9.11𝑥10-31kg.
Now making use of condition of inequality,

𝐸 2 ≥ 𝑐 2 (0 ⋅ 5 × 10−20 )2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 2

𝐸 2 ≥ (3 × 108 )2 (0.5 × 10−20 )2 + (9 ⋅ 11 × 10−31 )2 (3 × 108 )4

By simplifying we get,

𝐸 ≥ 1.5 × 10−12 𝐽
Expressing in eV,
𝐸 ≥ 9.4𝑀ⅇ𝑉

This means that in order that an electron may exist inside the nucleus, its kinetic energy must be
greater than or equal to 95.4 MeV. But experiments show that the electrons emitted by certain
unstable nuclei never have more than a small fraction of this energy (about 3MeV to 4MeV). From
this we conclude that electron cannot exist within
o
the nucleus.

Wave function ( ):
The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is called the wave function 
(psi). This wave function accounts for the wave-like properties of a particle and contain all possible
information about the state of the system. The value of the wave function associated with a moving
body at a particular point x, y, z in space at the time‘t’ is related to the likelihood of finding the body
there at that time. Wave functions are usually complex with both real and imaginary parts
Physical significance of wave function (Max Born Approximation):
Probability of occurrence of an event is a real and a positive quantity. Since ψ, the
wave function can be complex, it has no attributable physical significance.
The probability that something be in a certain place at a given time must lie between 0 and
1. Intermediate probabilities say 0.3 means that there is a 30% chance of finding the particle. But the
amplitude of a wave can be positive as well as negative. A negative probability say -0.2 is
meaningless. Hence ψ by itself cannot be an observable quantity.
But the square of the absolute value of the wave function| |2 is always positive and real
and is known as probability density. This corresponds meaningfully to the definition of probability
and is given by | |2 = . * where  * is the complex conjugate of ψ.
“The probability of experimentally finding a particle described by the wave function ψ at the
point x,y,z at the time ‘t’ is proportional to the value of | |2 there at ‘t’.” A large value of
| |2 means the strong possibility of the body’s presence, while a small value of | |2 means the
slight-possibility of its presence.

Time Independent Schrödinger wave equation:

Consider a particle, moving freely in the positive x-direction in a stationary potential
field. The wavelength of the associated deBroglie wave is given by
=
h
→*
p
The wave equation for debroglie wave associated with such a particle can be written in complex
notation as

 = Ae−i(wt−kx) A → Amplitude of the wave

 = Ae+i(kx−t ) →(1)
Since the particle is moving in a stationary or steady field, the potential energy of the
particle does not depend on time but it varies only with the position of the particle.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t x twice we get
d
= Ae i (kx −  t ) (ik )
dx
d 2
= Ae i ( kx −  t )
(ik ) 2

dx 2

=−k2
2
But k = , substituting in the above equation we get

 d 2 4 2
= −
dx2 𝜆2
1 1 d 2
Or =−  ------------ (2)
2 4 2 dx 2
If ‘m’ is the mass of the particle moving with a velocity ‘v’ then K.E is
1 2
K.E= mv = m2 v 2 𝑃2 ----------- (3)
2 =
2m 2𝑚
h
Where p = mv , momentum of the particle. But p = ; from (*)

 K.E = 2
h2
  2m
h2
− 1 d 
2
=
2m 4 2 dx 2

h2 d 2
K.E = −  ------------------------ (4)
8 2m dx 2
Let ‘V’ be the potential energy of the particle which depends on the position of the particle in the
field. Then total energy ‘E’ of the particle is
E = K.E + P.E
h2 d 2
E=−  +V
8 2m dx 2
d 2 8 2m
ie = − (E − V )
dx 2 h2

d 2 8 2 m
or
+ 2 ( E − V ) = 0
dx2 h
This is the time independent Schrödinger’s wave equation in one dimension.
In three dimensions, it becomes
d 2 d 2 d 2 8 2m
+ + 2 + (E − V ) = 0
dx 2 dy 2 dz h2
Normalization:
If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle, then the probability of finding the
particle in a volume dV is | |2 dV . Since the particle is present somewhere in a particular region,
the integral of | |2 dv over all space must be finite. If the particle is certainly to be found, in certain
region of space then
+

  2 dV = 1 ------------------- (1)
−

Any wave function satisfying the equation (1) is said to be normalized wave function.
 Very often  is not a normalized wave function, i.e. the result of
∫ |𝜓|2 ⅆ𝑉will not be
unity, but involves a constant that existed in the equation for . However the actual result obtained is
equated to unity and the value of the constant is determined. It is then substituted in the equation
for . This process is called normalization.

Properties of wave function:

A system is defined by its energy, position, momentum etc. It is postulated in
quantum mechanics that a wave function ( ) corresponding to a system contains all possible
information about the system. In order to ψ of a system, the Schrödinger’s equation has to be solved.
Since it is a second order differential equation it has many solutions. All of them may not be the
correct wave functions which correspond meaningfully to a physical system. Only those wave
functions which satisfy the following criteria are acceptable wave functions.
1.  is single valued, every where. There should be only one probability for the particle
to be in a specific location at a specific time.
2.  must be normalized, which means that  must go to zero as x→   , y→   ,
z→   in order that  2
dV over all space be a finite constant.
3.  must be finite every where.
4.  and its first derivatives with respect to its variables must be continuous and single
valued every where.

Eigen functions:
Eigen functions are those wave functions of quantum mechanics which possess the
properties that they are single valued and finite every where and also their first derivatives with
respect to their variables are continuous every where.

