Exploring Euler’s Theorem

Math Internal Assessment

m
er as
co
eH w
o.
rs e
ou urc
o
aC s
vi y re

Shaninder Bal
ed d
ar stu
is
Th
sh

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
1

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Rational 3

Aim 3

m
er as
co
eH w
Euler’s Theorem 4-5

o.
rs e
ou urc
Fermat’s Little Theorem (Proof) 5-6
o
aC s
vi y re

Euler’s Theorem (Proof) 6-7

Conclusion 7-8
is
Th

Bibliography 9
sh

Exploring Euler’s theorem

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
2

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 Leonhard Euler was a Swiss mathematician of the 18th century that made discoveries in
mathematics such as the graph theory and calculus itself.1 He also made important contributions
to things such as the analytical number theory, and introduced the notion of a mathematical func-
tion.2 In the category of number theory, Euler developed a theorem called Euler’s theorem. As
Euler was known to be one of the greatest mathematicians, an influential scholar from France
named Pierre-Simon Laplace stated, “Read Euler, read Euler, he is the master of us all.” Euler
took the theorem that Pierre de Fermat had, called Fermat’s little theorem, and published proof
for it in 1736.3

Rational
One day in our Theory of Knowledge (ToK) class, we watched a video about mathemat-

m
er as
ics as an area of knowledge, where we learned briefly about Pierre de Fermat. We learned that he

co
eH w
was one of the first mathematicians of time, and how Euler gave more value to the theorem. This

o.
led to the topic about prime numbers. If I was to pick something that I enjoyed learning about in
rs e
math, it would be about prime numbers. I have always been curious about having a way to find
ou urc
prime numbers. After researching this topic, this would be something that I would want to ex-
plore during my free time.
o
aC s
vi y re

Aim
The aim of this exploration is to prove that Euler’s theorem, a p(n) ≡ 1 (mod n), is correct
ed d

and to show that it is useful in the world of mathematics.

Euler’s Theorem
is

ap(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)
Th
sh

1 Author Unknown. "Leonhard Euler." Euler Biography. School of Mathematics and Statistics
University of St Andrews, Scotland, Sept. 1998. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

2 Author Unknown. "Leonhard Euler." Euler Biography. School of Mathematics and Statistics
University of St Andrews, Scotland, Sept. 1998. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

3 Weisstein, Eric. "Euler's Totient Theorem." Euler's Totient Theorem -- from Wolfram Math-
World. Wolfram Research, 19 Jan. 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
3

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 In this theorem, p(n) stands for Euler’s totient function. This function counts the positive
integers that less than n that are coprime to n. According to number theory, two integers are co-
prime if there is only one positive integer that divides both of them.4 Another way to look at it is
to see the common factors. If the only common factor is 1, them the two numbers are coprime.
For example, 21 and 22 are coprime. For example, the numbers 21 and 22 are coprime because
the only common factor of these numbers is 1. On the other hand, 21 and 24 are not coprime
numbers because they both have 1 and 3 as common factors. To plug in numbers into the func-
tion, one must figure out how many positive integers are less than the given integer and is co-
prime to the given integer. For example, if one was to find p (10), we would find the numbers
that are coprime to 10 and less than 10. After eliminating all the ones that are not coprime to 10,
the numbers received are 1,3,7, and 9. Because there are 4 total numbers within this, p (10) = 4.

m
er as
If one was finding p (7), the coprime numbers less than 7 would be 1,2,3,4,5 and 6. Therefore, p

co
eH w
(7) would be 6. The starting point of this theorem furthers my curiosity of prime numbers and

o.
shows a way that advanced mathematics can be used with it. Although finding coprime numbers
rs e
is the basis and foundation of this theorem, it is important for the theorem as a whole.
ou urc
Now, using the whole equation, one can plug in given numbers to find the answer. If the
o

given information is a = 3 and n = 10, one can notice that these numbers are coprime. Using the
aC s
vi y re

table below, p (10) is equal to 4. Plugging in back to the formula, the equation would look as 34 =
81 ≡ 1 (mod 10).
ed d
ar stu

This theorem also states that if a and n are both coprime, and a < n, then one can multiply
a with itself p (n) times and divide that number by n. After this step, the remainder will always be
1.
is

gcd (a,n) = a p (n) ≡ 1 (mod n)

4 Lakshman, Tiwari. "What Is Euler's Totient and Its Applications?" Divisors. Quora, 4 May
2015. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
4

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 In this equation, gcd stands for greatest common divisor. This theorem is also used in
other parts of mathematics because it is something that generalizes with Fermat’s theorem and
goes with the RSA algorithm.5

If one was to look at this equation and make it into an example, it would be possible. For
example, if the information given is a = 11 and n = 12, then we can figure out the rest of the
equation. The first part of the equation is to find the gcd of a and n, or 11 and 12. The gcd of
those numbers is 1. The next step is to find p (n), which in this case would be p (12). p (12)
would be equal to 4. Then, we would take 11 and raise it to the 4th power, which is equal to 114 or
14,641. According to the theorem equation, this could be converted to 14,640 + 1. The theorem
states that if the number that is gotten after using 114 is divided by the value for n, the number

m
er as
will go in with a remainder of 1. This is proven as 14,641 / 12 = 1220 remainder 1. Therefore,

co
eH w
based on this theorem and equation, one can say that 14,641 ≡ 1 (mod 12) or 14,641 mod 12 = 1.

o.
This is important as it is an addition to what Euler first provided and made.
rs e
ou urc
Fermat’s little theorem (Proof)
As stated before, Euler’s theorem was made as a generalization of Fermat’s little theo-
o
aC s

rem, which goes with whenever a and n are coprime. There are two different forms that are given
vi y re

of Fermat’s little theorem.6

ap ≡ a (mod p)
ed d

ap-1 ≡ 1 (mod p)
ar stu

This is the foundation of the basis of Euler’s theorem.

To prove Euler’s theorem, one must first prove Fermat’s little theorem. To prove this the-
Th

orem, I will be using the formula, ap-1 ≡ a (mod p), and using steps to prove this.7
sh

5 Lakshman, Tiwari. "What Is Euler's Totient and Its Applications?" Divisors. Quora, 4 May
2015. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

6 Caldwell, Chris K. "Proof of Fermat's Little Theorem." From the Prime Pages' List of Proofs.
The Prime Pages, 12 Jan. 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

7 Caldwell, Chris K. "Proof of Fermat's Little Theorem." From the Prime Pages' List of Proofs.
The Prime Pages, 12 Jan. 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
5

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 1. The first step is to set p equal to a prime number so a is not an integer that divides into it.
2. Start by writing the first p-1 positive multiples that there are of a.
a, 2a, 3a, 4a, … a(p-1)
3. Then, take into consideration that both sa and ra are the same modulo p, and that r = s (mod p).
4. Next, the multiples of p-1 of a are both nonzero and distinct.
5. In order for this to work, the numbers must have some type of congruency to the order (1,
2,3,4… p-1).
6. After multiplying these together, we get (a) (2a) (3a) (4a) … ((a) (p-a)). Another way that one
can look at this is a(p-1)(p-1)! = (p-1)! (mod p).
7. Then, one can divide both of the sides by (p-1)!, and the proof is completed.

m
er as
Euler’s Theorem (Proof)

co
eH w
Once Fermat’s little theorem is proved, we can move on to proving Euler’s theorem. Fer-

o.
mat’s theorem is known to be a special situation of Euler’s theorem, as a part where n is a prime
rs e
number. To go from Fermat’s little theorem to Euler’s theorem, there is not many changes that
ou urc
need to be made.8
o
aC s

ap(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)
vi y re

1. The first step of proving that this theorem is to consider the numbers of a and n to be coprime
ed d

with each other.