Eigen values:
The values of a physical observable such as energy, momentum etc for which
Schrödinger’s wave equation can be solved are called Eigen values.
A wave function ψ contains all the information regarding the state of a system. The
wave functions can be obtained by solving Schrödinger’s wave equation. Once the correct wave
functions called Eigen functions are known, quantum mechanical operators could be used to evaluate
the physical observables like energy. But as postulated in quantum mechanics only those values ‘λ’
for a physical quantity are possible which satisfy the operator equation Â =  where  →
operator for the physical quantity , ψ → Eigen function
Thus the eigen functions should be such that the operator operating on it produces back the wave
function multiplied by a constant ‘λ’ such values (λ) for a physical quantity for which scrodinger’s
equation can be solved are called Eigen values.
Applications of Schrödinger’s wave equation:

Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential well (particle in a box):

Consider a particle, which is free to move in the x-direction only in the region x = 0
and x = L. Outside this region the potential energy is taken to be infinite and within this region it is
zero ie V = 0 for 0<x<L and V =  for x   and x  0
We have the Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation in one dimension
d 2 8 2m
+ 2 (E − V ) = 0 ------------ (1)
dx 2 h
Outside the well, the equation (1) become

d 2 8 2m
+ 2 (E − ) = 0 SinceV = 
dx 2 h
This equation holds good only if  = 0 for all points outside the well, ie  2 = 0 which means
that the particle cannot be found at all outside the well.
Inside the well, equation (1) becomes

d 2 8 2m
+ 2 E = 0 (Since V =0)
dx 2 h

8 2 m
Let E = k2 ---------------- (2)
h2
Then;
d 2
+ k 2 = 0 ------------- (3)
dx 2
The solution for the above equation is
 = Asin kx + B cos kx ------------- (4)
At x = 0,  = 0, substituting in (4) we get
0 = Asin 0 + B cos 0
B=0
At x = L,  = 0 and equation (4) becomes
0 = Asin kL + B cos kL
 Asin kL = 0 (Since B=0)
Here ‘A’ need not be zero
 sin kL = 0
i.e. kL = n , where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ............. is an integer called quantum number.

 n ---------------(4)
L
k=
Substituting the values of B and k in (4)
n
 n = A sin x ------------------ (6)
L
which represents the permitted solutions.
Since there is only one particle and at any time it is present somewhere inside the
well only, the integral of the wave function over the entire space in the well must be equal to unity.
L

i.e.  n 2dx =1
0

L n 2

 A sin
L
x dx = 1
0

nx
L

)dx = 1
0
 A2 sin 2 (
L
1 L 1L 2n  1
A   dx −  cos
2 xdx  =1 [ sin  = 2 (1 − cos 2 )]
2

 0 0
L 
L
A 
2
L  2n 
−  x  = 1
2  2n
Or x sin
 L  0

A2  L 
Or L− sin (2n ) − 0 = 1
2  2n 
2
A L
 = =1
2
2
 A=
L

Substituting in (5) we get

 2  n 
n = sin  x -------------------- (7)
L  L 

which are the normalized wave functions of a particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.

Energy Eigen values:

n
The energy Eigen values can be obtained by substituting k = in equation (2)

2
8 2 m  n 
E = 
h2  L 

n2h2
Or En =
8mL2

are the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.

Zero-point energy:
The lowest acceptable value for n=1. Because for n=0, n = 0 (from equation (5)),
which means that the particle is not present inside the well which is not true.
The lowest energy corresponding to n = 1 is called zero-point energy and it is given by
h2
Ezero− po int =
8mL2
The lowest permitted state of energy is referred to as ground state energy. The energy state for n>1
are called exited states.

Wave functions, Probability densities and Energy levels for particle in an infinite potential
well:
The normalized wave functions of a particle in a one dimensional potential well of
width ‘L’ are given by
2 2𝑛𝜋
𝜑(𝑥) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

Case1: For n=1:n = 0, 1, 2……

This is the ground state and the particle is normally found in this state. The Eigen function
corresponding to this state
 
1 = 2 sin L x ; from (1)
L  
L
Here  1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = L and is maximum for x = (fig a)
2
 Fig (a) Fig (b)

A plot of  1 2
, the probability density verses x is shown in fig (b). It indicates the probability

of finding the particle at different locations inside the well.  1 2 = 0 at x = 0 and x = L and is
L
maximum at x = . This means that in the ground state the particle cannot be found at the walls of
2
the box, and the probability of finding it is maximum at the central region.
The energy of the particle in the ground energy state is
h2
E1 = = E0 , Zero-point energy
8mL2
Case 2: For n=2
This is the first exited state. The Eigen function for this state is

 2 
 = 2 sin x
2
 
L
L  L  L 3L
Here  = 0 = and (fig c)
2 for x = 0, , L and maximum for x
2 4 4
The plot of  1 2
verses x is shown in fig (d). As can be seen from the plot, the particle cannot be
observed either at the walls or at the center.
The energy of the particle in this state is
4h2 n2 h 2
E2 = = 4E0 ; : En =
8mL2 8mL2

Fig (c ) Fig (d)

Csae3: For n=3 (second exited state)

 3 
The Eigen function for the second exited state is
 = 2 sin x
3  
L  L
L 2L L L 5L
Here  3 = 0 for x=0, , and L and maximum for x= , , . The plot of  3 and
3 3 6 2 6
 3 2 verses x are shown in fig (e) and fig (f). The energy of the particle in this energy state is
9h2
E3 = = 9E0
8mL2