2. Also, another thing to consider is the set numbers, N, that are coprime to the number n. This
can be listed as 1, n1,n2,n3,n4… np (n) .
is

3. The set will have the same number of elements as the number of numbers that are coprime to
Th

n.
4. Next, take the set that is made of Na, and look at it as somewhere where the elements are a
product of a and a certain element of N. This can also be written as a, an1,an2,an3,an4… anp (n) .
sh

8 Ouwehand, Martin. "Fermat's Little Theorem and Euler's Theorem." Fermat's Little Theo-
rem and Euler's Theorem. RSA, 19 July 2001. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
6

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 5. The next step would be to look at all of the elements that are in the set of Na and consider then
to be congruent to an element that is in set N (mod n). This also shows that the two sets are con-
gruent.
6. Then, one can state that (a) (an1) (an2) (an3) (an4) ((an p (n)) ≡ (1) (n1) (n2) (n3) ((x np(n)) (mod
n)
7. The next step is to take out a p(n) from the equation. And divide the second part of the congruent
side.
8. Finally, the equation turns out to be ap(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).

Conclusion
Overall, there are many different names that are given for Euler’s theorem, such as the

m
er as
Fermat-Euler theorem and Euler’s totient theorem. This theorem is also applied to the basis of

co
eH w
the RSA encryption system. This was known to be the first practical cryptosystems that are of the

o.
public-key and is used all through the transmission of secure data. This is where there is a result
rs e
of talking a plaintext message and encrypting it. Later, this is decrypted. The amounts that are
ou urc
used for the input number by k p (n) + 1, for an integer k that is positive. This theorem is also ap-
plied to this situation as it declares that the decrypted output number is the same value to the
o
aC s

number of the original input, which gives back to the plaintext.

Fermat’s little theorem became the starting point for the Fermat primality test. This test is
ed d

also related to the part of mathematics that most interests me, prime numbers. The Fermat pri-
ar stu

mality test is a test of probability that finds out if a number is probable prime or not. Fermat’s lit-
tle theorem is one of the outcomes that come out of the elementary number theory. This theorem
was given its name that included the phrase “little theorem” in order to separate it from Fermat’s
is

last theorem that was made.

As one can see, there are many applications for both Euler’s theorem and Fermat’s little
sh

theorem. Personally, I believe that this theorem made by Euler is useful inside and outside the
world of mathematics. Leonhard Euler made important contributions to many different topics in
mathematics. His diverse range in his studies was shown as he was not only a mathematician, but
also a physicist, logician, engineer, and an astronomer. Exploring Euler’s theorem has allowed

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
7

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 me to draw connection within mathematicians and develop a deeper understanding of many dif-
ferent views of mathematics.

m
er as
co
eH w
o.
rs e
ou urc
o
aC s
vi y re

Bibliography

Caldwell, Chris K. "Proof of Fermat's Little Theorem." From the Prime Pages' List of Proofs.
ed d

The Prime Pages, 12 Jan. 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

Dr. Noureddin Sadawi. "Euler's Totient Theorem: What Is Euler's Totient Theorem and Why Is It
is

Useful?" YouTube. YouTube, 06 July 2014. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

Lakshman, Tiwari. "What Is Euler's Totient and Its Applications?" Divisors. Quora, 4 May 2015.
Web. 19 Jan. 2017.
Ouwehand, Martin. "Fermat's Little Theorem and Euler's Theorem." Fermat's Little Theorem and
sh

Euler's Theorem. RSA, 19 July 2001. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

Weisstein, Eric. "Euler's Totient Theorem." Euler's Totient Theorem -- from Wolfram MathWorld.
Wolfram Research, 19 Jan. 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
8

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
 Author Unknown. "Leonhard Euler." Euler Biography. School of Mathematics and Statistics
University of St Andrews, Scotland, Sept. 1998. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

m
er as
co
eH w
o.
rs e
ou urc
o
aC s
vi y re
ed d
ar stu
is
Th
sh

EULER’S THEOREM
This study source was downloaded by 100000835811395 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2021 08:14:54 GMT -06:00
9

https://www.coursehero.com/file/29039153/Eulers-theorem-worddocx/
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)